non ferrous industry

8/8/2019 Non Ferrous Industry

1/74

Non-ferrous Metal Industry

Draft Non-ferrous Metals 09.12.2002 1

Processes and combustion in the


Index

0 Annotations about the sector .................................................................................... 1

1 Alumina production.................................................................................................. 3

2 Aluminium production (electrolysis) ....................................................................... 7

3 Secondary aluminium production ..........................................................................11

4 Primary copper ....................................................................................................... 15

5 Secondary copper production.................................................................................22

6 Primary zinc ........................................................................................................... 29

7 Secondary zinc ....................................................................................................... 378 Primary lead ...........................................................................................................44

9 Secondary lead ....................................................................................................... 52

10 Magnesium production (dolomite treatment)......................................................... 60

11 Magnesium production........................................................................................... 60

12 Nickel production (thermal process) ...................................................................... 60

13 Nickel production................................................................................................... 60

14 Ferro alloys............................................................................................................. 60

15 Silicium production................................................................................................60

16 Allied metal manufacturing.................................................................................... 60

17 Galvanizing ............................................................................................................ 60

18 Electroplating ......................................................................................................... 6019 Common Air Abatement and Recovery Techniques.............................................. 61

20 General remarks and data concerning the national experts.................................... 66

Annex ............................................................................................................................... 67

Abbreviations ................................................................................................................... 72

Glossary............................................................................................................................ 73

References ........................................................................................................................ 74

0 Annotations about the sector

The metallurgical industry can be broadly divided into primary and secondary metal

production operations. Primary refers to the production of metal from ore. Secondary refers to

production of alloys from ingots and to recovery of metal from scrap and salvage.

The primary metals industry includes both ferrous and nonferrous operations. These processes

are characterized by emission of large quantities of sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and

particulate. Secondary metallurgical processes are also discussed, and the major air

contaminant from such activity is particulate in the forms of metallic fumes, smoke and dust.

This document deals with the production of non-ferrous metals only.

Abatement measures that are common for several production processes are described in

Chapter 19. The Annex contains some comments about the calculation of variable operating

costs, the measurement of data quality, the assessment of uncertainty and some generalremarks about the tables used in this document.


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The production routes of copper, zinc, and lead are similar. They all emit SO2 and particulate

matter. Also the abatement measures are assumed to be similar.


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1 Alumina production

1.1 General information

SNAP97 CODE : 03 03 22 - NFR1A2b

Activity unit: tonne alumina

SO2 NOx PM VOC NH3

x x x - -

This sector covers emissions from (combustion) processes in alumina production. In addition

emissions from bauxite grinding are considered.

1.2 EU pollution control legislation

To be completed.

1.3 Definition of reference installation/process

Alumina is produced from bauxite in the well-established Bayer process. This process is

normally carried out close to the mine site but there are sites in Europe where bauxite is

converted to alumina at the same site as an aluminium smelter or at stand alone alumina

refineries.

In the Bayer process the ore is dried, ground in ball mills, and mixed with a leaching solution

of sodium hydroxide at an elevated temperature and pressure, producing a sodium aluminate

solution which is separated from the impurities and cooled, during which hydrated aluminacrystallizes out. The crystals are washed and then calcined in rotary kilns or fluidized bed

furnaces to produce a crystalline form of alumina.

The calcinations of the aluminium-hydroxide takes place in rotary kilns at about 1300 C or in

fluidized bed furnaces at low temperature. The furnaces are fired with heavy oil and gas.

Table 1.1 : Reference installation/process

Reference

Code

Technique Capacity

[t/a]

Life time

[a]

Plant factor

[h/a]

01 Rotary kiln: residual oil 25 8,640

02 Rotary kiln: natural gas 25 8,64003 Fluidized bed furnace: residual oil 25 8,640

04 Fluidized bed furnace: natural gas 25 8,640

05 Bauxite grinding 25 8,640

1.4 Pollutants

Calcination

Emissions of SO2, NOx, and dust (stack emissions) are released from the combustion of fuels

during the calcining of the aluminium hydroxide.

Bauxite grindingThe main dust emissions occur during the grinding of the bauxite.


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1.5 Emission abatement techniques and costs

Calcination

There is no information available about control of gaseous emissions from the calcination

furnaces. It is assumed that conventional flue gas treatment can be applied.

1.5.1 Primary measures

Table 1.2 : Primary measures

Primary Measure Code Description

00 none

01 Calcination: Combustion modification

(Waste gas recirculation, staged-air combustion)

02 Calcination: Low NOx burner

1.5.2 Secondary measures

Table 1.3 : Secondary measures

Secondary Measure Code Description

00 none

01 Calcination: Wet scrubber

02 Calcination: SCR

03 Calcination: Spray tower

04 Calcination: ESP

05 Bauxite grinding: Spray tower

06 Bauxite grinding: ESP

1.5.3 Emission factors and cost data for the different abatement techniques

Table 1.4 : Fuel parameters used for determining emission factors

Fuel Heat value

[GJ/t]

Ash content [%] S content

[%]S retained

[%]

Bottom ash

[%]

Residual oil

Natural gas

Table 1.5 : Applied emission abatement techniques for SO2 and NOxCombination

code

EF SO2

[kg/t]

mean value

EF SO2

CI%

Q EF NOx

[kg/t]

mean value

EF NOx

CI%

Q

01 00 00 0.419 0.123

01 00 01 0.008 0.06

02 00 00 0.419 0.123

02 00 01 0.008 0.06

03 00 00 0.042 0.123

03 00 01 0.0008 0.06

04 00 00 0.042 0.123

04 00 01 0.0008 0.06

Q: data quality from 1 to 5 (see Annex 2)


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Combination

code

% of total

activity in

2000

% of total

activity in

2005

Appl.

[%]

% of total

activity in

2010

Appl.

[%]

% of total

activity in

2015

Appl.

[%]

% of total

activity in

2020

Appl.

[%]

01 00 00

01 00 01

02 00 00

03 00 00

04 00 00

Total [%] 100 % 100 % 100 % 100 % 100 %

Total

[activity

level]1)

: see Annex 6

Table 1.11 : Energy consumption and production1)

Combination

code

Natural gas

[MJ/t]

Heavy fuel

oil [MJ/t]

Electricity

own use

[MJ/t]

Heat own use

[MJ/t]

01 00 00 10,000 10,000 900

02 00 00 10,000 10,000 900

03 00 00 10,000 10,000 900

04 00 00 10,000 10,000 900

1)

see Annex 5

1.6 Data to be provided by national experts

Are fugitive emissions from the grinding of bauxite relevant ?

Choice of fuels

1.7 Explanatory notes

1.8 References

[1], [2]


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2 Aluminium production (electrolysis)



Activity unit: tonne aluminium

This sector covers emissions from production of primary aluminium by electrolysis and from

anodes production.

SO2 NOx PM VOC NH3

x x x - -


To be completed.


The production process of primary aluminium can be divided into two parts, the production of

the anodes and the electrolysis itself. Aluminium is produced from primary materials by the

electrolytic reduction of aluminium oxide (alumina) dissolved in a molten bath of mainly

cryolite at a temperature of approximately 960 C. Cell systems vary according to anode type,

pot configuration, and the method used to feed alumina. There are two main types of

electrolytic cells, Sderberg and Prebake. The anodes are produced in anode baking

furnaces.

Sderberg anodes are made on site from a paste of calcined petroleum coke and coal

tar pitch, which is baked by the heat arising from the molten bath. There are HSS and

VSS anodes.

Prebaked anodes are manufactured from a mixture of calcined petroleum coke and

coal tar pitch, which is formed into a block and baked in a separate anode plant.

There are SWPB (Side worked) and CWPB (Center worked) prebaked anodes.

The anode production plant is often an integrated part of the primary aluminium plant and

should be included in the definition of installation for such facilities, the contribution of anode

production to the total emissions should also be included.


Reference

Code

Technique Capacity

[t/a]

Life time

[a]

Plant factor

[h/a]

01 Electrolytic cell: Sderberg anodes 25 8,640

02 Electrolytic cell: Prebaked anodes 25 8,640

2.4 Pollutants

There are potential emissions to air of SO2, NOx and particulate matter (stack emissions) fromthepot gas extraction system and thepot room ventilation system. In addition there are dustemissions (fugitive emissions) from the holding and treatment furnaces in the casting house.


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00 none

01


Several of the techniques described in chapter 19 are applicable to abatement.

Dry scrubbing

Dry scrubbing is based on the recovery of fluorides by adsorption on alumina used asscrubbing agent. The main purpose of the dry scrubbing system is to remove the fluorides and

dust from the process air. The dry scrubbing system with dust removal ensures very high

removal efficiencies, better than 99.9% for total fluorides.

Wet scrubbing

The emissions caused by the electrolysis can be abated by wet scrubbing. Wet scrubbing will

in general be applied as supplementary abatement to the dry scrubbing. The

supplementary wet scrubbing is mainly applied for SO2 removal but will also reduce the

emissions of fluorides and, to a lesser extent, dust. Wet scrubbing can be applied to gases

from the electrolysis cells and to the pot-room ventilation gases. Removal efficiency for SO2

of 80 to over 90% have been identified for wet scrubbers.



00 none

01 Dry scrubbing

02 Dry and wet scrubbing


Table 2.4 : Applied emission abatement techniques for SO2 and NOxCombination

code

EF SO2

[kg/t]

mean value

EF SO2

CI%

Q EF NOx

[kg/t]

mean value

EF NOx

CI%

Q

01 00 00

01 01 00

01 02 00

02 00 00

02 01 00

02 02 00Q: data quality from 1 to 5 (see Annex 2)

Sources :


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Table 2.5 : Applied emission abatement techniques for PM stack emission

Combi-

nation

code

EF PMstack

2.5

[kg/t]

mean

EF PMstack

2.5

CI%

Q EF PMstack

10

[kg/t]

mean

EF PMstack

10

CI%

Q EF PMstack

TSP

[kg/t]

mean

EF PMstack

TSP

CI%

Q

01 00 0001 01 00Q: data quality from 1 to 5 (see Annex 2)

Sources :

Table 2.6 : Applied emission abatement techniques for PM fugitive emission

Combi-

nation

code

EF PMfug

2.5

[kg/t]

mean

EF PMfug

2.5

CI%

Q EF PMfug

10

[kg/t]

mean

EF PMfug

10

CI%

Q EF PMfug

TSP

[kg/t]

mean

EF PMfug

TSP

CI%

Q


Sources :

Table 2.7 : Parameters needed to calculate variable operating costs 1)

Combination

code

Labor demand (extra)

[man-year/activity

sector unit]

Waste disposel

dust

[kg/kg TSP]

01 00 00

01 01 001)

: see Annex 1

Sources :

Table 2.8 : Costs for abatement techniques

Combi-

nation code

Invest

[M]

mean

Invest

CI%

Q OPfix

[/a]

mean

OPfix

CI%

Q OPvar

[/a]

mean

OPvar

CI%

Q OPtot

[/a]

mean

OPtot

CI%

Q

01 00 00


Sources :

Table 2.9 : Activities and Applicability for each combination of reduction measures 1)

Combination

code

% of total

activity in

2000

% of total

activity in

2005

Appl.

[%]

% of total

activity in

2010

Appl.

[%]

% of total

activity in

2015

Appl.

[%]

% of total

activity in

2020

Appl.

[%]

01 00 00

01 01 00

Total [%] 100 % 100 % 100 % 100 % 100 %

Total

[activity


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level]1)

: see Annex 6


Combination

code

Natural gas

[MJ/activity

sector unit]

Heavy fuel

oil

[MJ/activity

sector unit]

Other 1

(specify)

[MJ/activity

sector unit]

Electricity

output

[MJ/activity

sector unit]

Heat output

[MJ/activity

sector unit]

Electricity

own use

[MJ/activity

sector unit]

Heat own use

[MJ/activity

sector unit]

01 00 00

01 01 001)see Annex 5


Is there a further differentiation of Sderberg and Prebaked anodes important

Choice of reference installations Identification and quantification of the most important emission sources

Identification of the most important abatement measures and their assignment to the

appropriate emission sources

All emission factors per tonne aluminium


The contribution to the emissions of the anode production plant should be integrated

in the primary aluminium production process

Sector to be completed

2.8 References

[1], [2]


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3 Secondary aluminium production



Activity unit: tonne aluminium

SO2 NOx PM VOC NH3

x x x x -

This sector covers emissions from (combustion) processes in secondary aluminium

production.


To be completed.


The main feature of secondary aluminium production is the diversity of raw materials

encountered and the variety of furnaces used. Rotary, reverberatory and side-well furnaces, as

well as hearth furnaces are used for melting a wide range of secondary raw materials;

induction furnaces are used to melt the cleaner aluminium grades.


Reference

Code

Technique Capacity

[t/a]

Life time

[a]

Plant factor

[h/a]

01 Reverberatory furnace: residual oil 200,000 25 8,640

02 Reverberatory furnace: gas oil 200,000 25 8,640

03 Hearth furnace: residual oil 200,000 25 8,640

04 Hearth furnace: gas oil 200,000 25 8,640

05 Rotary furnace: residual oil 200,000 25 8,640

05 Induction furnace 200,000 25 8,640

3.4 Pollutants

The process steps involved in the production of secondary aluminium involve the potential

production of dust, fume and other gases from material storage, handling and processing. A

significant proportion of the emissions is produced by the fuel used. In addition, the type and

quality of scrap has a major influence on the significance of the releases. There are many

emission sources in secondary aluminium production, the most important being:

Pre-treatment of scrap (swarf drying, thermal de-coating):

SO2, NOx and particulate matter (stack emissions)

Melting furnace:

SO2, NOx and particulate matter (stack emissions)

Refining and casting processes (holding furnaces):

particulate matter (dust), fugitive emissions

Skimming preparation


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particulate matter (dust), fugitive emissions

Other sources (storage, treatment and handling of skimmings, charging of scrap, salt

slag processing etc.)

especially with respect to salt slag processing, significant amounts of fugitive

emissions (dust) may be released

Table 3.2 : Available emission factors

Particulate matter

[mg/Nm3]

SO2[mg/Nm

3]

NOx[mg/Nm

3]

Swarf drying 5-50 15-530 -

Induction furnace melting (abated) 1-35 - -

Rotary furnace melting (abated) 1-30 5-520 50-450

Reverberatory furnace (abated) 0.1-35 0.5-515 15-450

Hearth furnace (abated) 5-50 10-530 20-420

Source: [1]



Dust, fume and gases are collected by using sealed furnace systems, by total or partial

enclosure or by hooding.


Primary Measure Code Description00 none

01


Several of the techniques described in chapter 19 are applicable to abatement.



00 none01


Table 3.5 : Fuel parameters used for determining emission factors

Fuel Heat value

[GJ/t]


[%]S retained

[%]

Bottom ash

[%]

Residual oil

Gas oil

Table 3.6 : Applied emission abatement techniques for SO2 and NOx

Combination EF SO2 EF SO2 Q EF NOx EF NOx Q


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code [kg/t]

mean value

CI% [kg/t]

mean value

CI%

01 00 00


Sources :


Combi-

nation

code

EF PMstack

2.5

[kg/t]

mean

EF PMstack

2.5

CI%

Q EF PMstack

10

[kg/t]

mean

EF PMstack

10

CI%

Q EF PMstack

TSP

[kg/t]

mean

EF PMstack

TSP

CI%

Q

01 00 00


Sources :

Table 3.8 : Applied emission abatement techniques for PM fugitive emission

Combi-

nation

code

EF PMfug

2.5

[kg/t]

mean

EF PMfug

2.5

CI%

Q EF PMfug

10

[kg/t]

mean

EF PMfug

10

CI%

Q EF PMfug

TSP

[kg/t]

mean

EF PMfug

TSP

CI%

Q

01 00 00


Sources :


Combination

code


[man-year/t]

Waste disposel

dust

[kg/kg TSP]

01 00 00

01 01 001)

: see Annex 1

Sources :


Combi-

nation code

Invest

[M]

mean

Invest

CI%

Q OPfix

[/a]

mean

OPfix

CI%

Q OPvar

[/a]

mean

OPvar

CI%

Q OPtot

[/a]

mean

OPtot

CI%

Q

01 00 00


Sources :



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Combination

code

% of total

activity in

2000

% of total

activity in

2005

Appl.

[%]

% of total

activity in

2010

Appl.

[%]

% of total

activity in

2015

Appl.

[%]

% of total

activity in

2020

Appl.

[%]

01 00 00

01 01 00

Total [%] 100 % 100 % 100 % 100 % 100 %Total

[activity

level]1)

: see Annex 6


Combination

code

Residual oil

[MJ/t]

Gas oil

[MJ/t]

Other 1

(specify)

[MJ/t]

Electricity

output

[MJ/t]

Heat own use

[MJ/t]

01 00 00

01 01 001)see Annex 5


Choice of furnaces and fuels

Identification and quantification of the most important emission sources

Identification of the most important abatement measures and their assignment to the

appropriate emission sources Abatement measures used for Table 3.2

All emission factors per tonne aluminium


3.8 References

[1], [2]


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4 Primary copper



Activity unit: tonne copper

SO2 NOx PM VOC NH3

x - x - -

This sector covers emissions from (combustion) processes in primary copper production.


To be completed.


Copper is produced from various primary and secondary raw materials. The primary process

uses sulphidic concentrates or oxide/sulphidic mixed ores, while secondary processes employ

recycled oxidized or metallic products. The most important steps in the Primary Copper

production route are smelting, converting and refining.

Smelting

Below, pyrometallurgical production methods of primary copper are described. The

concentrate needs to be roasted before smelting. Usually, smelting furnaces allow combinedroasting and smelting. The smelting furnace generates a SO2-rich off-gas which is processed

in an on-site acid plant, matte (mainly copper sulphide with iron sulphide) and a silica based

slag with a high iron content. There are two basic smelting methods in use, bath smelting and

flash smelting. Flash smelting uses oxygen enriched air to ensure an autogenous process,

whereas bath smelting relies on the roasting and smelting processes taking place in a molten

bath of slag and matte.

Bath smelting processes: Reverberatory, Electric, ISA Smelt, Noranda, Mitsubishi, Teniente,

Baiyin and Vanyucov Furnaces. If the slag of the smelting furnace contains much copper,

then it can be treated in an electric furnace for copper recovery.

Flash smelting processes: Outokumpu, INCO Flash Smelters, and Contop cyclone furnace.

Converters

The matte has to be further processed in a converter stage. Here, the iron sulphide is oxidised

and the copper sulphide converted to metallic copper by blown-in air. The SO2-rich gas can be

merged with the gas stream of the smelter and used for sulphur recovery in the acid plant. The

slag significant content of copper and is recycled in the smelting furnace. When cooling

down, the metallical copper becomes less soluble for gases, blister copper emerges. The most

common device is the Peirce-Smith converter.

Fire-refining

Fire-refining of the blister copper is the next process step. First, air is blown through the

molten metal to burn impurities and to remove residues of sulphur. Then, a reducing agent is

added to retransform any copper oxide. At last, the metal is cast into anodes. Small amounts


16/74



off copper oxide containing slag are formed, which can be recirculated into the smelting

furnace or the converter for copper recovering purposes.

In primary copper production, cylindrical rotary furnaces (Anode Furnaces) are dominating,

they are similar to the Peirce-Smith converter


Reference

Code

Technique Capacity

[t/a]

Life time

[a]

Plant factor

[h/a]

01 Bath or flash smelting,

converting, refining (natural gas)

200.000 25 8,640

02 Bath or flash smelting,

converting, refining (residual oil)

200.000 25 8,640

4.4 Pollutants

Stack emissions of particulate matter (dust, metal compounds) and sulphur dioxide areemitted to air from all process stages: smelting, converter and fire-refining. Off-gases from

the different production stages are usually combined in order to increase the SO2

concentration for the production of sulphuric acid. Oxides of nitrogen are relatively

insignificant and may be absorbed in the sulphuric acid produced from a primary process; the

use of oxygen enrichment can sometimes reduce the formation of nitrogen oxides by the

thermal route.

Each of the various stages ofconverter operation, like charging, blowing, slag skimming, and

holding is a potential source of fugitive emissions. In addition there are fugitive emissionsfrom raw material handling. However, there was no information available.



In order to reduce uncontrolled stack emissions, dust, fume and gases are collected by using

sealed furnace systems, by total or partial enclosure or by hooding. Sealed furnaces can be

charged from sealed lance or burner systems, through hollow electrodes, through hoods or

tuyeres or by docking systems that seal onto the furnace during charging. Hoods are designed

to be as close as possible to the source emission while leaving room for process operations.

Movable hoods are used in some applications and some processes use hoods to collect

primary and secondary fume.



00 none

01 Additional Off Gas Collection Techniques


Secondary measures for sulphuric acid plant, wet scrubber, semi dry scrubber, wet

electrostatic precipitator, dry electrostatic precipitator, fabric filter.



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00 none

01 sulphuric acid plant

02 wet scrubber

03 semi dry scrubber

04 wet electrostatic precipitator05 dry electrostatic precipitator

06 fabric filter


Table 4.4 : Fuel parameters used for determining emission factors (only for combustion)

Fuel Heat value

[GJ/t]


[%]S retained

[%]

Bottom ash

[%]

Natural gas

Residual oil


Combination

code

EF SO2

[kg/t]

mean value

EF SO2

CI%

Q EF NOx

[kg/t]

mean value

EF NOx

CI%

Q

01 00 00 6.6 - 16 n.a. n.a. n.a.

01 00 01 100 - 1100

mg/Nm

20 - 45

mg/Nm

01 00 02 50 mg/Nm

01 00 03 50 mg/Nm02 00 00 6.6 - 16 n.a. n.a. n.a.

02 00 01 100 - 1100

mg/Nm

20 - 45

mg/Nm

02 00 02 50 mg/Nm

02 00 03 50 mg/NmQ: data quality from 1 to 5 (see Annex 2)

Sources : [1]


Combi-

nation

code

EF PMstack

2.5

[kg/t]

mean

EF PMstack

2.5

CI%

Q EF PMstack

10

[kg/t]

mean

EF PMstack

10

CI%

Q EF PMstack

TSP

[kg/t]

mean

EF PMstack

TSP

CI%

Q

01 00 00 0.16 - 1.0

01 00 01

01 00 02

01 00 03

01 00 04

01 00 05 150 - 300

mg/Nm

01 00 06 10 mg/Nm01 01 01

01 01 02


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01 01 03

01 01 04

01 01 05 150 - 300

mg/Nm

01 01 06 10 mg/Nm

02 00 00 0.16 - 1.002 00 01

02 00 02

02 00 03

02 00 04

02 00 05 150 - 300

mg/Nm

02 00 06 10 mg/Nm

02 01 01

02 01 02

02 01 0302 01 04

02 01 05 150 - 300

mg/Nm

02 01 06 10 mg/NmQ: data quality from 1 to 5 (see Annex 2)

Sources : [1]


Combination

code


[man-year/t]

Waste disposel

dust[kg/kg TSP]

01 00 00

01 00 01 0.1 h/t acid

01 00 02

01 00 03

01 00 04

01 00 05

01 00 06

01 01 01 0.1 h/t acid

01 01 02

01 01 03

01 01 04

01 01 05

01 01 06

02 00 00

02 00 01 0.1 h/t acid

02 00 02

02 00 03

02 00 04

02 00 05

02 00 0602 01 01 0.1 h/t acid

02 01 02


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02 01 03

02 01 04

02 01 05

02 01 061)

: see Annex 1

Sources : [1]


Combi-

nation code

Invest

[M]

mean

Invest

CI%

Q OPfix

[/a]

mean

OPfix

CI%

Q OPvar

[/a]

mean

OPvar

CI%

Q OPtot

[/a]

mean

OPtot

CI%

Q

01 00 00

01 00 01 50

01 00 02 30

01 00 03 6

01 00 04

01 00 05

01 00 06

01 01 01 50

01 01 02 30

01 01 03 6

01 01 04

01 01 05

01 01 06

02 00 00

02 00 01 5002 00 02 30

02 00 03 6

02 00 04

02 00 05

02 00 06

02 01 01 50

02 01 02 30

02 01 03 6

02 01 04


Sources : [1]


Combination

code

% of total

activity in

2000

% of total

activity in

2005

Appl.

[%]

% of total

activity in

2010

Appl.

[%]

% of total

activity in

2015

Appl.

[%]

% of total

activity in

2020

Appl.

[%]

01 00 00

01 00 01

01 00 02


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01 00 03

01 00 04

01 00 05

01 00 06

01 01 0101 01 02

01 01 03

01 01 04

01 01 05

01 01 06

02 00 00

02 00 01

02 00 02

02 00 03

02 00 04

02 00 05

02 00 06

02 01 01

02 01 02

02 01 03

02 01 04

02 01 05

02 01 06

Total [%] 100 % 100 % 100 % 100 % 100 %

Total

[activity

level]1)

: see Annex 6


Combination

code

Natural gas

[MJ/tonne

copper]

Heavy fuel

oil [MJ/

tonne

copper]

Other 1

(specify) [MJ/

tonne copper]

Electricity

own use

[MJ/ tonne

copper]

Heat own use

[MJ/ tonne

copper]

01 00 00

01 00 013 - 4Nm/t acid

60 - 80kWh/t acid

01 00 02 59

01 00 03 51

01 00 04

01 00 05

01 00 06

01 01 013 - 4Nm/t acid

60 - 80kWh/t acid

01 01 02 59

01 01 03 51


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01 01 04

01 01 05

01 01 06

02 00 00

02 00 013 - 4Nm/t acid

60 - 80kWh/t acid

02 00 02 59

02 00 03 51

02 00 04

02 00 05

02 00 06

02 01 013 - 4Nm/t acid

60 - 80kWh/t acid

02 01 02 59

02 01 03 51

02 01 04

02 01 05

02 01 061)see Annex 5


Completion of the tables.

Choice of fuels


Off-gases from the different production stages are assumed to be combined in order to

increase the SO2 concentration for the production of sulphuric acid.

The costs for the sulphuric acid plants do not consider the profit through selling

sulphuric acid

It is assumed that the same fuel is used in all process stages

Emissions from semis fabrication are not considered

4.8 References

[1]


22/74


23/74



02 Secondary (bath or flash)

smelting processes, converting,

refining (residual oil)

25 8,640

5.4 Pollutants

Particulate matteris emitted from all process stages (smelting, converter and fire refining).

SO2 is mainly emitted from the converter.



In order to reduce uncontrolled stack emissions, dust, fume and gases are collected by using



tuyeres or by docking systems that seal onto the furnace during charging. Hoods are designedto be as close as possible to the source emission while leaving room for process operations.





00 none







00 none

01 wet scrubber


03 fabric filter with lime injection04 fabric filter



Fuel Heat value

[GJ/t]


[%]S retained

[%]

Bottom ash

[%]

Natural gas

Residual oil


24/74




Combination

code

EF SO2

[kg/t]

mean value

EF SO2

CI%

Q EF NOx

[kg/t]

mean value

EF NOx

CI%

Q

01 00 00 0.5 - 3 n.a. n.a. n.a.

01 00 01 100 - 1100mg/Nm

20 - 45mg/Nm

01 00 02 50 mg/Nm

01 00 03 50 mg/Nm

02 00 00 0.5-3 n.a. n.a. n.a.

02 00 01 100 - 1100

mg/Nm

20 - 45

mg/Nm

02 00 02 50 mg/Nm

02 00 03 50 mg/Nm


Combi-

nation

code

EF PMstack

2.5

[kg/t]

mean

EF PMstack

2.5

CI%

Q EF PMstack

10

[kg/t]

mean

EF PMstack

10

CI%

Q EF PMstack

TSP

[kg/t]

mean

EF PMstack

TSP

CI%

Q

01 00 00 0.16 - 1.0

01 00 01

01 00 02

01 00 03

01 00 04

01 00 05 150 - 300

mg/Nm01 00 06 10 mg/Nm

01 01 01

01 01 02

01 01 03

01 01 04

01 01 05 150 - 300

mg/Nm

01 01 06 10 mg/Nm

02 00 00 0.16 - 1.0

02 00 01

02 00 02

02 00 03

02 00 04

02 00 05 150 - 300

mg/Nm

02 00 06 10 mg/Nm

02 01 01

02 01 02

02 01 03

02 01 04

02 01 05 150 - 300mg/Nm

02 01 06 10 mg/Nm


25/74




Sources : [1]


Combinationcode

Labor demand (extra)[man-year/tonne copper]

Waste disposel dust[kg/kg TSP]

01 00 00

01 00 01 0.1 h/t acid

01 00 02

01 00 03

01 00 04

01 00 05

01 00 06

01 01 01 0.1 h/t acid

01 01 02

01 01 03

01 01 04

01 01 05

01 01 06

02 00 00

02 00 01 0.1 h/t acid

02 00 02

02 00 03

02 00 04

02 00 05

02 00 0602 01 01 0.1 h/t acid

02 01 02

02 01 03

02 01 04

02 01 05

02 01 061)

: see Annex 1

Sources : [1]


Combi-

nation code

Invest

[M]

mean

Invest

CI%

Q OPfix

[/a]

mean

OPfix

CI%

Q OPvar

[/a]

mean

OPvar

CI%

Q OPtot

[/a]

mean

OPtot

CI%

Q

01 00 00

01 00 01 50

01 00 02 30

01 00 03 6

01 00 04

01 00 05

01 00 0601 01 01 50

01 01 02 30


26/74



01 01 03 6

01 01 04

01 01 05

01 01 06

02 00 00

02 00 01 5002 00 02 30

02 00 03 6

02 00 04

02 00 05

02 00 06

02 01 01 50

02 01 02 30

02 01 03 6

02 01 04


Sources : [1]


Combination

code

% of total

activity in

2000

% of total

activity in

2005

Appl.

[%]

% of total

activity in

2010

Appl.

[%]

% of total

activity in

2015

Appl.

[%]

% of total

activity in

2020

Appl.

[%]

01 00 00

01 00 01

01 00 02

01 00 03

01 00 04

01 00 05

01 00 06

01 01 01

01 01 02

01 01 03

01 01 04

01 01 05

01 01 06

02 00 00

02 00 01

02 00 02

02 00 03

02 00 04

02 00 05

02 00 0602 01 01

02 01 02


27/74



02 01 03

02 01 04

02 01 05

02 01 06

01 00 0001 00 01

01 00 02

01 00 03

01 00 04

Total [%] 100 % 100 % 100 % 100 % 100 %

Total

[activity

level]1)

: see Annex 6


Combination

code

Natural gas

[MJ/tonne

copper]

Heavy fuel

oil [MJ/

tonne

copper]

Other 1

(specify) [MJ/

tonne copper]

Electricity

own use

[MJ/ tonne

copper]

Heat own use

[MJ/ tonne

copper]

01 00 00

01 00 013 - 4Nm/t acid

60 - 80kWh/t acid

01 00 02 59

01 00 03 51

01 00 04

01 00 05

01 00 06

01 01 013 - 4Nm/t acid

60 - 80kWh/t acid

01 01 02 59

01 01 03 51

01 01 04

01 01 05

01 01 06

02 00 00

02 00 013 - 4Nm/t acid

60 - 80kWh/t acid

02 00 02 59

02 00 03 51

02 00 04

02 00 05

02 00 06

02 01 013 - 4Nm/t acid

60 - 80kWh/t acid

02 01 02 59

02 01 03 51


28/74



02 01 04

02 01 05

02 01 06



Choice of fuels


Emissions from semis fabrication are not considered.


5.8 References

[1]


29/74



6 Primary zinc



Activity unit: tonne zinc

SO2 NOx PM VOC NH3

x - x - -

This sector covers emissions from combustion processes in primary zinc production.


To be completed.


Zinc can be produced from primary raw materials by pyrometallurgical or hydrometallurgical

methods.

Pyrometallurgical methods are used in other parts of the World but have gradually lost their

importance and are not used in EU for simple zinc concentrates. Determining factors are the

need for an extra distillation stage to obtain high-grade zinc and the relatively low zinc

extraction efficiency. The pyrometallurgical Imperial Smelting Furnace process (ISF) is

however still of importance in EU because it enables complex lead-zinc concentrates andsecondary material to be treated simultaneously, yielding saleable lead and zinc. It can also

consume residues from other processes.

Imperial Smelting Furnace that is used for mixed lead/zinc concentrates. This furnace uses a

molten lead splash condenser after the blast furnace section to collect zinc vapour released in

the gases while lead collects on the hearth. The zinc and cadmium collected in the condenser

is purified in a fractional distillation system (New Jersey Distillation Column).

Distillation proceeds in two stages; first the separation of zinc and cadmium from lead and

then separation of cadmium from zinc. In the first stage, molten zinc is fed into a column

where all the cadmium and a high proportion of the zinc is distilled. The mixture is condensed

and fed directly to a second column. This column is operated at a slightly lower temperature

to distil mainly cadmium, which is condensed as a zinc-cadmium alloy. The alloy istransferred to a cadmium refinery.

The New Jersey distillation column is also used for secondary zinc materials.

The hydrometallurgical route is used for zinc sulphide (blendes), oxide, carbonate or silicate

concentrates and is responsible for about 80% of the total world. The majority of the EU

production facilities use the electrolytic process, with a total production capacity of 1665000

t/a in 1997. The hydrometallurgical route comprises roasting, leaching, purification and

electrolysis.

Roasting

Sulphide concentrates are roasted first in fluidised bed roasters to produce zinc oxide and

sulphur dioxide. Roasting is an exothermic process and no additional fuel is used, the heat

generated is recovered. The zinc oxide (calcine) passes from the furnace and is collected and


30/74



cooled. Roaster gases are treated in hot EPs to remove dust (which is passed to the calcine).

Other dust and volatile metals such as Hg and Se are removed in a gas cleaning train that

incorporates scrubbing systems and wet EPs. The sulphur dioxide is then converted to

sulphuric acid in a conventional recovery system.

LeachingLeaching of the calcine is carried out in a number of successive stages using a gradually

increasing strength of hot sulphuric acid. The initial stages do not dissolve significant

amounts of iron but the later ones do. The leaching process is carried out in a variety reactors

using open tanks, sealed vessels and pressure vessels or a combination of them. Leaching may

be stopped after the Neutral Leach. The leach residue is sent to an ISF and added to the sinter

feed. Zinc, lead and silver are recovered as metals, sulphur as H2SO4. Instead of an ISF, a

Waelz Kiln may be used but SO2 absorption is necessary in such a case.

Purification

Purification of the zinc bearing solution takes place in a number of consecutive stages. The

processes used are dependent on the concentrations of the various metals contained in theconcentrate and vary accordingly. The basic processes involve the use of zinc dust or powder

to precipitate impurities such as Cu, Cd, Ni, Co and Tl. Precipitation of Co and Ni also

involve the use of a second reagent such as As or Sb oxides. Variations in temperature occur

from plant to plant. Other reagents such as barium hydroxide and dimethyl glyoxime may also

be used to remove lead and nickel. The recovery route for the copper by-product can affect

the choice of process.

Electrolysis

The purified solution passes to a cell house where zinc is electro-won using lead anodes and

aluminium cathodes. Zinc is deposited at the cathodes and oxygen is formed at the anodes,

where sulphuric acid is also generated and is recycled to the leaching stage. Acid mist is

formed during this process and various coverings are used on the cells to minimise this. Cell

room ventilation air can be de-misted and the acid mist recovered. Heat is produced during

electrolysis and this is removed in a cooling circuit, this can be designed to optimise the water

balance of the process but may be a further source of mists.


Reference

Code

Technique Capacity

[t/a]

Life time

[a]

Plant factor

[h/a]

01 Pyrometallurgical route: hard

coal

25 8,640

02 Pyrometallurgical route: oil 25 8,640

03 Hydrometallurgical route: hard

coal

25 8,640

04 Hydrometallurgical route: oil 25 8,640

6.4 Pollutants

There are emissions of SO2 and particulate matter (both stack and fugitive ) emissions.




31/74



In order to reduce uncontrolled stack emissions, Dust, fume and gases are collected by using





Movable hoods are used in some applications and some processes use hoods to collectprimary and secondary fume.



00 none



Secondary measures for sulphuric acid plant, wet scrubber, semi dry scrubber, wetelectrostatic precipitator, dry electrostatic precipitator, fabric filter.



00 none


02 wet scrubber


04 wet electrostatic precipitator

05 dry electrostatic precipitator06 fabric filter



Fuel Heat value

[GJ/t]


[%]S retained

[%]

Bottom ash

[%]

Coal

Oil


Combination

code

EF SO2

[kg/t]

mean value

EF SO2

CI%

Q EF NOx

[kg/t]

mean value

EF NOx

CI%

Q

01 00 00 0.463 0.035

01 00 01 100 - 1100

mg/Nm

20 - 45

mg/Nm

01 00 02 50 mg/Nm

01 00 03 50 mg/Nm

02 00 00 1.25 0.1

03 00 00 n.a. n.a.

03 00 01 100 - 1100

mg/Nm

20 - 45

mg/Nm


32/74



03 00 02 50 mg/Nm

03 00 03 50 mg/Nm

04 00 00 n.a. n.a.


Sources : [1,2]


Combi-

nation

code

EF PMstack

2.5

[kg/t]

mean

EF PMstack

2.5

CI%

Q EF PMstack

10

[kg/t]

mean

EF PMstack

10

CI%

Q EF PMstack

TSP

[kg/t]

mean

EF PMstack

TSP

CI%

Q

01 00 00

01 00 01

01 00 02

01 00 0301 00 04

01 00 05 150 - 300

mg/Nm

01 00 06 10 mg/Nm

01 01 01

01 01 02

01 01 03

01 01 04

01 01 05 150 - 300

mg/Nm01 01 06 10 mg/Nm

02 00 00

...

03 00 00

03 00 01

03 00 02

03 00 03

03 00 04

03 00 05 150 - 300

mg/Nm

03 00 06 10 mg/Nm03 01 01

03 01 02

03 01 03

03 01 04

03 01 05 150 - 300

mg/Nm

03 01 06 10 mg/Nm

04 00 00


Sources : [1]


33/74




Combination

code


[man-year/t]

Waste disposel

dust

[kg/kg TSP]

01 00 0001 00 01 0.1 h/t acid

01 00 02

01 00 03

01 00 04

01 00 05

01 00 06

01 01 01 0.1 h/t acid

01 01 02

01 01 03

01 01 0401 01 05

01 01 06

03 00 00

03 00 01 0.1 h/t acid

03 00 02

03 00 03

03 00 04

03 00 05

03 00 06

03 01 01 0.1 h/t acid

03 01 0203 01 03

03 01 04

03 01 05

03 01 061)

: see Annex 1

Sources : [1]


Combi-nation code

Invest[M]

mean

InvestCI%

Q OPfix[/a]

mean

OPfixCI%

Q OPvar[/a]

mean

OPvarCI%

Q OPtot[/a]

mean

OPtotCI%

Q

01 00 00

01 00 01 50

01 00 02 30

01 00 03 6

01 00 04

01 00 05

01 00 06

01 01 01 50

01 01 02 3001 01 03 6

01 01 04


34/74



01 01 05

01 01 06

03 00 00

03 00 01 50

03 00 02 30

03 00 03 603 00 04

03 00 05

03 00 06

03 01 01 50

03 01 02 30

03 01 03 6

03 01 04

03 01 05

03 01 06


Sources : [1]


Combination

code

% of total

activity in

2000

% of total

activity in

2005

Appl.

[%]

% of total

activity in

2010

Appl.

[%]

% of total

activity in

2015

Appl.

[%]

% of total

activity in

2020

Appl.

[%]

01 00 00

01 00 01

01 00 0201 00 03

01 00 04

01 00 05

01 00 06

01 01 01

01 01 02

01 01 03

01 01 04

01 01 05

01 01 06

03 00 00

03 00 01

03 00 02

03 00 03

03 00 04

03 00 05

03 00 06

03 01 01

03 01 02

03 01 03


35/74



03 01 04

03 01 05

03 01 06

Total [%] 100 % 100 % 100 % 100 % 100 %

Total[activity

level]1)

: see Annex 6


Combination

code

Natural gas

[MJ/tonne

zinc]

Heavy fuel

oil [MJ/

tonne zinc]

Other 1

(specify) [MJ/

tonne zinc]

Electricity

own use

[MJ/ tonne

zinc]

Heat own use

[MJ/ tonne

zinc]

01 00 00

01 00 01 3 - 4Nm/t acid

60 - 80kWh/t acid

01 00 02 59

01 00 03 51

01 00 04

01 00 05

01 00 06

01 01 013 - 4Nm/t acid

60 - 80kWh/t acid

01 01 02 59

01 01 03 5101 01 04

01 01 05

01 01 06

03 00 00

03 00 013 - 4Nm/t acid

60 - 80kWh/t acid

03 00 02 59

03 00 03 51

03 00 04

03 00 05

03 00 06

03 01 013 - 4Nm/t acid

60 - 80kWh/t acid

03 01 02 59

03 01 03 51

03 01 04

03 01 05

03 01 061)see Annex 5



36/74




Choice of fuels

Assignment of emission sources to emissions




6.8 References

[1]


37/74



7 Secondary zinc



Activity unit: tonne zinc

SO2 NOx PM VOC NH3

x - x - -

This sector covers emissions from combustion processes in secondary zinc production.


To be completed.


Residues and scrap (e. g. dust from copper alloy making; ashes, bottom and top drosses from

the galvanising industry; old sheet materials; residues from chemical uses of zinc and burnt

tyres) are relevant to the secondary zinc industry. The process route used to recover zinc

depends on the form and concentration of zinc, and the degree of contamination.

Physical separation, melting and other high temperature treatment techniques are used.

Chlorides are removed and the residues are used to produce zinc metal or alloys for re-use,

impure metal or oxide, which will be refined further in the primary zinc processes.

Alternatively they can be further treated to produce commercial grades zinc oxide, powders ordust. Process details are very often confidential but important examples of these specific

treatments are Waelz kilns and slag fuming furnaces.

Waelz kilns

The process is designed to separate zinc (and lead) from other materials by reducing,

volatilising and oxidising zinc (and lead) again. The dust, other secondary raw materials and

coke fines are loaded into silos. The materials are mixed and can also be pelletised. It is then

sent directly to the kiln feeding system or for intermediate storage. Weighing equipment can

be used to control the quantity of reduction materials (coke) according to the zinc content of

the raw materials and of fluxes for the desired slag quality.

The Waelz oxide that is produced can be processed in a number of ways. The most basicprocess is hot briquetting or sintering for sale to pyrometallurgical zinc plants e.g. Imperial

Smelting Process. If the lead oxide content is high, a calcination step can also be used to

volatilise the lead. Waelz oxide can also be leached in a two-stage process using sodium

carbonate in the first stage and water in the second stage to remove chloride, fluoride, sodium,

potassium and sulphur. The purified final product is dried and can be used as a feed material

for the zinc electrolysis process. These processes are similar to those of primary zinc

production.


ReferenceCode

Technique Capacity[t/a]

Life time[a]

Plant factor[h/a]

01 secondary zinc route (coal) 25 8,640


38/74



02 secondary zinc route (oil) 25 8,640

7.4 Pollutants

There are emissions of SO2 and particulate matter (both stack and fugitive ) emissions.












00 none







00 none


02 wet scrubber



05 dry electrostatic precipitator

06 fabric filter



Fuel Heat value

[GJ/t]


[%]S retained

[%]

Bottom ash

[%]

Coal

Oil


Combination

code

EF SO2

[kg/t]

EF SO2

CI%

Q EF NOx

[kg/t]

EF NOx

CI%

Q


39/74



mean value mean value

01 00 00

01 00 01 100 - 1100

mg/Nm

20 - 45

mg/Nm

01 00 02 50 mg/Nm

01 00 03 50 mg/Nm02 00 00

02 00 01 100 - 1100

mg/Nm

20 - 45

mg/Nm

02 00 02 50 mg/Nm

02 00 03 50 mg/Nm


Sources : [1,2]


Combi-

nation

code

EF PMstack

2.5

[kg/t]

mean

EF PMstack

2.5

CI%

Q EF PMstack

10

[kg/t]

mean

EF PMstack

10

CI%

Q EF PMstack

TSP

[kg/t]

mean

EF PMstack

TSP

CI%

Q

01 00 00

01 00 01

01 00 02

01 00 03

01 00 04

01 00 05 150 - 300

mg/Nm

01 00 06 10 mg/Nm

01 01 01

01 01 02

01 01 03

01 01 04

01 01 05 150 - 300

mg/Nm

01 01 06 10 mg/Nm

02 00 00

02 00 0102 00 02

02 00 03

02 00 04

02 00 05 150 - 300

mg/Nm

02 00 06 10 mg/Nm

02 01 01

02 01 02

02 01 03

02 01 0403 01 05 150 - 300

mg/Nm


40/74



02 01 06 10 mg/Nm

...Q: data quality from 1 to 5 (see Annex 2)

Sources : [1]


Combination

code


[man-year/t]

Waste disposel

dust

[kg/kg TSP]

01 00 00

01 00 01 0.1 h/t acid

01 00 02

01 00 03

01 00 04

01 00 05

01 00 06

01 01 01 0.1 h/t acid

01 01 02

01 01 03

01 01 04

01 01 05

01 01 06

02 00 00

02 00 01 0.1 h/t acid

02 00 02

02 00 0302 00 04

02 00 05

02 00 06

02 01 01 0.1 h/t acid

02 01 02

02 01 03

02 01 04

02 01 05

02 01 06

1): see Annex 1

Sources : [1]


Combi-

nation code

Invest

[M]

mean

Invest

CI%

Q OPfix

[/a]

mean

OPfix

CI%

Q OPvar

[/a]

mean

OPvar

CI%

Q OPtot

[/a]

mean

OPtot

CI%

Q

01 00 00

01 00 01 50

01 00 02 3001 00 03 6

01 00 04


41/74



01 00 05

01 00 06

01 01 01 50

01 01 02 30

01 01 03 6

01 01 0401 01 05

01 01 06

02 00 00

02 00 01 50

02 00 02 30

02 00 03 6

02 00 04

02 00 05

02 00 06

02 01 01 5002 01 02 30

02 01 03 6

02 01 04

02 01 05

02 01 06


Sources : [1]


Combination

code

% of total

activity in

2000

% of total

activity in

2005

Appl.

[%]

% of total

activity in

2010

Appl.

[%]

% of total

activity in

2015

Appl.

[%]

% of total

activity in

2020

Appl.

[%]

01 00 00

01 00 01

01 00 02

01 00 03

01 00 04

01 00 0501 00 06

01 01 01

01 01 02

01 01 03

01 01 04

01 01 05

01 01 06

02 00 00

02 00 01

02 00 02

02 00 03


42/74



02 00 04

02 00 05

02 00 06

02 01 01

02 01 0202 01 03

02 01 04

02 01 05

02 01 06

Total [%] 100 % 100 % 100 % 100 % 100 %

Total

[activity

level]

1): see Annex 6


Combination

code

Natural gas

[MJ/tonne

zinc]

Heavy fuel

oil [MJ/

tonne zinc]

Other 1

(specify) [MJ/

tonne zinc]

Electricity

own use

[MJ/ tonne

zinc]

Heat own use

[MJ/ tonne

zinc]

01 00 00

01 00 013 - 4

Nm/t acid

60 - 80

kWh/t acid

01 00 02 59

01 00 03 51

01 00 04

01 00 05

01 00 06

01 01 013 - 4

Nm/t acid

60 - 80

kWh/t acid

01 01 02 59

01 01 03 51

01 01 04

01 01 05

01 01 06

02 00 00

02 00 013 - 4Nm/t acid

60 - 80kWh/t acid

02 00 02 59

02 00 03 51

02 00 04

02 00 05

02 00 06

02 01 01 3 - 4Nm/t acid

60 - 80kWh/t acid

02 01 02 59


43/74



02 01 03 51

02 01 04

02 01 05

02 01 06

1)see Annex 5



Choice of fuels




Assignment of emission sources and emissions

7.8 References

[1]


44/74



8 Primary lead



Activity unit: tonne lead

SO2 NOx PM VOC NH3

x - x - -

This sector covers emissions from combustion processes in primary lead production.


To be completed.


There are two basic pyrometallurgical processes available for the production of lead from lead

sulphide or mixed lead and zinc sulphide concentrates: - sintering/smelting or direct smelting.

The processes may also be used for concentrates mixed with secondary raw materials. The

sintering/smelting or direct smelting are followed by refining processes and by Melting and

alloying processes. There are two main production routes: the sintering/smelting route and

the direct smelting route.

Sintering/smelting using the Blast Furnace or Imperial Smelting FurnaceLead concentrates are blended with recycled sinter fines, secondary material and other process

materials and pelletised in rotating drums. Pellets are fed onto an up draught or down draught

sinter machine and ignited. The burning pellets are conveyed over a series of wind-boxes

through which air is blown. Sulphur is oxidised to sulphur dioxide and the reaction generates

enough heat to fuse and agglomerate the pellets.

The sinter product is crushed and screened to the correct size for the furnace. Undersize

material is cooled by mixing with de-watered sludge collected from gas cleaning equipment

and returned to the blending area. The sulphur dioxide is recovered from the sinter machine

off-gases, which are cooled, cleaned and recovered in the form of sulphuric acid. Cadmium

and mercury are also present and are recovered from the off-gases or from the sulphuric acid

that is produced. Sinter is charged to the blast furnace with metallurgical coke. Air and/oroxygen enriched air, is injected through the tuyeres of the furnace and reacts with the coke to

produce carbon monoxide. This generates sufficient heat to melt the charge. The gangue

content of the furnace charge combines with the added fluxes or reagents to form a slag. The

carbon monoxide reduces the metal oxides in the charge. Slag and lead collect in the furnace

bottom and are tapped out periodically or continuously. The slag is quenched and granulated

using water, or allowed to cool and is then crushed, depending on its destination or further

use.

Direct smelting

Several processes are used for direct smelting of lead concentrates and some secondary

material to produce crude lead and slag. Bath smelting processes are used the ISA

Smelt/Ausmelt furnaces (sometimes in combination with blast furnaces), Kaldo (TBRC) and

QSL integrated processes are used in EU and Worldwide. The Kivcet integrated process is


45/74



also used and is a flash smelting process. The ISA Smelt/Ausmelt furnaces and the QSL take

moist, pelletised feed and the Kaldo and Kivcet use dried feed. The sintering stage is not

carried out separately in this instance. Lead sulphide concentrates and secondary materials are

charged directly to a furnace and are then melted and oxidised. Sulphur dioxide is formed and

is collected, cleaned and converted to sulphuric acid. Carbon (coke or gas) and fluxing agents

are added to the molten charge and lead oxide is reduced to lead, a slag is formed. Some zincand cadmium are fumed off in the furnace, their oxides are captured in the abatement plant

and recovered.

These processes all produce a slag that is rich in lead but the QSL and Kivcet furnaces

incorporate an integral reduction zone to reduce the lead content of the slag to an acceptable

level, the Kaldo process uses an adjacent slag fuming process. The silica based slag from the

QSL process is accepted as construction material at the time of writing. Dust collected in

abatement plant is returned to the process and can be washed or leached to reduce halides and

Zn / Cd in the recycled dust.

Refining of primary lead

Lead bullion may contain varying amounts of copper, silver, bismuth, antimony, arsenic andtin. There are two methods of refining crude lead: electrolytic refining and pyrometallurgical

refining. Electrolytic refining uses anodes of de-copperised lead bullion and starter cathodes

of pure lead. This is a high cost process and is used infrequently. A pyrometallurgical refinery

consists of a series of kettles, which are indirectly heated by oil or gas. Copper is the first

element to be removed and separates as sulphide dross. If the crude metal is deficient in

sulphur more must be added in the form of sulphur powder or pyrite. The sulphide dross is

removed from the metal surface by mechanical skimmers that discharge into containers.

Arsenic, antimony and tin are removed by oxidation. The usual method, often referred to as

''lead softening'', involves a reaction with a mixture of sodium nitrate and caustic soda,

followed by mechanical skimming to remove the oxide dross. Air/oxygen can also be used as

the oxidising agent. Depending on the crude lead composition, i.e. the amount of impurities,

the molten salt mixture may be granulated in water and the impurities separated hydro-

metallurgically.

Melting and alloying processes

Melting and alloying are usually carried out in indirectly heated crucible furnaces or kettles

using electricity or oil or gas. Refined lead is melted in a kettle and alloying elements are

added. Temperature control of the melt can be important. Lead and lead alloys are usually cast

into permanent cast iron moulds.

Static moulds and conveyor casting machines are used to produce blocks, slabs and ingots.

Continuous casting machines are used to produce rod for reduction to wire. Fume extractionis used at the launders and tapping points.


Reference

Code

Technique Capacity

[t/a]

Life time

[a]

Plant factor

[h/a]

01 Sintering/smelting route (coal) 25 8,640

02 Sintering/smelting route (oil) 25 8,640

03 Sintering/smelting route (gas) 25 8,640

04 Direct smelting route (coal) 25 8,640

05 Direct smelting route (oil) 25 8,64006 Direct smelting route (gas) 25 8,640


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8.4 Pollutants

Particulate matter and SO2 (content of SO2 is dependent on the source of the material) are

emitted to air. Oxides of nitrogen are relatively insignificant but may be absorbed in the

sulphuric acid produced from a primary process; the use of oxygen enrichment can sometimes

reduce the formation of nitrogen oxides by the thermal route.The major sources of sulphur dioxide emission are emissions from the oxidation stages, from

the sulphuric acid plant and the emission of residual sulphur in the furnace charge. Good

extraction and sealing of the furnaces prevents fugitive emissions and the collected gases

from oxidation stages are passed to a gas cleaning plant and then to the sulphuric acid plant.

Dust carry over from the roasting and smelting processes are potential sources direct and

fugitive emissions of dust and metals. The gases are collected and treated in the gas cleaning

processes of the sulphuric acid plant. Dust is removed and returned to the process.












00 none







00 none


02 wet scrubber



05 dry electrostatic precipitator

06 fabric filter




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Fuel Heat value

[GJ/t]


[%]S retained

[%]

Bottom ash

[%]

Coal

Oil


Combination

code

EF SO2

[kg/t]

mean value

EF SO2

CI%

Q EF NOx

[kg/t]

mean value

EF NOx

CI%

Q

01 00 00

01 00 01 100 - 1100

mg/Nm

20 - 45

mg/Nm

01 00 02 50 mg/Nm

01 00 03 50 mg/Nm

02 00 00

02 00 01 100 - 1100mg/Nm 20 - 45mg/Nm

02 00 02 50 mg/Nm

02 00 03 50 mg/Nm


Sources : [1,2]


Combi-

nationcode

EF PMstack

2.5[kg/t]

mean

EF PMstack

2.5CI%

Q EF PMstack

10[kg/t]

mean

EF PMstack

10CI%

Q EF PMstack

TSP[kg/t]

mean

EF PMstack

TSPCI%

Q

01 00 00

01 00 01

01 00 02

01 00 03

01 00 04

01 00 05 150 - 300

mg/Nm

01 00 06 10 mg/Nm

01 01 0101 01 02

01 01 03

01 01 04

01 01 05 150 - 300

mg/Nm

01 01 06 10 mg/Nm

02 00 00

02 00 01

02 00 02

02 00 0302 00 04

02 00 05 150 - 300


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mg/Nm

02 00 06 10 mg/Nm

02 01 01

02 01 02

02 01 03

02 01 0403 01 05 150 - 300

mg/Nm

02 01 06 10 mg/Nm

...Q: data quality from 1 to 5 (see Annex 2)

Sources : [1]


Combinationcode

Labor demand (extra)[man-year/t]

Waste disposeldust

[kg/kg TSP]

01 00 00

01 00 01 0.1 h/t acid

01 00 02

01 00 03

01 00 04

01 00 05

01 00 06

01 01 01 0.1 h/t acid

01 01 0201 01 03

01 01 04

01 01 05

01 01 06

02 00 00

02 00 01 0.1 h/t acid

02 00 02

02 00 03

02 00 04

02 00 05

02 00 06

02 01 01 0.1 h/t acid

02 01 02

02 01 03

02 01 04

02 01 05

02 01 06

1)

: see Annex 1

Sources : [1]



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Combi-

nation code

Invest

[M]

mean

Invest

CI%

Q OPfix

[/a]

mean

OPfix

CI%

Q OPvar

[/a]

mean

OPvar

CI%

Q OPtot

[/a]

mean

OPtot

CI%

Q

01 00 00

01 00 01 50

01 00 02 30

01 00 03 6

01 00 04

01 00 05

01 00 06

01 01 01 50

01 01 02 30

01 01 03 6

01 01 04

01 01 05

01 01 06

02 00 0002 00 01 50

02 00 02 30

02 00 03 6

02 00 04

02 00 05

02 00 06

02 01 01 50

02 01 02 30

02 01 03 6

02 01 0402 01 05

02 01 06


Sources : [1]


Combination

code

% of total

activity in

2000

% of total

activity in

2005

Appl.

[%]

% of total

activity in

2010

Appl.

[%]

% of total

activity in

2015

Appl.

[%]

% of total

activity in

2020

Appl.

[%]

01 00 00

01 00 01

01 00 02

01 00 03

01 00 04

01 00 05

01 00 06

01 01 01

01 01 0201 01 03

01 01 04


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01 01 05

01 01 06

02 00 00

02 00 01

02 00 0202 00 03

02 00 04

02 00 05

02 00 06

02 01 01

02 01 02

02 01 03

02 01 04

02 01 05

02 01 06

Total [%] 100 % 100 % 100 % 100 % 100 %

Total

[activity

level]1)

: see Annex 6


Combinationcode

Natural gas[MJ/tonne

zinc]

Heavy fueloil [MJ/

tonne zinc]

Other 1(specify) [MJ/

tonne zinc]

Electricityown use

[MJ/ tonne

zinc]

Heat own use[MJ/ tonne

zinc]

01 00 00

01 00 013 - 4

Nm/t acid

60 - 80

kWh/t acid

01 00 02 59

01 00 03 51

01 00 04

01 00 05

01 00 06

01 01 013 - 4

Nm/t acid

60 - 80

kWh/t acid

01 01 02 59

01 01 03 51

01 01 04

01 01 05

01 01 06

02 00 00

02 00 01

3 - 4

Nm/t acid

60 - 80

kWh/t acid

02 00 02 59

02 00 03 51


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02 00 04

02 00 05

02 00 06

02 01 013 - 4Nm/t acid

60 - 80kWh/t acid

02 01 02 59

02 01 03 51

02 01 04

02 01 05

02 01 06

1)see Annex 5


Choice of reference installations


Choice of fuels




8.8 References

[1]


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9 Secondary lead



Activity unit: tonne lead

SO2 NOx PM VOC NH3

x - x - -

This sector covers emissions from combustion processes in secondary lead production.


To be completed.


There are two basic pyrometallurgical processes available for the production of lead from lead

sulphide or mixed lead and zinc sulphide concentrates: - sintering/smelting or direct smelting.

The processes may also be used for concentrates mixed with secondary raw materials. The

sintering/smelting or direct smelting are followed by refining processes and by Melting and

alloying processes. There are two main production routes: the sintering/smelting route and

the direct smelting

Sintering/smelting using the Blast Furnace or Imperial Smelting FurnaceLead concentrates are blended with recycled sinter fines, secondary material and other process

materials and pelletised in rotating drums. Pellets are fed onto an up draught or down draught

sinter machine and ignited. The burning pellets are conveyed over a series of wind-boxes

through which air is blown. Sulphur is oxidised to sulphur dioxide and the reaction generates

enough heat to fuse and agglomerate the pellets.

The sinter product is crushed and screened to the correct size for the furnace. Undersize

material is cooled by mixing with de-watered sludge collected from gas cleaning equipment

and returned to the blending area. The sulphur dioxide is recovered from the sinter machine

off-gases, which are cooled, cleaned and recovered in the form of sulphuric acid. Cadmium

and mercury are also present and are recovered from the off-gases or from the sulphuric acid

that is produced. Sinter is charged to the blast furnace with metallurgical coke. Air and/oroxygen enriched air, is injected through the tuyeres of the furnace and reacts with the coke to

produce carbon monoxide. This generates sufficient heat to melt the charge. The gangue

content of the furnace charge combines with the added fluxes or reagents to form a slag. The

carbon monoxide reduces the metal oxides in the charge. Slag and lead collect in the furnace

bottom and are tapped out periodically or continuously. The slag is quenched and granulated

using water, or allowed to cool and is then crushed, depending on its destination or further

use.

Direct smelting

Several processes are used for direct smelting of lead concentrates and some secondary

material to produce crude lead and slag. Bath smelting processes are used the ISA

Smelt/Ausmelt furnaces (sometimes in combination with blast furnaces), Kaldo (TBRC) and

QSL integrated processes are used in EU and Worldwide. The Kivcet integrated process is


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also used and is a flash smelting process. The ISA Smelt/Ausmelt furnaces and the QSL take

moist, pelletised feed and the Kaldo and Kivcet use dried feed. The sintering stage is not

carried out separately in this instance. Lead sulphide concentrates and secondary materials are

charged directly to a furnace and are then melted and oxidised. Sulphur dioxide is formed and

is collected, cleaned and converted to sulphuric acid. Carbon (coke or gas) and fluxing agents

are added to the molten charge and lead oxide is reduced to lead, a slag is formed. Some zincand cadmium are fumed off in the furnace, their oxides are captured in the abatement plant

and recovered.

These processes all produce a slag that is rich in lead but the QSL and Kivcet furnaces

incorporate an integral reduction zone to reduce the lead content of the slag to an acceptable

level, the Kaldo process uses an adjacent slag fuming process. The silica based slag from the

QSL process is accepted as construction material at the time of writing. Dust collected in

abatement plant is returned to the pr

non ferrous industry

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