nonverbalmessagesandinterculturalcommunicationijals.usb.ac.ir/article_1649_cfe530e45e2f27c3f5171d0e2d80d681.pdf2008)....

NonverbalMessagesandInterculturalCommunication

ElahehSotoudehnama FarzanehSolgiAssociateProfessor,AlzahraUniversity M.A,AlzahraUniversity

[email protected] [email protected]

Abstract

Intercultural communication takes place when individuals influenced bydifferent cultural communitiesnegotiate sharedmeanings in interaction.Asevery country has its own cultural value system; consequently, nonverbalcommunication is different from country to country. Therefore, havingknowledgeaboutthesimilaritiesanddifferencesofnonverbalcommunicationindifferentculturesincreasesthepossibilityofbeingunderstoodandreducestheriskofbeingmisunderstoodandmisinterpretedbypeoplefromdifferentculturalbackgrounds.Thecurrentpaperaimstoinvestigateandcomparetheinterpretations of nonverbal messages between the findings of Pease andPease(2004),twoprominentfiguresinthefieldofnonverbalcommunicationinWestern societies and the Iranian students of English and non-EnglishmajorasanexampleofanEasternsociety.Inthisstudy,32bodygestureswereselected from among 170 pictures used byPease andPease (2004) and theIranianstudents’interpretationsofthosebodygestureswereinvestigated.Theresults showed that the interpretations were significantly different acrossWestern and Iranian students; however, therewas no significant differencebetweenEnglishandnon-Englishmajorstudents’interpretations.

Keywords: Intercultural Communication, Nonverbal Messages, BodyLanguage,WesternandIranianNonverbalInterpretations

Received:March2012;Accepted:December2012

IranianJournalofAppliedLanguageStudies,Vol5,No1,2013

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1. Introduction

The foundationof intercultural communication isbasedon thedefinitionofculture. Culture is the “shared system of socially transmitted behavior thatdescribes,defines, and guidespeople’swaysof life, communicated fromonegenerationtothenext”(Matsumoto,2006,p.220).Fromtheviewpointofsomeauthors, intercultural communication is a phenomenon which refers tocommunicationamongpeople fromdifferentnationalities (Gudykunst,2003;Pease& Pease, 2004); on the other hand, some other authors expand theconcept of intercultural communication to inter-ethnic, inter-religions andeven inter-regional communication as well as communication amongindividualsofdifferentgenders(Martin&Nakayama,2007;Samovar& Porter,2004).

Language isnot the solemeansbywhichhumans exchange information.Messageand itsmeaningare transferred through twochannelsofverbalandnonverbal communication. As Pease (1988) believes, most researchersgenerally agree that the verbal channel is used primarily for conveyinginformation,whilethenonverbalchannelisusedfornegotiatinginterpersonalattitudes, and in certain cases, it is used as a substitute for verbalmessages.Nonverbalcommunication includes“allcommunicationother than language”(Andersen,1999,p.2).Inconversation,weexpressour ideasandfeelingsnotonly bywords but also through facial expressions, voice tones, and gestures.These non-verbal gestures, are also a part of our culture, the sameway ourverbal language is (Zhou & Zhang, 2008). Knapp and Hall (2006) discussseveralways thatnonverbalmessages function inconjunctionwith theverbalones.A nonverbalbehavior substitutes, complements,accents, regulates,andcontradictsthespokenmessage.Body language is“anoutwardreflectionofaperson’semotional condition” (Pease& Pease,2004,p.24).Eachgestureor


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movementcanbea valuablekey toanemotiona personmaybe feelingatacertaintime.

The main goal of this paper is to compare the interpretations of somenonverbalmessagesbetween theIranianstudentsofEnglishandnon-Englishmajor studentswith the findings of Pease and Pease (2004), two prominentresearchersinnonverbalcommunication.Theresultsofthisresearchshowthesimilaritiesanddifferences in interpretingnonverbalmessagesacrossEasternandWestern cultures and help individuals in better understanding differentcultural backgrounds and decrease the risk of misunderstanding betweenindividualsfromdifferentcountrieswhoseculturesmayhavelittleincommon.

2. LiteratureReview

Asfarasthetechnicalstudyofbodylanguageisconcerned,themostinfluentialpre-twentieth-century work was Charles Darwin’s The Expression of theEmotionsinManandAnimalspublishedin1872(Pease& Pease,2004).Thisspawnedthestudyoffacialexpressionsandbody language.ManyofDarwin’sideas and observations have since been validated by modern researchersaroundtheworld.Mehrabian(1981),forexample,foundthatthetotalimpactof a message is about 7 percent verbal (words only) and 38 percent vocal(including tone of voice, inflection and other sounds) and 55 percentnonverbal.Birdwhistell (1970) had alsomade some similar estimates of lessthan 35 percent of the verbal component of a face-to-face conversation andover65percentof thenon-verbalone.He furtherestimated that theaveragepersonactuallyspeakswords fora totalofabout tenorelevenminutesa dayandthattheaveragesentencetakesonlyabout2.5seconds.

Many researches are conducted and debates are posed on whether non-verbalsignalsare inborn, learned,geneticallytransferredoracquired insome


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otherways.Evidencewascollectedfromobservationofblindanddeafpeoplewhocouldnothave learnednon-verbalsignals through theauditoryorvisualchannels, from observing the gestural behavior of many different culturesaround the world and from studying the behavior of our nearestanthropological relatives, the apes and monkeys. The conclusions of theseresearches indicated that people have access to gestures differently. Forexample, all children are bornwith the immediate ability to suck, indicatingthat this is either inborn or genetic (Pease& Pease, 2004). Eibl-Eibesfeldt(1971)foundthatthesmilingexpressionsofchildrenborndeafandblindoccurindependently of learning or copying, whichmeans that thesemust also beinborn gestures. Ekman, Sorenson, and Friesen (1972) supported some ofDarwin’s original beliefs about inborn gestureswhen they studied the facialexpressionsofpeoplefromfivewidelydifferentcultures.Theyfoundthateachcultureusedthesamebasicfacialgesturestoshowemotion,whichledthemtotheconclusionthatthesegesturesmustbeinborn.EkmanandFreisen’s(1975)findingsdemonstratedtheexistenceofsixuniversalexpressions:anger,disgust,fear,happiness,sadness,andsurprise.James(2009)highlightedthat“mostofthebody languagesweuseare learnedbehaviorsbut therearea lotofbodylanguageswhicharemoreinstinctiveandpartofourevolutionaryprocess”(p.20).

2.1. BodyLanguageandCulture

Darwin(1872,citedinPease& Pease,2004)claimedthatallpeople,regardlessofraceorculture,possesstheabilitytoexpresscertainemotionsinexactlythesame ways through their faces. He concluded that the muscle actions areuniversal, and that their precursors can be seen in nonhuman primates andothermammals.


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Darwin’s claims were revived by Tomkins (1963), who suggested thatemotionwasthebasisofhumanmotivation,andthattheseatofemotionwasintheface.EarlyresearchtestingDarwin’sideaswasinconclusive(Ekmanetal.,1972), and formany years the dominant perspective in psychology was theopposite- that facial expressions were culture-specific, much the same waylanguageis.

Other studies have documented cultural differences in other nonverbalbehaviorsaswell,suchasinthesemanticmeaningsattributedtobodypostures(Kudoh & Matsumoto, 1985; Matsumoto & Kudoh, 1987), and vocalcharacteristics and hand and arm movements (Vrij & Winkel, 1992).Collectively,theevidenceprovidesmorethanamplesupportforthecontentionthat culture plays a key role in molding our nonverbal behaviors, whichcompriseanimportantpartofthecommunicationprocess.

SamovarandPorter (2004)believed“somenonverbalmessagesarevariedaccording to the culture and they are learned during the years of earlychildhood”(p.147).Forexample,touchingone’sear isprotectionagainsttheevileyeinTurkeydenotesjeeringateffeminacyinsouthernItalyanda signofrepentanceorsincerityinIndia.

2.2. FunctionsandInterpretationofBodyLanguage

What we say verbally and what we show through our body language areinterconnected and affect each other. Through our body language, wecommunicatea lotaboutwhat isactuallygoingonthroughourheads.Hogan(2008,p.9) stated that“body language can influence the communications inform of repeating, regulating, complementing, substituting,accenting/moderating,andconflicting.”


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Hogan (2008)highlighted that tounderstand themeaningofa particularbodylanguage“weshouldconsiderthecontextandcultureinwhichthatbodylanguagehasoccurred.Elements likesocialnorms, lifeexperience, individualpersonality, self-esteem, generational differences, and cultural differencesinfluence body language inways both obvious and subtle” (p. 60).He lateraddedthathowweperceivethecontextandenvironmentresultsinwhatbodylanguageweuse.Thebehaviorwedisplayinourhomeisdifferentfromtheonewe display in the office or a job interview.Depending on the context andenvironment, the same body language can have differentmeanings. Kinsey(2008)saidthatto improveourabilitiestoreadotherpeople’sbody languagewe should filter our impressions through five C’s: “Context, clusters,congruence,consistency,andculture”(p.12).

Becausehavingknowledgeof the similaritiesanddifferencesofnonverbalcommunication in different societies and cultures increases the possibilityofbeingunderstoodandreducestheriskofbeingmisinterpretedbypeoplefromdifferentcultures,thepresentstudysetsouttocomparetheinterpretationsofsomenonverbalmessagesbyIranianandWesternpeople.

2.3. ResearchQuestions

Thisstudy intendsto investigate the interpretationsofnonverbalmessagesbyIranianstudentsandcomparethemwiththeWesterninterpretationsfoundbyPeaseandPease (2004). In fact, the studypurported toanswer the followingquestions:1. Is there a statistically significant difference in the interpretations of

nonverbalmessagesbetweenIranianandWesternstudents?


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2. Is there a statistically significant difference in the interpretations ofnonverbalmessagesbetweenIranianEnglishmajorandnon-Englishmajorstudents?

3. Methodology3.1. Participants

As the first stage, 100 female MA students between the age of 21-28 indifferentmajors includingTEFL,Persian literature,Arabic literature,history,business management, and physics from a state university in Tehran wereselected. They were required to write their interpretations for the givenpictures.Then,35Englishand35non-EnglishmajorstudentsstudyingPersianliterature,Arabic literature, history, businessmanagement, and physics, notincluded among those 100 but from the same university, participated in thenext stage. As the second stage, they were supposed to select theirinterpretation from a multiple-choice test including three distracters whichwereselectedfromthepreviousstageplusthewesterninterpretation.

3.2. Materials

Pease and Pease (2004) have provided 170 pictures in their book TheDefinitiveBookofBodyLanguagewiththeexplanationofwhatisemphasizedin each picture. For example, there is picture of a man with a relevantdescriptionof“Double-Arm-Grip”oranotherpicturewiththeexplanationof“shruggingtheshoulders”andthentheinterpretationsoftheWesternersaboutthese pictures are provided. In this study, 32 pictures from 170 pictures(AppendixA),whichseemedtobeclearerinthematchesbetweenthepictureand the relevant explanations were selected based on the judgment of two


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EnglishlanguageUniversityprofessorsandtheIranianstudentswereaskedtowritetheirinterpretationaboutthosepictures.Additionally,thirty-twoEnglishmultiplechoicequestionswereused for therecognitionof the interpretationsofthesamenumberofpictures(AppendixB)inthenextstage.

3.3. Procedure

Thirty-two pictures of nonverbal messages, together with their writtenexplanations in English selected from among 170 pictures in the book TheDefinitiveBookofBodyLanguage(Pease& Pease,2004),weregiven to100Iraniangraduatestudentsfromdifferentmajorsina stateuniversityinTehran.Theywereaskedtowritetheirinterpretationsofthosepicturesintheirnativelanguage (Persian). In the next stage, 32 multiple choice questions wereprepared. From the four choices, one included the Western interpretationgivenbyPeaseandPease(2004)andtheotherthreewereselectedfromamongthe interpretations provided by the Persian speakers with the highestfrequencies in the previous stage. Thirty-five Iranian English and 35 non-Englishmajorlearners,differentfromtheprevious100students,wereprovidedwith the 32 pictures and their responses in the form of multiple choicequestions.Itwas taken forgranted thata Westernstudentwouldprovide thecorrectinterpretationstoall32picturesbasedonPeaseandPease(2004),andthen the Iranians’ interpretations were compared to them. Additionally, asIranian participants were 70, they were compared to the same number ofWesternparticipants.Onepointwasgiventoeachcorrectinterpretation.


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4. Results

To answer the first research question, an independent samples t-test wasconducted. The descriptive statistics of Western and Iranian students’interpretationsareprovidedinTable1.

Table1.DescriptiveStatisticsofWesternandIranianInterpretationsN Mean Std.Deviation

Western 70 70.00 .000

Iranian 70 29.00 22.236

ValidN (Listwise) 70

AsseeninTable1,themeanoftheWesternstudents’interpretationswhoare seemingly familiarwith theirnonverbal signswas70,and thatof Iranianstudentswas 29,which shows thedifference.Table 2 illustrateswhether thisdifferenceissignificant.

Table2.IndependentSamplest-testoftheWesternandIranianStudentsLeven’sTestfor

EqualityofVariances

t-testforEqualityofMeans

F Sig t dfSig.(2-tailed)

MeanDifference

Std.ErrorDifference

95%ConfidenceIntervaloftheDifference

Lower Upper

Equalvariancesassumed

1.493 .257 10.430 62 .000 41.000 3.931 33.142 48.858

Equalvariancesnotassumed

10.430 31.000 .000 41.000 3.931 32.983 49.017

AsTable3 shows,basedonLevene’s test,equalityof variancesareassumed(F=1.493, p=.257) and themean difference between theWestern and the


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Iraniangroups’interpretationswassignificant(t(62)=10.430,p<.05)at.05levelofsignificance.Thereis,infact,a meandifferenceof41.000pointsbetweenthemeansofthetwogroups.

To answer, the second research question, the descriptive statisticsof theIranian English major and non-English major students’ interpretations areprovidedinTable3.Table3.DescriptiveStatisticsofIranianEnglishandNon-EnglishMajorInterpretations

N Mean Std.Deviation

Englishmajor 35 16.19 12.017

Non-Englishmajor 35 12.78 10.385

ValidN (Listwise) 35

AsseeninTable3,themeanofEnglishmajorstudents’interpretationswas16.19,and thatofthenon-Englishmajorstudentswas12.78,whichshows thedifferenceof interpretationsof thepicturesbetweenEnglishandnon-Englishmajor groups. To compare the degree of this mean score differences, anindependentsamplest-testwasconducted.Table4.IndependentSamplest-testofIranianEnglishandNon-EnglishMajorStudents

Leven’s TestforEqualityofVariances t-testforEqualityofMeans

F Sig t dfSig.(2-tailed)

MeanDifference

Std.ErrorDifference

95%ConfidenceIntervaloftheDifference

Lower Upper

Equalvariancesassumed

1.230 .450 1.213 62 .230 3.406 2.808 -2.206 9.019

Equalvariancesnotassumed

1.213 60.70 .230 3.406 2.808 -2.209 9.021


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AsTable4 shows,basedonLevene’stest,equalityofvariancesareassumed(F=1.230,p=.450)andthemeandifferencebetweenEnglishandnon-Englishmajorstudentswasnotsignificant(t(62)=1.213,p=.230).Inotherwords, theirinterpretationsofthepictureswerenotsignificantlydifferent.

5. Discussion

The findings of the study showed that there is a significant difference ininterpretations between Iranian students andWestern ones. Because everycountry has its own cultural value system, consequently nonverbalcommunicationisdifferentfromcountrytocountry.ThefindingsofthisstudyareinlinewithZhouandZhang(2008)whofoundsimilaritiesanddifferencesof nonverbal interpretations across different cultures. Furthermore, thefindingsconfirmedtheresultsofMatsumoto(2001)whoconcludedthata smallset of facial expressions are universally recognized. The results of the firstresearchquestionwasalsoinlinewiththoseofEkmanandHeider(1988),whodocumented cultural differences in emblematic gestures between Japanese,Americans, andNewGuineans.Morris,Collett,Marsh, andO’Shaughnessy(1980)havealsowelldocumentedmany culturaldifferences ingestures.ThedifferenceofinterpretationswasobservedinthestudiesconductedbySamovarandPorter (2004), aswell.Regarding the significantdifferencebetween twocultures,itshouldnotbeneglectedthatitwashypothesizedthatallthepictureswerecorrectly interpretedandrecognizedby theWesterners.Inotherwords,since in this study availabilityof thenative speakerswasnotpossible, itwastaken for granted that all theWestern native speakers would have repliedcorrectlytotheinterpretationsofthepictures.Ofcourse,thishypothesisisnotillogical, because the pictureswere explained based on theWestern culture.Another finding of the current study was that there were not significantly


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different interpretationsbetweenEnglish andnon-Englishmajor students. Itindicates thateven thoughEnglishmajor studentshad studiedEnglish foratleast4 years,theywereeithernotaffectedbytheEnglish languagecultureorwere not aware of the non-verbal messages in English. Since the multiplechoicequestionswere inEnglishandalso theexplanationunder thepictureswere in English, if the participants knew the interpretations in English,probably theywouldhaveselected theWestern interpretationswhichwasnotthecase.Inotherwords, itcouldbeargued thatnonverbalcommunication isnotfocusedonbyEnglishlanguageteachersasanessentialpartofa language.

Therearedifferentkindsofnonverbalmessages.Everypartofthehumanbodymay convey a specific nonverbalmessages and each part has its owngestures.Thisstudywasabout just32selectedbodygesturesfromallpartsofthe body and it was restricted to students in a single university in Tehran.Future researchmay investigate other andmore body gestures or particularbody gestures among different countries, different age groups, or differentsocialclasses.

6. Conclusion

Nonverbal communication as a major part of any language in general andEnglish language learning in particular in Iran, as a foreign language, is notgiven thedueattention.Nonverbalmessagescanbehelpful forall thosewhouseEnglish as a foreign language in interactingwith foreigners to avoid anycultural clashes. They are applicable for negotiators, sales people, salesmanagers and executives in the today’s world of economic relations.Knowledgeaboutnonverbalmessageshelpsnegotiatorstoassessthebusinesssituation and decide correctly when to offer a new deal or modify theirrequests. What is worth mentioning is that English language teachers and


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learners should notice that the study of body language should becomplementary to the study of language. The understanding of non-verballanguagecanbehelpfulinthefurtherunderstandingoftheverbalone.Thesetwoareinterdependent.

References

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AppendixAPicturesadaptedfromPeaseandPease(2004)

1)Shouldershrug 2)Coveringthemouth

3)Rubbingfingeraroundmouth 4)Fists-Clenched-Arms-Crossed

5)Double-Arm-Grip 6)Thumbs-Up


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7)Touchingshirtcuff 8)Flowergrasping

9)Closedarms 10)Openarms

11)Ring 12)Rubbingthepalmstogether

13)Handsclenchedinraisedposition 14)Steeple

15)Faceplatter 16)Palm-in-palmbehindtheback


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17)Hand-Gripping-Wrist 18)Upperarmgrip

19)Waistcoatthruster 20)Thumb-pointing

21)Mouthcover 22)Nosetouch

23)Neckscratch 24)Collarpull

25)Handsupportingthehead 26)Closedhandonchinwithindexfingerupwards


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27)Chinstroking 28)Headsupportedbythumbandtwootherfingers

29)Headdown 30)‘painintheneck’gesture

31)Legoverthearmofchair 32)Smokeblownup


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AppendixBMultiple-choicetestofnonverbalmessage

1.a)nothavingknowledge b)notknowing c)tellinga lie* d)notbeinginterested2. a)surprising b)submission* c)frightening d)sneezing3.a)thinking b)beingsurprising c)tellinga lie d)havingtoothache4.a)beingpolite b)beingsad c)havinganxiety d)Hostility5.a)feelinginsecure* b)sadness c)calmness d)dominance6.a)happiness b)defensiveness* c)waiting d)triumph7.a)anxiety* b)thinking c)politeness d)waiting8.a)love b)friendship c)peace d)Self-consciousness*9.a)sadness b)saying“no”* c)anxiety d)thinking10.a)relaxing b)calmness c)opentoyouridea* d)anxiety11.a)triumph b)satisfaction c)Ok* d)happiness12.a)happiness b)relaxing c)havinga goodidea d) showingpositive expectancy*13.a)frustration* b)calmness c)listeningcarefully d)success14.a)confidence* b)happiness c)thinking d)suspicious15.a)pride b)hope c)eagerness d)wantingtobeadmired*16.a)management b)waiting c)manhood d)superiority*17.a)angriness b)frustration* c)waiting d)management18.a)waiting b)morefrustrated* c)management d)anxiety19.a)calmness b)politeness c)superiority* d)listeningcarefully20.a)pointingtosth b)confidence c)backbiting d)ridicule*21.a)confused b)thinking c)listeningcarefully d)tosuppressdeceitfulwords*22.a)smelling b)tellinga lie* c)surprising d)havinga cold23.a)tellinga lie b)anxiety c)confusedness d)doubt*24.a)havingstress b)shyness c)warmness d)tellinga lie*25.a)boredom* b)sadness c)thinking d)listeningcarelessly26.a)thinking b)criticalthought* c)sadness d)planningforfuture27.a)makinga decision* b)concentration c)feelingfailure d)boredom28.a)thinking b)angriness c)manhood d)evaluation29.a)submission* b)shyness c)politeness d)sadness30.a)boredom b)anxiety c)feelingangry* d)thinking31.a)calmness b)informality* c)satisfaction d)manhood32.a)indifference b)enjoying c)confidence* d)wantingtobeadmired

ThewordswiththestarsabovearetheWesterninterpretations

nonverbalmessagesandinterculturalcommunicationijals.usb.ac.ir/article_1649_cfe530e45e2f27c3f5171d0e2d80d681.pdf2008)....

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