NORTHERN FLOW ALASKAN RIVERS COMPILED & DESIGNED BY ADELE WIEJACZKA

NORTHERN FLOW ALASKAN RIVERS COMPILED & DESIGNED BY ADELE WIEJACZKA

NORTHERN FLOW: A Guide to Alaska’s Rivers

Book compiled and designed by Adele Wiejaczka

© 2012 with All Rights Reserved

Made for GR 601 Type Systems

Instructed by Carolina de Bartolo

Spring 2012 at Academy of Art University

Printed at Plotnet and bound at The Key

Printing and Binding in Oakland

NORTHERN FLOW ALASKAN RIVERS COMPILED & DESIGNED BY ADELE WIEJACZKA

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CONTENTS

FORWARD 10

RIVER TRAVEL 14

Disclaimer

General River Travel

Alaskan River Risks

River Safety

Recommended Equipment

Boaters Organizations

Boat Types

BOATING ALASKA 30

Getting Around Alaska

Hunting/Fishing on the River

River Classifications

River Management

ALASKA RIVERS 46

Arctic Slope

Northwest

Yukon River Basin

Southwest

Southcentral

Southeast

BROOKS RANGE 60

ARCTIC NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFuGE 68

GATES OF THE ARCTIC NATIONAL PARK 74

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CONTENTS

FOREWORD THE RIVER FINDS ITS WAY BY SuSAN BEEMAN

On the Canning River in northeastern Alas-

ka, two rafts bearing seasoned guides, tour-

ists, and gear floated downstream under

clear skies on a hot day in late June 2000.

Guides Bob Dittrick and Lisa Moorehead

knew the river well, but this time, it caught

them by surprise. They rounded a bend

and suddenly found the water accelerating

through rising walls of ice closing in from

both shores. Bob and Lisa, in the lead boat,

looked for a gravelbar, a place to land, but

saw only water rushing past 12-foot walls

of aufeis (pronounced “off ice”), thick and

layered and formed by successive freezing

of stream overflows during fall. On previ-

ous summer trips in the Arctic, the pair

had rafted past expanses of aufeis still fro-

zen to the ground long after breakup, and

knew that the river had usually established

normal channels through it by mid June to

allow easy passage.

The river split, and Bob, wielding the

oars, had to choose a fork. Seconds behind

him, the other raft swung down the adja-

cent chute. In the narrowing passage,

Bob’s oar tips began to bump ice. Ragged,

frozen ice walls leaned toward the boaters.

The current spun the raft in a cul-de-sac

of ice, the river disappearing between and

below jumbled slabs and huge bergs. Bob

managed to nose the bow toward a titled

slab and Lisa stepped out, pulling the raft

out of the current.

Meanwhile, the other raft had got-

ten pinned against the aufeis where the

river vanished underneath. The ice here

formed a “cave,” with it’s “ceiling”

angled upriver, forcing the people near-

est the ice to crouch on the boat’s floor

to avoid getting crushed. When they tried

moving to the other side of the raft, it

dipped so much that water gushed in,

nearly flipping the boat. Icebergs careen-

ing downriver slipped under the raft

and disappeared. Anyone falling from

the raft would have been immediately

sucked under the ice, which extended for

acres downstream. Desperate to save

themselves, raft members groped for

fingerholds in the ice wall and began

pulling themselves, hand over hand,

upriver against the current. Ten min-

utes later, they had advanced 20 feet

to a relatively slack spot. Guide Tim

Schantz clamped the raft’s bowline

in his teeth.

10 NORTHERN FLOW

He began a painstaking climb up the

ice wall. Nearing the top, he slipped, fall-

ing back to the raft. The others lost their

grip, and they floated back into the cave.

Frightened and with adrenaline rushing,

they summoned the strength to pull them-

selves back to the slack spot once more.

Time climbed the wall again, this time

reaching the top.

By then, Bob had made his way there.

From the edge of the wall, he climbed

down the rope Time held for support. After

hoisting the clients to the top of the ice,

the guides hauled the gear up piece-by-

piece, then finally the boats. The group

wasn’t out of danger yet, though for ice

chunks crashed the river nearby, and the

boaters knew the platform on which they

sprawled could collapse beneath them.

While the group rested with Lisa, Bob

and Tim scouted for a safe route to dry

ground. Forty–five minutes later, they

returned, having found what looked like a

viable way off the ice. But because of the

sand and silt deposited by the river flowing

over the ice surface, they could not “sled”

the rafts fully loaded, and instead had to

ferry each item of gear separately until

they reached a place downriver where they

could descend the aufeis, reload the boats,

and paddle across one last channel to safe

ground. The task, says Bob, took “hours

and hours,” but finally, with all people,

gear and rafts accounted for, they camped.

Ice continued to drop in chunks and disap-

pear downstream.

Three hours later, the river had com-

pleted cutting its new channels through the

aufeis and was back to normal.

“The river finds its way,” Lisa says.

“I’ve always experienced that. But this

time it hadn’t quite finished.”

Bob, Lisa, and the others in their party

survived the Canning River crisis. The

couple now has a keener sense of their own

safety comfort levels. They are much more

conservative about stopping to spend time

scouting, even if it means extending their

schedule. They carry walkie–talkies for

communication, something they’d always

resisted before, seeing too much technol-

ogy as an encroachment on the wilderness

experience. And they hope their story will

serve as a valuable lesson for other pad-

dlers. Alaska has more than 3,000 rivers,

several million lakes, and 33,900 miles of

coastline, including island shores—these

waterways demand respect.

Most recreational boating trips in

Alaska don’t include such harrowing expe-

riences, yet the swift, cold waters of the

north periodically remind newcomers and

expert paddlers alike who’s boss. This cau-

tionary tale claims its place ahead of the

adventures, discoveries, and just plain fun

of plying the state’s waterways presented

within these pages.

Even calm waters hold surprises: a

diving loon, fish for the frying pan, the

setting sun’s reflection. Whatever the

wonder, rafting, canoeing, kayaking, and

sailing journeys in Alaska provide dra-

matic scenery, wildlife watching oppor-

tunities, and solitude. “Northern Flow”

takes readers along the ride to all cor-

ners of the state with stories by outdoor

enthusiasts who know these waters well.

All of them learn something new about

wilderness, or about themselves, each

time they venture into the backcountry.

FORWORD 11

CHAPTER 1 RIVER TRAVEL

DISCLAIMERS & WARNINGSThis guidebook describes some of the

numerous whitewater rivers and creeks

in Alaska. However, rivers are dynamic

and stream conditions frequently change,

so this guidebook is not a substitute for

recent, local knowledge and careful scout-

ing. Paddlers are encouraged to scout

every drop, regardless of how many times

they have run the river. Obstructions can

become lodged in a drop overnight, pos-

ing potential deathtraps to the boater who

paddles into the unaware. Because stream

character and difficulty can change widely

with changes in flow, careful attention to

the water level you encounter versus that

described is mandatory. This is a guide-

book to whitewater, and even the easiest

whitewater runs can be beyond the abil-

ity of novice canoers, kayakers, or rafters,

who are advised to begin with flat water

and gradually work their way up the dif-

ficulty scale.

Novices should seek the advice and

companionship of experienced paddlers

rather than be tempted to try learning

alone. Not all runs are suitable for every

kind of watercraft, and in particular, raf-

ters do poorly in small, rocky rivers, and

novice kayakers do poorly in big, turbulent

ones. It is each individual boaters respon-

sibility to know their boat and their person

skill level and assess that to each river.

GENERAL RIVER TRAVELAlaska has over 3,000 rivers. The Yukon

River discharges 240,000 cubic feet per

second at the mouth, making it the fifth

ranked US river. The mighty Yukon River

(2,300 miles total, 1,875 in Alaska)

ranks third in length of US rivers behind

the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers.

The largest glacial river, such as the

Chitina (pronounced CHIT–na), Cop-

per, Alsek, Bremner, and Susitna, often

have a number of channels, constantly

changing and moving, giving the river a

“braided” appearance. Many are shal-

low in some places, often less than 6

inches deep at times.

With brown glacial water, it is tough

to read the river by looking for water

depth or white wave crests; everything

(including the gravel, sand, and mud

bars) is generally brown. When pad-

dling rivers, your goal is to follow the

fastest, deepest water, which is not

the same as the shortest route.

CHAPTER 1 RIVER TRAVEL

14 NORTHERN FLOW

The fast, deep water swings to the out-

side of bends and is very consistently found

below steep banks, either the big ones seen

miles head or little dirt or gravel banks

you can see being cut into the current.

The fast water swings side to side, and you

should be prepared to go with it. There is

usually little point in actually paddling

or rowing downstream; rather, you should

be trying to be in the fastest downstream

current. Avoid like the plague any braids

or channels which lead into islands with

vegetation; they are invariably shallow. In

very shallow water, avoid rippled water, you

are looking for the smooth, deeper stuff.

Always be looking down stream while trav-

eling rivers, because you will soon be there

and it is easier to be prepared for certain

boat maneuvers in advance.

Traveling rivers in the arctic environ-

ment is a fragile and delicate setting and

precautions and care must be taken to pre-

serve the natural landscape. Rivers such as

the Gulkana and Tatshenshini are heavily

traveled, meaning that there it little drift-

wood and limited number of campsites.

Gather dead branches from trees rather

than cutting them down. Be sure to bring

along a fire pan or fireproof cloth to make

your fire in to avoid scaring the ground.

Used ashes should be buried or disposed

of in the river.

Bury your feces away from the river

and from campsites and burn or carry out

toilet paper and all trash. Except in the

hottest fires burning for a long time, alu-

minum foil will not oxidize and so it needs

to be carried out.

ALASKAN RIVER RISKSIn Alaska, you will not be boating with

crowds, so you need to be aware of your

ability and take precautions, because the

risks in Alaska can be high. To avoid acci-

dents, do not paddle into anything you

cannot see. Stop and scout, then portage

if necessary.

On the river, each member of your

party should know the standard paddle

signs devised by Dr. Walt Black and pop-

ularized by the AWA (American White-

water Affiliation), please see the figure

below. Dry suits are a requirement

for running Alaskan rivers in order to

stay warm. They differ from wet suit

because the paddler will actually stay

dry in the suit, versus a wetsuit, which

uses the water to help insulate.

“GO”

“STOP”

“EMERGENCY”

CHAPTER ONE 15

“GO RIVER LEFT” “GO RIVER RIGHT” “DANGER”

This is important because the water

temperatures in Alaska are so cold and the

paddler can wear layers of clothing under-

neath the dry suit. Dry suits also provide

extra flotation to supplement that of a per-

sonal flotation device.

Spare gear is crucial while traveling

Alaskan rivers. All boats should carry

extra paddles as well as extra dry cloth-

ing at all times. A knife and fire–start-

ing kit are also essential. Rive rope and/

or a throw bag is mandatory as well, but

you must practicing throwing and using

them because rope in water is particularly

dangerous if uncontrolled. In the severe

case that you go for a swim and actually

lose your boat, hang onto your paddles and

be sure to wear shoes that you can hike in

when you reach shore.

Most rivers in Alaska are so remote,

that if an emergency takes place, finding

immediate help is difficult. If you chose

to perform CPR on someone, you will

rarely be able to get medical assistance

in time. Carrying a satellite phone can

help you reach the outside world while

traveling remotely. Be sure to clarify with

authorities the type of situation you are

in, whether you are trying to still rescue

someone or there is no hope of survival for

them. It’s important to consider the state

of the rescuers as well.

Your trip should be written out for peo-

ple at home as well as your pilot is you

use one, in case you do not returned at

your intended time. It should specify the

equipment you are using, any sort of radio

or communication devices you have, and

expected travel and return plans.

Shoulder dislocations, rotator cuff

tears, and strains are the most acute inju-

ries afflicting kayakers and they are bet-

ter prevented than cured. Practicing cor-

rect boating and rolling techniques can

help to prevent injury. Tendonitis is also

common, resulting from friction and

wear of tendons, primarily in the wrists

of kayakers form overuse. Pain, swelling,

and actual squeaking can limit ability to

paddle long distances. Prevention and

correct technique is the best way to

avoid further injury.

16 NORTHERN FLOW

ALASKAN BEARSBears are part of the natural scene in

Alaska, one must expect to see them.

Problematic bears on river trips in Alaska

are typically brown bears in coastal

regions or along streams with salmon

runs. The term “grizzly” being reserved

for the smaller, wider–ranging and prob-

ably ornerier interior geographic subtype.

Black bears are generally kept away by

the browns. Brown bear density is higher

near salmon streams and runs, however,

traveling in a decent sized river in a boat

provides a safety net. Also, traveling

glacial rivers with little to no fish also

reduces your chances of issues with brown

bears. Some of the worst potential prob-

lems occur in narrow, shallow spawning

streams (Prairie Creek on the Talkeetna

tributaries of the Chackachatna) where

bears stand knee deep in the stream. Oth-

erwise, camping on the shore can be the

highest risk. Salmon runs don’t generally

start until the end of June and finish in

late August, so consider picking your time

accordingly.

That said, bear problems cannot be sim-

ply avoided. Salmon, bears, and kayakers

all like the same clear streams in midsum-

mer, and you’ll have to camp on the shore

part of the time on multiday trips. Try to

keep food and cooking out of tents. Keep

rafts, gear, and clothes free of food smells.

Avoid camping on visible bear trails. Con-

sider bringing bear repellent spray and/

or a gun. Keep in mind that 95 percent of

brown bears will immediately leave upon

encountering you. Remember that if you

shoot and kill and bear, you will have to

skin and transport the hide to the nearest

Fish and Game Office. You may not keep

bears killed in defense of life or property

unless it’s bear season and you have a

hunting license and a bear tag. As always,

if you carry a gun, you need to practice

shooting it and be clear about your shoot-

ing ability. Be sure to keep your gun dry

and close to hand at all times.

Mosquitoes are a huge bother in Alas-

kan summers, especially around water-

ways. Insect repellent and full–length

light–colored clothing are necessities.

Smokey campfires and wind blowing over

your gravel bar campsite also help to keep

the mosquitoes away.

Going on solo trips will always be

more of a risk than group trips, but not

impossible. To be safe on a solo trip just

requires a little more preparation and

pre–planning along with smart choices.

Concentrating on one’s own run is the

best safety measure, whether you are

on a solo or group trip. If you do travel

with a group of people, it is crucial that

the river sections you are paddling are

feasible for the weakest paddler of the

group as well.

CHAPTER ONE 17

BLACK BEAR

GRIZZLY BEAR

Short curved claws

Long claws

Large head

Prominent shoulder hump

No prominent shoulder humpStraight muzzle

Smaller build

Males=250 lbs.

Female=150 lbs.

Chunky build

Males=450 lbs.

Female=250 lbs.

Flat face

18 NORTHERN FLOW

RIVER SAFETY

The keys to safe boating, according to

Alaska’s Office of Boating Safety, are

“education, skill, attitude, and sound,

unimpaired judgments.” University of

Alaska Sea Grant’s book Water Wise:

Safety for the Recreational Boater, also

address factors to consider before launch-

ing a boating trip: the type and condition

of the boat, who will be on board or in the

group, route and destination, the environ-

ment, the equipment, and what might go

wrong with any of these.

Hypothermia, disorientation, and bear

encounters are just a few challenges Alas-

ka’s recreational boaters face. Other mat-

ters to contemplate include:

Personal Flotation Device (PDF): Prop-

erly fit size and fit your PDF to each

individual on the trip. PDF’s need to be

approved by the US Coast Guard (USCG)

and in good condition to work correctly.

PDF’s need to be worn at all times while

on the water, so make sure that it is a com-

fortable style.

Communication: Every boating trip

should incorporate some type of commu-

nication device(s) into the trip, potentially

including marine VHF radio, flares, or

walkie–talkies. Leave behind a float plan

with someone who will notify the authori-

ties if you don’t return when expected.

Weather: Understanding the weather con-

ditions and environment the trip will be

taking place in is an important and crucial

planning step for river travel. Put together

back–up plans in case there is bad weather,

including potential camp areas.

Navigation: Be sure to be able to read a

chart and compass.

Nature of the water: Being familiar

with the type of water and skill required

to travel through that area is imperative.

Understanding where to scout rapids or

the best launch area will greatly improve

a trip and reduce boating incidents. Con-

sider the ocean tide schedule, the river’s

course and classification, daily fluctua-

tions, or the lake’s idiosyncrasies.

Emergency Training: The best safety

precaution is knowledge. Having CPR,

first aid, and emergency training can help

in many potential situations. Don’t forget

a full first aid kit and make sure everyone

on the trip knows where the first aid kit

is at all times.

Personal Experience: Understanding

personal abilities and limitations will help

a group travel effectively and efficiently

together. It’s important to be honest

about abilities. Consider experience with

a particular type of watercraft and pad-

dle duration before exhaustion. Be sure

to practice paddling your boat of choice,

including Eskimo rolls and other self

arrest methods. Capsizing is the lead-

ing cause of death among recreational

boaters due to the cold temperatures of

Alaska waters. In 2001, there were 21

recreational boating fatalities in Alaska

with more than half of them being pad-

dlers. Even though Alaska offers long

hours of daylight in the summer, it

doesn’t mean that they should be filled

with traveling.

Wildlife: Correctly store food for the

area that you are traveling through to

avoid dangerous animal encounters,

particularly black and brown bears.

Use bear barrels or hang food.

CHAPTER ONE 19

Rules required by the State of Alaska:

▶ All persons under 13 must wear a prop-

erly sized USCG approved PFD.

▶ All boaters must carry a properly sized,

wearable USCG approved PFD.

▶ Nonmotorized boats 10 feet or lon-

ger must be registered with the State

of Alaska, Department of Motor Vehicles.

▶ For more information, visit the website

www.alaskaboatingsafety.org

TYPES OF PERSONAL FLOTATION DEVICES

Type I: Off–shore life jacket Type II: Near–shore buoyant vest

Type III: Flotation aid Type IV: Throwable device

20 NORTHERN FLOW

EquIPMENT

There are some special considerations in

Alaskan paddling which may mean that

equipment choices suitable for the Lower

48 are not the best for river travel in

Alaska. The rivers are bigger, longer, colder,

and vastly farther away from civilization,

often requiring air access. Clothing should

be warmer, kayaks longer, faster, with more

storage space, and rafts should be smaller

for fly–ins.

Many of the rivers in Alaska open and

become available to float by boat sometime

in May. As spring brings on warmer tem-

peratures, ice on the rivers “breaks–up”

and begins to float down stream while also

melting and raising the water levels. Even

small creeks become available to boat in

the springtime because the river systems

float with all the melting snow. Thus, in

early season there may still be snow on

the banks when streams become navigable.

There is also a plethora of light in Alaska

in the summer time, with the length of day-

light reaching 18 hours in May and around

20 or more in June in northern Alaska.

Temperatures steadily rise and generally

reach a peak in July. Lowest precipitation

months are April and May, followed by

June, and the risk of rain increases steadily

until October, at which time rain increases

steadily until October, at which time rain

turns to snow. Coastal temperatures tend

to hover around 50–60 degrees F and are

never above 70. Interior temperatures can

climb as high as 90 degrees F, and many

river travelers wish they were wearing t–

shirts instead of dry suits.

Water temperatures fall into two cat-

egories: near 32 degrees F for glacial

streams coming right of the ice, and clear

streams and rivers which can approach 54

degrees F in August. Some, like the Cop-

per River located in the Copper Basin, are

a mixture of the two water temperatures,

and because the glacial sources predomi-

nate in later summer, river temperature

actually goes down. September can be

chilly, and October can be very cold.

Bringing maps and other navigational

aids on the river is important and helpful.

USGS topographical maps are crucial for

orientation, navigation, and for offering

clues as to which way is the fastest way

out. GPS (Global Positioning Satellite) is

also a helpful tool. On the river, down in

a canyon, with relatively few landmarks,

and no way to see past the canyon walls,

navigation is quite difficult unless you

have an altimeter. Since typical canyon

runs drop at a rate of at least 100 feet

per mile, and good altimeters read about

in 20–foot increments, you can locate

your position to plus or minus a fifth of

a mile.

Some rivers, such as the Tatshenshini,

Alsek, and Lower Eagle Rivers, require

permits for private trips. Access to rivers

in national parks is limited by regula-

tions against helicopters, and in Denali

Park by regulations against some uses

of private vehicles on the park road.

CHAPTER ONE 21

Kenai Crewsers was started in 1997

soon after a woman from Cooper Land-

ing pinned recruitment notices in the Coo-

per Landing and Moose Pass Post Offices

one fall. By midwinter, about 40 paying

members had signed up. They bought two

boats, then realized they needed a coach,

so called Marietta “Ed” Hall of Anchor-

age, an experienced competitive rower.

The Crewsers now compete regionally and

nationally, with some members attending

rowing camps outside Alaska.

Alaska Marine Safety Education Asso-

ciation (AMSEA) is “a community–based

information and training network” that

offers age–appropriate classes and work-

shops covering the use of immersion suits

and PFDs; practicing maydays, cold water

survival skills, rescue breathing, CPR,

emergency drills, and trip planning. They

also recognize safe and unsafe ice and

other water conditions. They offer Marine

Safety Instructor Training (MSIT)

courses that are USCG approved.

The Alaska Kayak School, in Homer,

offers paddling instruction and coach-

ing in sea kayak, whitewater kayak, surf

kayak, open canoe and safety and res-

cue skills for Alaskan conditions. Certi-

fied instructors of the American Canoe

Association and coaches trained by the

British Canoe Union teach our courses

and guide our instructional tours.

ALASKA PADDLER’SORGANIZATIONS

Knik Canoers and Kayakers (KCK) has

been welcoming paddlers to its meetings

and club outings for nearly 30 years. With

about 200 members, the organization has

enough resources to offer classes (taught

by volunteers) on rafting, kayaking, and

canoeing. Members can also join trips

around Southcentral Alaska. KCK has an

annual boating safety meeting, sometimes

including a slide show or pot luck and open

to the public. Members participate in the

Anchorage Waterways Council Annual

Creek Cleanup, the Alaska Sea Kayak

Symposium, and Canoe Fun Day.

Fairbanks Paddlers, says the organi-

zation president Brad Snow, is all about

camaraderie, rivers, the Alaska wilderness,

and fun. Started in 1994, it now has about

250 members. The club’s goals, says Snow,

are simple: to be a source of information,

talent, and inspiration and to reach out to

aspiring paddlers. Members also organize

events such as the Chena River Slalom

Race, held every July in Fairbanks.

The Anchorage Rowing Association

boasts about 100 members in its fourth

season. The association offers classes from

basic through intermediate level. Members

practice on Sand Lake in Anchorage and

sponsor week–long camps with national

coaches at Lake Lucille in Wasilla.

With the help of the Anchorage Rowing

Association, the fledgling Fairbanks Row-

ing Club is beginning to draw membership

and acquire boats. The club plans to offer

classes and participate in competitions.

22 NORTHERN FLOW

BOAT TYPES

Modern white water rafts come in two

basic types: self–bailers and catarafts.

Self–bailers have the traditional raft

shape, and catarafts, known as ‘cats’ for

short, are made of a pair of pontoons

straddled by a metal frame.

The floor of a self–bailing raft is a wide

flat inflated chamber, sort of like a big

air–mattress. The edges of the floor are

stitched or laced to the rest of the raft,

allowing water to flow in and out, while the

flotation of the sides keep it afloat.

When inflated, the floor is about 4 or

5 inches thick, so the top surface of the

floor is above the surface of the water.

When water splashes into the boat, it

flows across the floor, over the edge, and

out through the lacing. This design works

amazingly well. A self–bailer filled to the

brim with water will proceed to empty

itself in just a few seconds.

If you’ve ever bailed water out of a raft,

you know how sweet it is to have a self

bailer. In fact, if you float with someone

who has an older non–self–bailing raft

(known as a bucket boat because it retains

water), you get to stop and wait for them

to bail at the bottom of each major rapid.

So, nowadays, rafts refer to the self–bailer.

Self–bailers are the work horses on a raft

trip because they can carry a lot of gear

and passengers. Popular sizes are from 13

to 18 feet long, with 14 feet the typical

minimum for carrying the gear and two

adults on a multi–day raft trip. 15–16 feet

is ideal, and 18 footers are nice to have on

larger rivers. From a performance stand-

point, rowing a self–bailer is more like

driving a bus. So the longer the raft, the

slower it is to maneuver. The performance

of any raft is diminished if it is overloade.

Catarafts are far more maneuverable

than self–bailers but carry less weight.

They’re the sports cars of the river. Like

sports cars, they carry fewer passengers,

but provide a lot of fun for the driver. If

you’re new to rafting, you would be well

advised to consider buying a cataraft as

your first raft. Their maneuverability will

help you recover when you misjudge a

rapid and they are just plain fun.

If you live near enough to a white water

river so that you can go boating on the

weekend, a cataraft is the ideal raft for a

day trip. Cats are also ideal for high water

or extreme multi–day trips when each

participant will row their own raft.

Sizes of catarafts are described as

pairs of dimensions separated by “×”,

like “12×20”, “16×24”. The first num-

ber is the length in feet, and the second

number is the diameter of the pontoons

in inches. So a cat that is 12×20 is 12

feet long with pontoons or “tubes” as

they are referred to that are 20 inches

in diameter.

Self–bailing paddle rafts can be set

up with a rigid metal (or on rare occa-

sions, wood) frame that rests across the

top of the raft, to which oar locks are

mounted and oars attached. The other

configuration is to leave the frame and

oars at home and just use paddles, thus

called a paddle raft. It’s just a term for

a self–bailer that is set up with inflated

seats known as thwarts for passengers

to sit on.

Passengers are obligated to row, or

more accurately, paddle the boat down

the river. While this means work for

the passengers, it makes for a very

entertaining, social (and usually wet)

ride! Most commercial river guide

services run paddle boats.

are so light that it is easy for the oarsman

to pull back, arresting the momentum.

Less a vessel for fishing than river run-

ning on either long, multi–night float trips

or day trips through Class IV+ water,

whitewater rafts are the vessel of choice

for the river recreationist. These rafts are

big, heavy, expensive, nearly indestructible

and can carry massive amounts of gear.

A kayak has a deck which covers the

entire boat except for a hole (cockpit)

in which the occupant sits. Traditionally

the cockpit is an opening to the inside of

the hull, and the kayaker wears a flexible

skirt which, when attached to the rim of

the cockpit, seals the kayak and keeps

the kayaker’s lower half dry and warm.

An alternative is for the hull and deck to

be sealed together.

In that case, the cockpit would just

be a shaped depression in the deck.

Either way, the kayak will not fill with

water in rough conditions, making it

great in whitewater and more chal-

lenging rapids.

Kayaks are available to suit very dif-

ferent conditions. Kayaks are seldom

more than twenty–four inches wide.

Play kayak

Creek kayak

Sea kayak

The normal configuration for a paddle

boat is to have a captain (meaning skilled

and knowledgeable guide) sitting at the

rear of the boat giving paddling orders to

the crew and using their paddle to steer

or make fine adjustments to speed and

direction. The crew makes up the rest of

the passengers, with half of the people on

each side.

Most of the paddle strokes that a pad-

dle raft crew takes to steer the boat propel

the boat forward. Therefore paddle boats

move down the river faster than other

boats. Self bailers are next fastest. Fully

loaded self–bailers carry a lot of momen-

tum and offer a lot of surface area to the

river. So friction with the water causes

them to be dragged along easily by the

current. Since it’s a lot more work to fight

against these factors, the steering strokes

that the person at oars takes are usually

forward strokes.

The boatman just tries to adjust the

direction or vector of the boats natural

movement down the river. It may be sur-

prising to know that catarafts are usually

the slowest at traveling down the river as

they offer less surface area for friction and

24 NORTHERN FLOW

Cataraft

Canoe

Raft

CHAPTER ONE 25

Creek boats and play boats are both

hard–shelled kayaks made of various rigid

plastics. Play boats have no keel and don’t

track in a straight line. This makes them

very maneuverable and agile. The cockpit

is tight and designed to keep you in the

boat even in rough conditions. The boats

are usually short, less than ten feet, while

play boats are less than seven feet.

Creek boats attempt to combine track-

ing and turning in a smaller hull that

will appeal to beginner and low intensity

paddlers. These kayaks usually have high

initial stability and large cockpits. These

boats are perfect for flat water, lakes,

ponds, and gentle rivers and creeks but

usually not whitewater. Many serve as

excellent platforms for fishing, hunt-

ing, or photography. They also are much

faster than play boats because they track

well and are better for long expeditions

because they can carry more gear.

Canoeing is the activity of sitting

in and manually propelling a canoe (a

small, narrow boat) across waterways

using a single bladed paddle. Canoe-

ing can be recreational, undertaken as

a competitive sport and used as basic

transportation and is a great way to

build muscle strength and flexibility in

the upper body. Canoeing and kayaking

involve the use of muscles in the upper

and lower body.

Canoes are propelled using a single,

or double bladed paddle, while kneeling

or sitting in a boat. Kayaking however,

involves only double bladed paddles

while the user is sitting, with their legs

out in front of them. Canoes are one of

the most primitive forms of transpor-

tation and ultimately can carry more

than a kayak.

Kayaks are a valuable single person ves-

sel while on rivers. Although very different

than rafts, they have their own advantages

and disadvantages. There are a few differ-

ent types of kayaks including creek boats,

play boats, inflatable kayaks and sea kay-

aks. These are all sit–in style kayaks that

generally have a more efficient hull design;

allow for greater gear storage; are dryer,

allowing for an extended paddling season

for most paddlers; a properly fitted cockpit

(the area you sit in) will allow the pad-

dler to very effectively use his/her body to

control the boat. A properly fitted white

water, sea, or touring kayak should become

an extension of the paddler’s body. Some

would say you wear the boat rather than

sit in it. Sit in style kayaks will have differ-

ent size cockpits depending on the type of

boat and water conditions anticipated. The

raised lip around the cockpit (the cockpit

combing) allows a skirt (or spray deck)

to be utilized by the paddler. Skirts keep

water–either from dripping off the paddle,

or from waves–from entering the boat.

Just in case, be sure to have some means of

bailing the boat, such as a pump, sponge or

scoop. Bulkheads (walls within the kayak)

form barriers limiting water infiltration,

and with a properly fitted hatch cover, pro-

vide a margin of safety through flotation.

There is no use for sea kayaks on the

rivers, until you get to the open ocean,

because they are designed for open ocean

paddling. They are usually low in the water

to reduce effects of cross winds, measure

fifteen feet or more, most have smaller

cockpit openings, many will have bulk-

heads and smaller access hatches. Some

have skegs or rudders to help compensate

for the effects of a wave or cross wind pat-

tern, amongst other features that help in

open water.

CHAPTER 2 BOATING ALASKA

GETTING AROuND ALASKAMany of Alaskan rivers are only acces-

sible by plane. The Bremner, Tasnuna,

Nadina, Upper–upper Tsaina, Upper

Chickaloon, Cheshnina, and Wortman’s

Rivers require costly helicopter flights.

The Allen, Aniakchak, Happy, Lake Creek,

and Skwentna Rivers require flying both

in and out. Several trips, the Nellie Juan,

Chackachatna, and Skwentna–Yentna–

Sustina rivers that empty into the ocean

and require tidewater pick–ups. The Alsek

and Copper Rivers also end at tidewater,

but few people paddle out from them

along the exposed Gulf of Alaska coast.

Sometimes you can hike out of trips

including the Caribou Creek, Kings, and

Gakona River.

When considering air charters, you

must take several factors into account.

First of all, the larger the plane that is

used (if it can be used) the larger land-

ing and take–off space is needed, but the

lower the per–person costs, if you fill the

plane. So generally a DeHavilland Otter

is cheaper per person (for six) than

a DeHavilland Beaver (for four) than a

Cessna 206 (for three) than a Cessna 185

(for two) than a Super Cub (for one), but

the Super Cub can go places that no other

aircraft can except a helicopter. Partly, the

cost of plane and pilot are shared by a

larger group, but generally the larger the

aircraft, the more it costs per hour but

the faster it goes as well. The Super Cub,

which in some circumstances can land and

take off in less than 50 yards, has a cruis-

ing speed only a little less than 100 knots

and costs about $165 per hour (in 1993),

carrying one passenger. It is best suited

for short–range hops into gravel bars. To

carry a kayak on a Super Cub (easiest

with a full–length 13–foot 4–inch boat)

the stern of the kayak is inserted into the

front landing gear triangle, and the bow

is supported from lifting handles on the

fuselage and tied down.

Even though a larger party might

drop down the per–person flying costs,

boaters whose skills are inadequate for

the run are not good to bring along on

a remote trip.

The closer the pilot is to the river,

the less it will cost you and the more

familiar the pilot will be with the

area and the weather conditions.

CHAPTER 2 BOATING ALASKA

30 NORTHERN FLOW

HuNTING & FISHING

As visitors to wilderness, we hardly need to

rely upon the harvesting of resources for

our own survival. Even with our high–tech

clothing, equipment, and food, however, we

may feel some underlying need to connect

with the land by hunting or fishing. But

local rural residents depend upon Alaska’s

limited resources, and each year these

resources are more in demand by sport

and trophy hunters, commercial and sport

fishers, subsistence hunters and fishers,

and poachers.

A recreational river user may consider

a frying pan full of fish a vital part of

his or her experience, but the subsistence

user of that river often sees this as tak-

ing fish from the mouths of his family.

Villagers have concerns that recreational

users catch too many fish and drive away

wildlife. One year on the Kobuk River, 85

people in seven planes flew in to sport-

fish, and they drove away the caribou and

moose. Federal law gives preference in

harvesting Alaska’s fish and wildlife to

subsistence users.

Sport hunting is allowed in national

wildlife refuges and in national pre-

serves, and on lands managed by the

Forest Service, Bureau of Land Man-

agement, and the state. Rural residents

are permitted to continue traditional

subsistence activities in national wild-

life refuges, national preserves, and

in seven of the nation parks. You may

encounter locals hunting, fishing, trap-

ping, or berry picking, or cutting trees

for firewood or house logs. Before you

hunt or fish in Alaska, learn about the

region and river you are visiting. While

fish are abundant in some areas, fish

in Northern rivers grow very slowly

Thus, use the Kenai pilots for flights

to the west side of Cook Inlet, the Gul-

kana pilots for the Wrangells, the Talk-

eetna pilots for the Susitna Basin, Yaku-

tat pilots to get out of Dry Bay after the

Alsek or Tatshenshini, Tok pilots for the

Charley, etc. Relatively few charters origi-

nate from Anchorage because most riv-

ers near Anchorage are generally large

float–equipped planes operating out of

Lake Hood; it’s almost impossible to find

a Super Cub for charter in Anchorage.

Determine whether your put–in requires

landing on wheels or floats because not all

air taxi outfits have both types of aircraft

or expertise in using them. These days, Cliff

Hudson & Sons in Talkeetna and Fishing

& Flying in Cordova and Yakutat are the

only ones who do it all: floats, wheels, and

skis. Interestingly, both outfits are family

owned: father–son (Cliff and Jay Hudson)

and mother/son (Gayle and Steve Ranney).

Use a reputable air service and avoid fly-

ing with amateurs, even on scouting trips.

Tell your pilot what you’d like to do and

they will let you know if it’s possible.

Flying rafts around, figure that a Super

Cub cab carry a medium–sized raft plus

gear with no passengers, or a tiny raft with

one passenger. A 185 can carry a medium–

sized raft, light gear, and 2 passengers. A

206 can carry a medium sized raft, gear,

and three people. A Beaver can carry any

size raft and four people, and an Otter any

size raft and six people. Oars of seven feet

will have to go tied on the wing struts of

a Super Cub, 8–footers will have to go

outside a 185, and a 206 (depending on

the seating arrangement) can handle any-

thing up to and including 9–footers inside.

Consider take–apart Cataract oars from

Advanced Composites (1154 S. 300 W.,

Salt Lake City, UT 84101).

CHAPTER TWO 31

in the short summer season. The char you

catch could be 25 years old. Instead of

catching a pan full of grayling, be thank-

ful that they eat mosquito larvae. Consider

limiting any fishing to catch-and-release or

limiting your consumption of fish in areas

of low productivity that are heavily fished.

A number of Alaska rivers lend them-

selves to fishing en route. Generally, the

glacially silted turbid rivers are useless

for sport fishing (the fish can’t see the

lure), even though rivers like the Copper

support runs of millions of salmon. Most

clear streams, and come clear tributaries

of glacial streams will have fishing in sea-

son, but most whitewater rivers in Alaska

will keep the boater preoccupied with pad-

dling versus fishing. The Talachulitna River,

Chilikodrotna River, and Mulchatna River

are primarily fishing floats. The Charley,

Chulitna, Delta, Gilahina, Gulkana, Happy,

Kenai, Little Susitna, Newhalen, Talk-

eetna, Lake Creek, and Tonsina all have

good fishing potential as well.

32 NORTHERN FLOW

Cessna 185

DeHavilland Beaver

CHAPTER TWO 33

Cessna 206

Super Cub

34 NORTHERN FLOW

RIVER CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMWhitewater is rated on a scale of increasing difficulty from Class 1 to Class 6. This clas-

sification system provides a useful guide to the technical difficulty of a river, but there

are so many other variables that can have a huge impact on the difficulty or danger of a

river. Is it continuous in nature or drop and pool? Is the water warm or freezing in tem-

perature? How remote is the run and how far away is help? Can you walk out if need be,

or is it in a canyon? Is portaging an option for all rapids, or are you committed to running

everything? As you can see, there can be massive differences between two rivers of the

same class. For this reason, it’s your responsibility to find out more about any river you’re

considering paddling. For many areas, there are guidebooks with detailed descriptions

and images of the rivers, and more of these are available each year. It’s always a good

idea to pick one of these up. You can also ask questions on On–line chartboards or stop

in at the local retailer for information. You can never be too well informed.

International Scale of River Difficulty as defined by American Whitewater. River diffi-

culty classification is not an exact science, and classifications may change drastically for

particular rivers during high or low water periods. All rivers can rise dramatically during

spring run–off. Glacier fed rivers can increase in water level and velocity on sunny sum-

mer days due to glacial melting. The symbol “+” is sometimes added to classifications to

signal a partial–class increase.

Class I (easy) Fast moving water with riffles and small waves. The river has few obstruc-

tions which are all obvious and easily missed with little training. The risk to swimmers is

slight and self–rescue is easy.

Class II (novice) Straightforward rapids with wide, clear channels which are evident

without scouting. Occasional maneuvering may be required, but rocks and medium sized

waves are easily missed by trained paddlers. Swimmers are seldom injured and group

assistance, while helpful, is seldom needed.

Class I Class II Class III

CHAPTER TWO 35

Class III (intermediate) Rapids with moderate, irregular waves which may be difficult

to avoid and which can swamp an open canoe. Complex maneuvers in fast current and

good boat control in tight passages or around ledges are often required. Large waves

or strainers may be present but are easily avoided. Strong eddies and powerful current

effects can be found, particularly on larger volume rivers. Scouting is advisable for inex-

perienced parties. Injuries while swimming are rare and self–rescue is usually easy but

group assistance may be required to avoid long swims. Rapids that are at the lower or

upper end of this difficulty range are designated with a plus or minus sign.

Class IV (advanced) Intense and powerful but predictable rapids requiring precise boat

handling in turbulent water. The rapids may feature large, unavoidable waves and holes

or constricted passages demanding fast maneuvers under pressure. A fast and reliable

eddy turn may be needed to initiate maneuvers, scout rapids, or rest. Rapids may require

mandatory moves above dangerous hazards. Scouting is usually necessary the first time

down. The risk of injury to swimmers is moderate to high and water conditions may make

self–rescue difficult. Group assistance for rescue is often essential and requires practiced

skills. A strong eskimo roll is highly recommended for kayakers.

Class V (expert) Extremely long, obstructed, or very violent rapids which expose a pad-

dler to added risk. Rapids may contain large, unavoidable waves and holes or steep, con-

gested chutes with complex, demanding routes. Rapids may continue for long distances

between pools, demanding a high level of fitness. The eddies that exist may be small, tur-

bulent, or difficult to reach. More difficult Class V rapids may combine several of these

factors. Scouting is recommended and may be difficult. Swims are dangerous and rescue

is often difficult even for teams of experts. Proper equipment, extensive experience, and

practiced rescue skills are essential. There is a large range of difficulty that exists beyond

Class IV which makes the difficulty of Class V rapids very diverse.

Class IV Class V Class VIClass III

36 NORTHERN FLOW

Class VI (extreme and exploratory):

These rapids have rarely been attempted

and exemplify the extremes of difficulty,

unpredictability, and danger. The conse-

quences of errors are very severe and res-

cue may be impossible. These rapids are

for teams of experts at favorable water

levels. After a Class VI rapid has been run

successfully several times, its rating may

be changed to Class V.

In river descriptions, steepness is listed

in feet of drop per mile of stream, both

average (from top to bottom) and maxi-

mum (generally reflecting the length of

the stream required to drop one 100–foot

contour line). Since the smallest contour

interval on most available maps is 100

feet, a 90–foot waterfall will not be visible

on the map or be fully reflected in gradient

information. Also not reflected is whether

the steepness s continuous or pool–drop,

and you’ll have to read further to find that

out. Nevertheless, examine gradient infor-

mation carefully, and if you plan a new run,

measure the gradient in advance to save

yourself some surprises. Attention to gra-

dient and flow is key to understanding the

potential difficulty of rivers and streams.

River or stream flows are measured in

cubic feet of water flowing past a fixed

point, through a cross–section of the riv-

erbed, per second (cfs). Flows are very

important to the character and feasibility

of runs. In order to measure flow directly,

the hydrologist must measure the depth

of the stream at closely spaced intervals

all the way across it and then measure

the velocity of the water at every depth,

from bottom to surface, for each inter-

val. In a simple situation, the river will

be going fastest at the surface and away

from the banks. Since 1 mph is almost 1.5

fps (5,280 feet per mile/3,600 seconds), a

hypothetical river 100 feet wide, 10 feet

deep in the middle, and of symmetrical V–

streamed cross–section, whose water was

all moving at 5 mph, would be flowing at

100 (width) x 10 (depth) × 5 (mph) × 1.5

(conversion to fps) × 0.5 (correction fac-

tor for streambed volume assuming a V–

shape) = 3,750 cubic feet per second. If

we make the scenario more realistic, we’ll

look at the river and see that the main cur-

rent is going 5 mph, but since water near

the banks and near the bottom, head up in

eddies and by rocks, is going slower than

5 mph, we’ll introduce a correction fac-

tor of 2/3 for converting from maximum

observed surface velocity to average water

velocity, and drop the estimated flow to

3,750 × 0.66 = 2,500 cfs. Thus width

(feet) × depth (feet) × speed (mph) / 2

= approximate flow in cfs. Hydrologists

actually measure this flow rather than

estimate and then create charts (called

stage–discharge rating curves) which

relate flow or “discharge” in the stream

to the most easily measured variable,

which is river surface height.

To find the flow of some rivers, you

can look it up at the Anchorage National

Weather Service–Alaskan River Fore-

cast Center. However, not all Alaskan

streams have a stage–measuring device

(gage) placed in them. Since the major-

ity of Alaskan rivers are ungaged, and

because rating curves are not available

for many rivers that are gaged, river

runners need to evaluate rivers on their

own. They need to figure out what the

flow or level of what your desired river

is running at. If you figure wrong, the

run could be more than one class of

difficulty harder than expected and

could even be fatal.

CHAPTER TWO 37

with theirs. Experiencing all varieties and

levels of rivers is helpful.

Flows vary with season and weather,

and this is incongruent with rivers in the

lower 48. Snowmelt runoff is generally

mid–May to mid–June, and non–glacial

(clear water) streams will have an early

peak at this time. Streams with glacial

sources behave differently and peak in late

July and early August during the warmest

part of the summer. Periods of hot, sunny

weather will make the glacial streams

come up as radiant heat melts ice. Many

glacial streams have a major variation in

flow with time of day, dropping at night

and coming up during the day. There can

be a factor–of–two difference between

morning and evening flows in rivers with

single glacial sources. If true floods occur,

though, they are most likely to be in Sep-

tember, because periods of very heavy rain

are much more likely than in the early

summer.

Moving from hydrologic theory to prac-

tice, it’s fairly easy to tell whether a par-

ticular river or creek is “high,” “medium,”

or “low.” Take a look at the river level in

comparison to the bushes and gravel bars.

If it’s in the trees, it’s a flood stage. If it’s

in the bushes, it’s “very high.” If it’s to

the bushes, it’s “high.” If it’s not to the

bushes and only moderate gravel (or sand

or mud) is exposed, it’s “medium.” With

lots of gravel, sand, or mud, it’s “low,” and

“very low” is that carried to an extreme.

If you are able to estimate the flow in cfs,

you’ll get much more information than just

“low” or “high.”

The best way for a boater to estimate

flow is to simply compare it with known

flows he’s experienced in other, similar

streams. That global comparison requires

making an effort to ask hydrologists what

the flow was or is when you run something

they do have data for and then later pre-

paring you own estimate based on a run

and calling them to see if yours agrees

38 NORTHERN FLOW

RIVER MANAGEMENTWilderness in Alaska must accommodate

many different users. The Alaska National

Interest Lands Conservation Act of 1980

(ANILCA) allowed for continuance of

traditional uses by traditional means. In

addition, airplanes are allowed to land in

many parks and refuges–on land or water–

making practically the entire state acces-

sible. There are more planes per capita in

Alaska than in any other state. This makes

it easy for people to get to wilderness but

also makes wilderness more vulnerable to

abuse or overuse. Helicopters are prohib-

ited in wilderness.

Motorized boats are not prohibited

on most rivers, including those in wilder-

ness areas. So you may find your “pristine

wilderness experience” disrupted by the

appearance of the powerboat. Both you

and the powerboat may have the right to

be there. On State Recreational Rivers,

some sections are designated for motorless

recreation on certain days and for power-

boats on other days. Mining operations

occur along some rivers. Most of these

involve placer mining, a process that tears

up the land.

When you float down an Alaskan river,

you may be following travel and trade

routes used by wildlife and Native people

for thousands of years. You may find well–

worn animal trails along river and streams.

Signs of human travel and occupation also

exist. Ancient rock cairns and fences, a

spear point or scraper, depressions or rings

of stones where once stood a dwelling, the

crumbling walls of a trapper’s cabin–all

remind us that the wilderness we experi-

ence has felt the footsteps of others. It

is illegal to excavate, remove, or destroy

artifacts, or to disturb archaeological or

historical sites on federal or state lands.

It is imperative that we don’t disturb

archaeological sites or remove artifacts

from their natural setting. Taking an

object from its place of repose destroys

much of its value to everyone in helping to

put together the story of Alaska’s culture

and historical history.

Natural features deserve the same

respect. It’s illegal in most national parks

and wildlife refuges to take flowers, rocks,

fossils, animal parts, or other natural fea-

tures, except plants for eating or dead

and down firewood. Why the concern

over these resources? Every rock, flower,

and fossil is an integral part of the natu-

ral environment that we come to witness.

More importantly, these resources have a

use in the total ecological web. Caribou

and moose antlers are eaten for their cal-

cium by porcupines, voles, and other small

animals. Animal parts break down over

time and become nutrients for the soil.

Wildflowers provide nectar for bees.

Park Rangers at Gates of the Arctic

National Park showed they were serious

about caring for their area in an incident

from the early 1908s. They confiscated

many caribou and moose antlers from

recreationists returning to Bettles from

the park. After a huge pile of antlers

gathered in the town, one ranger loaded

up a plane with antlers, flew over the

park, and randomly distributes them

back to the land.

Private lands exist along most riv-

ers. Even though a river may traverse a

national park, refuge, or other protected

lands, or be protected as a national

wild and scenic river, the lands are not

all publicly owned. Waterways and the

lands up to the high water mark are

considered public property in Alaska.

CHAPTER TWO 39

40 NORTHERN FLOW

CHAPTER TWO 41

Camping on gravel bars in any river cor-

ridor is acceptable. Make yourself aware

of the location of private lands within a

river corridor you plan to travel. Federal

and state land management agencies have

maps showing private lands. Native cor-

porations own lands surrounding villages,

and permits may be required to use these

areas. Contact the corporations whose

lands you will be traveling through.

While traveling the rivers of Alaska,

you may run across empty hunting and

trapping cabins and tent camps, structures

essential to the subsistence livelihood of

rural Alaskans. Some of the structures

may appear abandoned but most likely

are not. They are used seasonally and

their contents are vital to the people who

own them. The general rule is to trespass

only in an emergency.

When you enter a rural village, your

presence has a strong impact. Respect-

ing people’s privacy means not taking

photographs or residents unless you have

their permission. You may find the pace

of life in village Alaska markedly differ-

ent form where you live, and you may not

be able to obtain the goods and services

you desire. If you hope to camp at a vil-

lage that is on private land, officials of

the Native village corporation or other

village residents can fill you in on local

rules. Many villages are “dry,” banning

sale or possession of alcohol. It is best

not to bring any alcohol into the vil-

lages when visiting.

The traditional lifeways of the

Aleut, Inupiat, Athapaskan, Yup’ik,

Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian may not

be easily discernible now that boats

with outboard motors have replaced

Native kayaks and the roar of snow-

machines has largely drowned out

42 NORTHERN FLOW

CHAPTER TWO 43

Passage of the Alaska National Inter-

est Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA) in

1980 was an action of immense impor-

tance for the cause of American conser-

vation. “Never before have we seized the

opportunity to preserve so much of Amer-

ica’s national and cultural heritage on so

grand a scale,” remarked President Jimmy

Carter as he signed the act. While the act

has its flaws, it did set aside 104.3 million

acres as national parks, wildlife refuges,

wilderness areas, and other conservation

units. The act also gave protection under

the National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act

to 25 Alaska rivers: 13 within national

parks, 2 within Bureau of Land Manage-

ment conservation areas, 6 in national

wildlife refuges, and 4 on lands outside

of federally designated conservation units.

Implement of the ANILCA and the

Wild and Scenic Rivers Act has been slow,

with neither federal nor state governments

giving them adequate support. Alaska’s

wild rivers continue to be threatened by

activities such as mining, hydroelectric

projects, and private holdings within con-

servation lands. Recreationists also can

degrade river areas. On the Kenai and

Russia rivers, large numbers of people

fishing have trampled bank vegetation

and brought on erosion. On the Arctic

Slope, large commercial river trips have

damaged fragile tundra. River manage-

ment in Alaska is generally improving,

however, thanks in great measure to the

federal Clean Water Act (1972). Fed-

eral agencies are now required to moni-

tor rivers closely to protect biological,

physical, archaeological, aesthetic,

historic, and scenic features.

Rivers need our support, and there

are hundreds of other rivers in Alaska

that also deserve designation.

the bark of dog teams. But Native tradi-

tions are alive. People may wear John

Deere caps and drive pickups, but they still

have their own languages, their own cus-

toms, and deep awareness of the natural

world and environment.

In the villages, people rely on a sub-

sistence–based economy and way of life.

Hunting, gathering, and food preparation

are an integral part of the culture, with

families and households sharing the har-

vest. Going upriver to hunt caribou is just

as important today, though hunters travel

in a skiff with an outboard motor, as it

was when boats were made of walrus or

seal hide and sails were made of marine

mammal intestines. As much as traditional

foods satisfy nutritional needs, they also

meet psychological and spiritual needs.

Listen to the sounds of singing and dancing

coming from the community hall during a

potlatch or other special occasion. Observe

the joy, ritual, and significance of the first

harvest of fall, when caribou are brought

into the village and shared with everyone.

The descendants of Alaska’s first peoples

are using the land in a tradition carried on

for millennia.

Development has hit many once remote

wilderness areas. Some of Alaska’s riv-

ers now share a corridor with the Trans–

Alaska Pipeline or are overshadowed by

the North Slope oilfield complex. Others

have been dammed, diverted, and dirtied

in search of placer gold. One river carries

toxins leaching from the world’s second–

largest lead–zinc deposit. Fortunately for

Alaska’s free–flowing rivers, many devel-

opment proposals have been delayed or

stopped, either because of the harm they

would do to the environment or simply

because they would cost too much.

CHAPTER 3 ALASKAN RIVERS

There are six distinct river drainage

regions that define Alaska: the Arctic

Slope, Northwest, Yukon, Southwest,

Southcentral, and Southeast. Within these

are 12 major river systems: the Colville,

Noatak, Kobuk, Yukon, Tanana, Koyukuk,

Kuskokwim, Copper, Susitna, Stikine, Taku,

and Alsek. The rivers, drawing on vein–like

tributaries that spread out over the land,

eventually run to the sea.

The total runoff of drainage depends on

precipitation, temperature, elevation, exis-

tence of permafrost, vegetation, and size of

the drainage, and any of these factors can

cause wide fluctuation in daily and seasonal

river flows. Many rivers experience severe

flooding behind ice dams at spring breakup.

Weakened by warming temperatures and

water beginning to flow beneath the ice,

huge slabs of ice creak, groan, pop, and

break apart, thundering with wild abandon

as they scrape together, moving down the

river. Paddling a river during the middle

of the summer, you may be shocked to see

high–water marks from spring breakup

which are as much as 12 feet higher than

the water you’re in. Immediately after

breakup, many rivers are unrunnable.

Alaskan rivers are either glacial or non-

glacial. Most glacial rivers are in South-

east and Southcentral Alaska. They are

characterized by a high sediment load, giv-

ing the water a milky a brown, gray or blue

color. Glacial valleys are U–shaped and

generally very scenic, with glaciers and

mountains and sometimes forests. Stream

channels are often wide and braided,

composed of sorted gravel and boulders

in all sizes. Glacial river water is always

cold and silty because its source is active

glaciers.

In Southeast Alaska, glacial rivers

commonly carry entire trees to gravel

bars and sharp turns, where they tangle

together in huge piles. The water level

of glacial rivers fluctuates dramati-

cally depending on the temperature.

On a sunny day, glacial melt can raise

the water level as much as three feet

transforming a moderate Class II river

into a raging Class III torrent. This is

more often true of Interior glacial riv-

ers than of the short glacial streams

of Southeast Alaska, where the Gulf

of Alaska and its maritime climate

tend to reduce daily fluctuation.

CHAPTER 3 ALASKAN RIVERS

46 NORTHERN FLOW

ARCTIC SLOPENonglacial rivers are typical of Northwest

Alaska, the Arctic Slope, and parts of

Interior Alaska, though many waterways

in other regions are also nonglacial. These

rivers are characterized by a clear blue or

brownish color and a meandering nature.

If their origins are mountain streams, the

water is clear waters originating in marshy

lowlands and musket swamps display

brown–tinted water. With rainfall, non-

glacial rivers quickly become muddy and

turbid. The current is often swift, and in

forested areas sweepers are common. The

banks of these rivers are more stable than

along glacial streams. The water is not as

cold as in glacial rivers, but it is not warm.

From watersheds amid the Brooks

Range, rivers and streams flow northward

through rugged peaks and treeless rolling

foothills, across the tundra wetlands of the

arctic coastal plain, and into the Chukchi

or Beaufort seas. The Colville River domi-

nates the region, its watershed draining

24,000 square miles. Breakup on rivers

is in June, and reach their peak flows at

this time, souring the banks by pushing ice

down braided streams that flow through

U–shaped glacial valleys.

The mountains end abruptly at the toll-

ing arctic foothills, punctuated by arcuate

(curved) ridges. On the arctic coastal plan,

countless lakes thaw, providing vital habi-

tat for migrating shorebirds and waterfowl.

The largest of these is Teshekpuk Lake.

The lake and surrounding area support

the highest density of nesting waterfowl

and shorebirds on the Arctic Slope. Up to

60,000 geese (including lesser snow geese,

Canada, and white–fronted geese, and up

to 20 percent of the entire Pacific black

brant population) molt in the area. This is

the primary arctic habitat for threatened

spectacled eider and Steller’s eider. Two

distinct caribou herds make use of the

Arctic Slope: the 500,000–member West-

ern Arctic caribou herd and the resident

45,000–memer Teshekpuk caribou herd.

Treeless, except for a few river valleys

where balsam poplar has found a niche in

protected microclimates, the land is under-

lain by a continuous permafrost barrier.

Here, just a few inches of summer–thawed

soil and plants cover a layer of perma-

nently frozen ground. The depth of the per-

mafrost layer may be only a few feet to as

much as nearly a mile. Summers are short,

with continuous daylight.

The climate is cold and dry. The Arc-

tic Slope is a desert, receiving just seven

inches or precipitation annually. Less than

half of this occurs as summer rainfall–but

when a big storm hits during a river trip,

you may swear it has rained most of those

inches at one time. Rivers rise dramati-

cally before your eyes. Because of the

permafrost, the land does not soak up

much of the rain as it falls. Quickly, then,

the water moves down every depression,

every creeklet, from every height, to the

main arteries heading toward the coast.

The arctic slope river drainage con-

sists of the Colville River, Ivishak River,

and the Killik River.

CHAPTER THREE 47

THE ARCTIC SLOPE RIVER BASIN

1 Colville River

2 Killik River

3 Ivishak River

1

2

3

48 NORTHERN FLOW

NORTHWEST ALASKAThe northwest river basin encompasses

the Seward Peninsula, with its small hills

and marshy valleys, and the great deltas

of the Noatak and Kobuk rivers from the

nucleus of this regions, along with the

uplands, foothills, and headwater Brooks

Range mountains (the Delong, Baird, and

Endicott mountains). The Noatak and

Kobuk rivers drain almost 25,000 square

miles. Sparse spruce forests occupy river

bottomlands, and tundra vegetation covers

hillsides and rolling plains throughout the

region. Shallow lakes and tundra marshes

are underlain by a layer of permafrost. On

cutbank bluffs at bends on the rivers, it is

sometimes possible to observe permafrost

ice wedges on the bank. The Unalakleet

and Koyuk rivers drain southwest on the

Seward Peninsula to enter Norton Sound.

Most rivers in Northwest Alaska are

swift and clear, formed from runoff from

the western Brooks Range and coastal

mountains. The Kobuk, Noatak, and Koyu-

kuk are three of Alaska’s largest clearwa-

ter rivers and provide ample passage for

both humans and wildlife. Rivers emptying

into Kotzebue Sound are known for their

superlative arctic char and sheefish. The

500,000–member Western Arctic caribou

herd roams the region.

The climate is transitional, so weather

varies throughout the region. Annual pre-

cipitation averages 8 inches, except on the

Seward Peninsula, where it averages 18

inches. Roughly half of this falls as rain

in the summer months. Breakup on the

rivers occurs in late May; by late Octo-

ber, streams are frozen again.

The northwest river drainage consists

of the Ambler, Aniuk, Kobuk, Noatak,

Selawik, Squirrel, and the Unalakleet.

CHAPTER THREE 49

NORTHWEST ALASKA RIVER BASIN

1 Koyuk River

2 Unalakleet River

3 Squirrel River

4 Noatak River

5 Kobuk River

6 Selawik River

7 Ambler River

8 Aniuk River

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

50 NORTHERN FLOW

YuKON REGIONBounded by the Alaska and Brooks ranges

and the Canadian border, the Yukon Region

encompasses Alaska’s vast heartland, the

Interior. The Yukon River and its tributar-

ies, draining 35 percent of Alaska’s land-

mass, from the fifth largest river system

in North America. Rising in Canada, the

Yukon flows north–northwest to the US

border, then arcs across Alaska, its “cof-

fee with too much cream”–colored water

finally emptying into the Bering Sea 1,400

miles later.

The region is especially valuable for the

extensive river flats in the Lower Yukon

region, which have formed over thou-

sands of years, leaving behind oxbows,

sloughs, marshes, and a myriad of lakes

and marshlands teeming with wildlife.

Spring–fed aquifers in the mountains pro-

vide flow–year round and support coho,

king, and chum salmon populations. Fish

use major rivers, such as the Yukon and

Tanana as highways to their spawning

grounds and summer feeding areas. For-

ests of spruce, aspen, and paper birch are

extensive, and forest fires are common in

the summer–some burning underground

for years, fueled by centuries–old layers

of peat. The terrain is varied, with rolling

foothills, peaks, plateaus, valleys, and low-

lands. In the western and northern edges

of the region lie expanses of tundra. Riv-

ers in this region are generally nonglacial,

relatively slow moving, and meandering.

There is ice underground along rivers that

are created from permafrost.

The Yukon and its tributaries still offer

a glimpse of traditional Alaska, where

scattered Native villages, log cabins, and

fish wheels dot a huge wilderness land-

scape with few people.

The Yukon River valleys and all of its

tributary rivers and valleys in Canada and

Alaska are the homelands of the Athabas-

can people of many tribes. Called Dene

in the lower States and Canada, they call

themselves Dinee in Alaska and in parts

of Canada. Their traditional language is

handed down from an ancient time and it

is shared with some regional variations in

nuance and syntax by the Navaho, Apache,

and many other North American Indian

tribes. One long held archaeology para-

digm holds that all of the native people of

North America migrated across the Bering

Land Bridge (Beringia) during the Ice Age.

If that is true then perhaps the Athabascan

might be the oldest surviving culture of the

world.

The climate is continental, so summers

are hot and dry and winters are very cold.

The city Fort Yukon has recorded a high

temperature of 100 degrees Fahrenheit.

Arctic Village has reported temperatures

as low as minus 78 degrees Fahrenheit.

The average annual precipitation is 10 to

12 inches in the uplands and 6 inches on

the Yukon Flats.

Breakup on rivers begins in late April

or May, with peak flow in May; freezeup

occurs in October. Flooding of the low-

lands is an annual occurrence, and vil-

lages along the Yukon and other rivers

often suffer major damage as a result of

ice damning the rivers at breakup, which

occurs in the springtime.

The Yukon region river drainage con-

sists of the Alatna River, Anvik River,

Beaver Creek, Birch Creek, Black, Char-

ley, Chatanika, Chena, Delta Clearwater,

Delta, Fortymile, John, Middle Fork

Koyukuk, North Fork Koyukuk, Meloz-

itna, Nenana, Nowitna, Porcupine,

Sheenjek, Tinayguk, and Wild Rivers.

CHAPTER THREE 51

THE YUKON RIVER BASIN

1 Alatna River

2 Anvik River

3 Beaver Creek

4 Birch Creek

5 Black River

6 Charley River

7 Chatanika River

8 Chena River

9 Delta Clearwater River

10 Delta River

11 Fortymile River

12 John River

13 Middle Fork of the Koyukuk River

14 North Fork Koyukuk River

1

2

8

4

5

6

7

1

9

10

11

12

13

14

SOuTHWEST ALASKAThe Southwest region centers on the Kus-

kokwim River. Draining 43,600 miles, it

flows through a wide, flat valley forested

in spruce and hardwoods, while low, rolling

hills rising abruptly throughout its course.

Many tributaries including the Stony,

Holitna, South Fork, and Swift Fork, to

name a few, flow northward from headwa-

ters in the Aleutian and Alaska Range the

foothills of the Kuskikwim Mountains and

to a confluence with the main stem of the

Kuskokwim. Heading in mountain glaciers,

rivers coming off the Alaska Range are

long, silty, and braided, while rivers rising

in the Kuskokwim Mountains are fast and

meandering.

The other major river systems in this

region are the Kvichk and Nushagak.

Together they drain 21,8000 square

miles. These rivers and their tributaries

originate in two great mountain systems

north and west of Bristol Bay. The jagged

Ahklun Mountains, rising between 2,000

and 5,000 feet, together with the Aleu-

tian Range and the Nushagak–Big River

Hills, hive birth to shallow clear streams

that drain mostly through incised bedrock

gorges. The glacially scoured Wood River–

Tikchik Lakes district is a showpiece of

the Bristol Bay–Southwest region. Lakes

Becharof, Naknek, Ugashik, Iliamna, and

Nonvianuk, deep bedrock basins and all,

and the rich rivers and streams that issues

from them, form a nursery for the largest

salmon, trout, and arctic char populations

in the world. A haven for wildlife, whose

habitat is preserved in several national

wildlife refuges, national parks, and state

preserves, Southwest Alaska is home to

behemoth brown bears, fiery volcanoes,

scenic mountains, and the yet–vibrant

Yupik Eskimo culture.

This region is world famous for its

fly–fishing opportunities. Dozens of sport-

fishing lodges dot the landscape. With no

roads, air taxis do a brisk business, hauling

people from hub towns served by regular

air service to rivers and streams.

The climate varies in this region. The

coastal areas are maritime–influenced,

while in the interior portion, the climate

is continental. In general, the weather is

unpredictable, with fog and rain common

and violent winds with a possibility. Days

on end of cloudy weather are not uncom-

mon. Annual precipitation varies from 12

to 24 inches. Break–up on rivers occurs

in early May, with peak runoff in June.

The rivers freeze up again in November.

Discontinuous permafrost exists in small

pockets south of the Kuskokwim River and

continues north of the Kuskokwim.

The southwest river drainage consists of

the Alagnak and Nonbianuk Rivers, Amer-

ican Creek, Adnreafsky and East Fort

Andreafsky, Aniakchak, Chilikadrotna,

Copper, Goodnews, Holitna, Kanektok,

Kantishna Rivers, Moose Creek, Kisaralik,

Kuskikwim, South Fork Kuskikwim, Mul-

chatna, Newhalen, Nushagak, Nuyakuk,

Savonoski, Stony, Tlikakila, Togiak Riv-

ers, and Wood River Lakes System.

52 NORTHERN FLOW

CHAPTER THREE 53

SOUTHWEST ALASKA RIVER BASIN

1 Alagnak River & Nonvianuk River

2 American Creek

3 Andreafshy River

4 Aniakchak River

5 Chilikadrotna River

6 Copper River

7 Goodnews River

8 Holitna River

9 Kanektok River

10 Kantishna River and Moose Creek

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

54 NORTHERN FLOW

SOUTHCENTRAL ALASKA RIVER BASIN

1 Alexander Creek

2 Bremner River

3 Cambell Creek

4 Chitina River

5 Chulitna River

6 Copper River

7 Eagle River

8 Gulkana River

1

23 4

5

6

7

8

CHAPTER THREE 55

SOuTHCENTRAL ALASKAThe Copper and Susitna rivers from the

heart of the Southcentral region, while

subregions of Kodiak Island and the Gulf

of Alaska form the limbs. The Copper

drains 24,400 square miles in Alaska and

Canada, and the Susitna drains 20,000

square miles. Rugged mountainous terrain

characterizes much of the region, and most

of the rivers originate from the glaciers.

Dominating the watershed are Alaska’s

greatest mountain ranges: the Alaska

Range, with Mount McKinley, tallest

mountain in North America the Wrangell

Mountains; and the Aleutian Range, with

the great volcanic peaks of the Alaska

Peninsula. Most of the rivers coursing to

Cook Inlet and the Gulf of Alaska are

swift, silty, braided glacial streams flowing

from the mountains. The exceptions to this

terrain are the lower Susitna Valley, the

lowlands bordering Cook Inlet, the Cop-

per River plateau, and intermittent areas

along the coast, where clear rivers spring

forth and meander across wetlands. In

the Kodiak–Shelikof coast subregion, riv-

ers and streams are short and steep, with

fairly small drainages and steep gradients.

Breakup in the Southcentral region

usually occurs in late April, with peak flow

in late April and early May. Freeze–up

begins in mid–October. The climate in much

of the region is maritime, with continental

influences in the inland mountain areas.

The Japanese Current and the mountains

both create many local climatic varia-

tions. Annual precipitation ranges from

about 15 inches to more than 79 inches,

with about half this occurring as rain dur-

ing the ice–free season. With its benign

weather, diversity, and greatest number of

roads and access, the Southcentral region

is home to the majority of Alaskans.

The southcentral river basin consists of

Alexander Creek, Bremner River, Camp-

bell Creek, Chitina, Chulitnam, Copper

(Wrangell Mountains), Eagle, Gulkana

(Main, Middle, and West Fork), Kenai,

Kennicott and Nizina, Knik Rivers, Kroto

Creek, Moose Creek, Deshka River, Lake

Creek, Little Nelchina, Nelchina, Tazlina,

Little Susitna, Matanuska, Nabesn Rivers,

Portage Creek, Upper and Lower Susitna

Rivers, Swanson River Canoe System,

Talachulitna Creek and River, Talkeetna,

Tokositna, Tyone Rivers, Willow Creek and

Little Willow Creek.

56 NORTHERN FLOW

SOuTHEAST ALASKAThe southeast region is dominated by three

major river systems originating in Canada:

the Taku, draining 6,700 square miles;

the Alsek, draining 9,500 square miles;

and the Stikine, draining 19,700 square

miles. These systems are new in terms of

geologic time. Only in the last thousand

years or so have many of the rivers in this

region emerged from beneath great sheets

of ice from the Wisconsin Ice Age. Large

ice fields and glaciers still dominate the

mountainous mainland, while the islands

of Southeast Alaska are now ice free all

year round.

The coast typically is rugged, with lit-

tle flatland except where broad glaciers

spreading out from the base of the moun-

tains (known as piedmont glaciers) have

receded, leaving huge outwash moraines

that have since produced forests, such as

on the Yakutat Forelands or at Gustavus at

the mouth of Glacier Bay. From the coast

moving inland, elevations increase dramati-

cally to the summits of some of the highest

mountains in North America. No perma-

frost exists in this region; instead, extensive

glaciers clothe the peaks and valleys.

Just four mainland rivers have carved

their way though the coastal mountains to

the sea–the Stikine, Unuk, Tatshenshini–

Alsek, and Taku. These river valleys have

proven to be vital transportation routes for

flora, wildlife, fish, and humans. The rivers

are with anadromous fish populations.

Lying along the Gulf of Alaska, this

region has a maritime climate, with many

storms. The weather is typically cloudy,

with moderate temperatures and rain.

Average annual precipitation is more than

100 inches, and in some places it is more

than 200 inches much of that falls as rain.

Rivers generally remain ice–free all year,

with heaviest flow in the summer. These

cool, moist conditions produce lush, jun-

glelike vegetation. Coastal rainforests of

Sitka spruce and western hemlock, inter-

spersed with muskeg, dominate the land

below timberline.

The southeast river basin consists of the

Chilkat, Mendenhall, Situk, Stikine, and

Tatshenshini–Alsek Rivers.

CHAPTER THREE 57

SOUTHEAST ALASKA RIVER BASIN

1 Situk River

2 Tatshenshini–Alsek River

3 Chilkat River

4 Mendenhall River

5 Stikine

1

23

4

5

CHAPTER 4 THE BROOKS RANGE

The Brooks Range is one of the wild-

est ranges in North America, stretching

from the west to the east across north-

ern Alaska and into the Yukon Territory

of Canada. It crosses a distance of 700

miles with mountains over 9,000 feet.

Being over 126 million years old, there is

a plethora of historical content and sto-

ries embedded in the geology of the Brooks

Range. Although one of the most remote

wildernesses in Alaska, the Brooks Range

offers accessibility to those who are expe-

rienced to travel by foot or boat, making

it a playground for those willing to travel

the distance. The Brooks Range is also the

major climatic divide that separates the

Alaskan Interior from the Arctic.

The Range is a collection of icy moun-

tain peaks that form the northern front of

a huge central upland area of low moun-

tains, hills and river valleys, all dissected

by the Yukon River and its tributaries. This

range is the northernmost extension of the

Rocky Mountains in northern Alaska, US

Named for the geologist Alfred H. Brooks,

the entire range is within the Arctic Circle.

It is separated from the Alaska Range

(south) by the plains and tablelands of the

Yukon and Porcupine river systems.

CHAPTER 4 THE BROOKS RANGE

60 NORTHERN FLOW

The Brooks Range extends about 600

miles (1,000 km) in an east–west direc-

tion across Alaska from the US border

with Canada’s Yukon territory to the

Chukchi Sea, and it reaches widths of up

to 200 miles (300 km). The British and

Richardson mountains, wholly situated in

Canada and a 250–mile (400–km) north-

ern and western extension of the Canadian

Rocky Mountains, are sometimes consid-

ered part of the Brooks Range.

The Brooks is the world’s highest moun-

tain range within the Arctic Circle. Its

peaks average 3,000 to 4,000 feet (900

to 1,200 metres) in the west and about

5,000 to 6,000 feet (1,500 to 1,800

metres) in the centre and east. The highest

points, reaching between about 8,500 and

9,000 feet (2,590 and 2,740 metres) are

found near the Canadian border. The range

is a watershed between the Yukon River

drainage (south) and that of the Arctic

Ocean (north). Anaktuvuk Pass (2,200

feet), near its centre, is the main means of

access from the Yukon lowlands.

The Prudhoe Bay region, on the coastal

plain (North Slope) at the northern base

of the range, has vast reserves of oil. To

the west of it is the National Petroleum

Reserve of Alaska, which covers some

36,700 square miles (95,000 square km)

of plains and mountains in northern and

western Alaska. The Trans–Alaska Pipeline

crosses the range at Atigun Pass en route

from Prudhoe to the Valdez terminal in

southern Alaska.

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, encom-

passing the eastern part of the range,

protects one of the world’s most pristine

and ecologically diversified high–latitude

wilderness areas; it is home to some 200

species of birds, more than 35 different

kinds of land mammals (notably polar

bears, caribou, musk oxen, wolverines,

and wolves), and several species of marine

mammals and fish. However, the preserve

also is believed to have large petroleum

deposits in the North Slope area and has

been the subject of controversy between

environmentalists and proponents of oil

drilling. Gates of the Arctic National

Park and Preserve, in the rugged Endi-

cott Mountains; Kobuk Valley National

Park, in the Baird Mountains; and Noatak

National Preserve, which occupies a large

territory north of the two parks, also lie

along the range.

Each year, the Porcupine caribou herd

travels from wintering grounds in Cana-

da’s Yukon Territory to calving grounds on

Alaska’s slim coastal plain between the

Brooks Range and the Arctic Ocean. In

June, thousands of animals stream down

the Kongakut valley in the Arctic Ref-

uge. The tundra is covered with wildflow-

ers, the air alive with bird song, the light

never–ending. Wolves, Dall sheep, grizzly

bears, foxes, and the occasional muskox

or wolverine are often spotted. More than

seventy bird species summer in Kongakut

country; including golden and bald eagle,

peregrine falcon, Lapland longspur,

golden plover, and Pacific, Arctic and

red–throated loon.

CHAPTER FOuR 61

ALASKA REGIONAL MAP

The Brooks Range

The Arctic Cirlce

62 NORTHERN FLOW

On June and early July Kongakut River

trips, the summer migration of the Porcu-

pine caribou herd is visible n the 24 hour

daylight of Alaskan summers resulting in

the rapid growth of bird, animal, and plant

life in the arctic summer.

On July trips you may catch the return-

ing herd, as they head across a verdant

green landscape to the south side of the

Brooks Range. August trips take in the

glory of autumn, as the land turns gold

and red, and wildlife often moves down

to the river to feed. We find grizzly bears

fattening on berries, moose in the willows,

numerous Dall sheep, straggler caribou,

and the occasional wolf pack or wolverine

roaming the valleys. Arctic char move up

the river from the Arctic Ocean, and this is

the best time of the year to cast a line in

the Kongakut’s deep, clear pools. The area

offers superb day hiking. River days alter-

nate with full layover days to explore side

canyons and ridges under endless daylight.

The range is mostly uninhabited, but

the Dalton Highway and the Trans–Alaska

Pipeline System run through the Atigun

Pass (1,415 m, 4,643 ft) on their way

to the North Slope and the oil fields at

Prudhoe Bay.

The Alaska Native villages of Anaktu-

vuk and Arctic Village, as well as the very

small communities of Coldfoot, Wiseman,

Bettles, and Chandalar Lake are the only

settlements in the 700–mile Brooks Range.

In the far west, near the Wulik River in the

De Long Mountains is the Red Dog mine,

largest zinc mine in the world.

The range was named by the United

States Board on Geographic Names in

1925 after Alfred Hulse Brooks, who was

the chief USGS geologist for Alaska from

1903 to 1924. Various historical records

also referred to the range as the Arctic

Mountains, Hooper Mountains, Meade

Mountains and Meade River Mountains.

The Canadian portion is still often referred

to as the British Mountains. The Canadian

British Mountains are part of Ivvavik

National Park.

Prudhoe Bay, at the northern base of

the range, has vast reserves of oil; the

National Petroleum Reserve Alaska covers

some 23.5 million acres (9.5 million hect-

ares). The Trans–Alaska Pipeline crosses

the range at Atigun Pass en route to the

Valdez terminal in southern Alaska. Arctic

National Wildlife Refuge,

CHAPTER FOuR 63

in the eastern part of the range, is con-

sidered by many to be one of the world’s

ecological treasures; it is home to some

160 species of birds, more than 35 differ-

ent kinds of land mammals (e.g., caribou,

musk oxen, wolverines, and wolves), and

several species of marine mammals and

fish. This refuge is the subject of contro-

versy between environmentalists and pro-

ponents of oil drilling. Gates of the Arctic

National Park and Preserve, in the rugged

Endicott Mountains, and the adjoining

Noatak National Preserve also lie along

the range. See also Alaskan mountains.

The scenery in the Brooks Range is jaw

dropping. The floors of its labyrinthine

canyons are filled with rivers, lakes and

meadows. The divides between the canyons

run the gambit from sheer stone, walls

and smooth, undulating ridges. 95% of

the range’s area is accessible only via air-

plane. The Dalton Highway the only road

access into the Brooks Range, and only a

narrow corridor is within hiking distance

of the road.

Traveling by river is a unique way to

see a vast selection of a specific ecosystem

because one travels through the water cor-

ridor and epicenter of life.

64 NORTHERN FLOW

Paddle rafts, canoes or kayaks are

used for river travel in the Brooks Range.

Brooks Range rivers tend not to have a

whole lot of whitewater. The emphasis

is more on the wilderness than on high–

adrenaline rapids. River trips often begin

and end with a short portage.

The entire Brooks Range is the main

divide drainage northward into the Arc-

tic Ocean, and drainage west and south

into the Yukon, Kobuk and Noatak rivers.

One of the main attractions of the central

and eastern Brooks Range are the large,

glacial moraine–dammed lakes, providing

access by floatplane to many of the remote

areas of the mountains. Late in the sum-

mer, Brooks Range rivers tend to run out

of enough water for travel, so precautions

have to be made if traveling during those

times to avoid getting stuck.

The western Brooks Range is the most

remote and untraveled part of Alaska.

Unknown of the unknown, home of the

400,000 strong Western Arctic Caribou

herd. You almost certainly will not encoun-

ter other parties (or even footprints) on

any of our western Brooks Range trips.

Expect encounters with wildlife.

CHAPTER FOuR 65

CHAPTER 5 ARCTIC NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFuGE

The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge

(ANWR), in the Northeast corner of

Alaska flanking the eastern side of the

Brooks Range, is a 19 million acre wilder-

ness refuge stretching from the Beaufort

Sea nearly to the Yukon River. Its vast-

ness and its abundant wildlife, coupled

with dramatic scenery make it Alaska’s

most celebrated wilderness. Designated as

wilderness in 1960, ANWR encompasses

arctic tundra, boreal forests, wild rivers,

the Brooks Range mountains, the coastal

plain and awe–inspiring Alaska glaciers.

Inupiat Eskimo and Athabascan Indians

call this undisturbed Alaska wilderness

home. Birds migrate from all over the

world to breed in the refuge. Nearly 180

bird species call ANWR home at least part

of the year. There are 45 mammal spe-

cies living in ANWR including polar bears,

grizzly bears, porcupine, caribou, musk ox,

wolves, Dall sheep, and other wildlife.

It stings as wind–driven snow, soaks as

gentle rain and penetrates as thick fog. It

piles up in fields of ice, fed by springs and

river overflows during winter. In spring, its

sparkling drops gather to flood the river

corridors, washing gravel bars and nour-

ishing plants.

CHAPTER 5 ARCTIC NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFuGE

68 NORTHERN FLOW

Finally it reaches the coast, enriching

the ocean with its load of minerals. All

along the way, it provides life–sustain-

ing habitats for invertebrates and fish;

feeding, nesting and brood–rearing areas

for birds; and refreshment for mammals,

including people.

Water is the lifeblood of the Arctic

National Wildlife Refuge. Ensuring water

quality and quantity for fish and wildlife

resources is one of the purposes of the

Refuge. But water quantity is limited,

especially on the coastal plain which is

technically a very dry area. Less than

five inches of precipitation falls there

each year. In addition, compared to areas

west, where surface water is plentiful, the

coastal plain has few lakes, and they are

shallow and unevenly distributed.

Most of the water available in summer

comes from spring snowmelt. It pools on

the surface of the land, soaking the tundra.

The water doesn’t percolate through the

soil, as it does in most places, due to per-

mafrost, which underlies most of the area

about a foot down.

The Fish and Wildlife Service has fed-

eral rights to water on the Arctic Refuge.

These federal reserved water rights were

granted for Refuge purposes by laws.

Although the Service has federal water

rights, agency policy is to apply for state

water rights through state procedures

whenever possible. Between 1994 and

1998, the Service filed water rights appli-

cations with the State of Alaska for 140

lakes and 12 river segments on the Refuge

coastal plain. Action on those applications

is still pending.

This process does not negate the Ser-

vice’s federal water rights. In fact, it helps

the State and others know just how much

water is needed to conserve Refuge fish

and wildlife resources. This is important

given the interest in other water–consum-

ing activities on the coastal plain (ice

roads, oil drilling, municipal needs).

While it awaits action on the applica-

tions and related needs, the Service contin-

ues to ensure that adequate water will be

available long–term to sustain the wonder-

fully diverse fish and wildlife resources of

the Arctic Refuge.

CHAPTER FIVE 69

ALASKA REGIONAL MAP 2

The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge

The Arctic Cirlce

70 NORTHERN FLOW

In December 1980, Congress enacted

the Alaska National Interest Lands Con-

servation Act (ANILCA). Section 602 of

ANILCA designated the Ivishak, upper

Sheenjek, and Wind Rivers as Wild Riv-

ers. As a result, these rivers are part of the

nationwide Wild and Scenic River System.

The intent of this designation is to protect

and enhance the natural and recreational

values for which these rivers were desig-

nated while providing for public recreation

and resource uses that do not adversely

impact or degrade those values.

The Wild River management category

is similar to the “Minimal Management”

category. The Service seeks to protect

and maintain the physical and biological

qualities of the river drainages and adja-

cent Refuge lands, including water quality

and quantity, and strives to maintain the

rivers’ superb recreational opportunities.

Recreational use is managed to maintain

the drainages’ resource and recreational

values. Guiding and outfitting services and

related temporary support facilities are

permitted. Motorized access for traditional

activities are allowed. Commercial timber

harvesting, oil and gas leasing, and hydro-

power projects are not authorized. Oil and

gas studies may be permitted subject to

site–specific compatibility determinations.

Developed recreational facilities, unless

necessary to limit resource damage, would

not be permitted. Outside of the Refuge

and on private inholdings within the Ref-

uge, the Service works with private land-

owners to ensure management continuity.

The Service also works with the Alaska

Department of Fish and Game to ensure

that water quality and fish and wildlife

habitats and populations are maintained

and continue to flourish.

Most refuge rivers are relatively swift

with boulder–strewn or braided gravel

beds, especially on the north side of the

Brooks Range. Water quality is excellent,

although rivers are high and turbid dur-

ing breakup and after storms. Some rivers

carry glacial silt in summer.

Rivers must be evaluated and run

according to conditions at the time. River

ratings are subjective and can change with

the stage of the river. Rivers are generally

open June through September, but the saf-

est water levels occur in July and early

August. Floaters and hikers should be

aware of above–average flows, which can

occur any time, especially after heavy rains

upstream. Low water can occur in August,

but is usually not a serious problem. It is

generally possible to line through or por-

tage around the most difficult sections.

Breakup occurs during May and early

June, depending on the location. Rivers are

often at flood stage during this time with

ice floes and “aufeis” that make floating

hazardous and unpredictable.

Aufeis is a thick layer of ice formed

by successive freezing of stream over-

flows during winter. During breakup, riv-

ers carve vertical walled canyons through

aufeis fields that can be more than a mile

long. In early summer, it can be danger-

ous to travel through these areas. By mid

to late June, the channels are usually

open enough to allow passage. However,

aufeis fields can be dangerous any time

if river levels rise. Visitors should scout

all aufeis fields prior to floating to make

sure the river is not flowing under or

through tunnels in the ice.

CHAPTER FIVE 71

CHAPTER 6 GATES OF THE ARTIC NATIONAL PARK

All of the Alaska National Parks are spec-

tacular, but Gates of the Arctic National

Park just might be the best. Clear, free–flow-

ing rivers, majestic peaks, endless vistas and

undisturbed wildlife are the standard fare in

Gates of the Arctic. It is a hugely diverse and

largely unknown 11 million acre park in the

Alaska Brooks Range, with endless opportu-

nities for wilderness backcountry adventures.

With less than 900 visitors per year, you are

more likely to see an Arctic wolf or Alaskan

caribou than other people.

The Gates of the Arctic National Park and

Preserve includes about 8.2 million acres of

public land with approximately 7.2 million

acres designated as wilderness. Lying within

its boundaries are six Rivers, 2 National

Natural Landmarks and the Noatak Bio-

sphere Reserve. Contiguous with the 5.6

million acres of designated wilderness in the

Noatak National Preserve to the west, this

rugged landscape is one of the world’s larg-

est nature preserves. No roads lead into the

park, and there are no trails or bridges.

It is the northernmost national park in

the US (the entirety of the park lies north

of the Arctic Circle) and the second largest

at 13,238 miles (34,287 km²), about the

same size as Switzerland. The park consists

primarily of portions of the Brooks Range

of mountains. It was first protected as a US

National Monument on December 1, 1978,

before becoming a national park and pre-

serve two years later in 1980 upon passage

of the Alaska National Interest Lands Con-

servation Act. A large part of the park is pro-

tected in the Gates of the Arctic Wilderness

which covers 7,167,192 acres (2,900,460

ha). The wilderness area adjoins the Noatak

Wilderness Area and together they form the

largest contiguous wilderness in the US.

The park’s name dates to 1929, when wil-

derness activist Bob Marshall, exploring the

North Fork of the Koyukuk River, encoun-

tered a pair of mountains (Frigid Crags and

Boreal Mountain), one on each side of the

river. He christened this portal the “Gates

of the Arctic.”

Ten small communities outside the

park’s boundaries are classified as “resi-

dent subsistence zones” and depend on

park resources for food and livelihood.

They are Alatna, Allakaket, Ambler, Anak-

tuvuk Pass, Bettles/Evansville, Hughes,

Kobuk, Nuiqsut, Shungnak, and Wiseman.

CHAPTER 6 GATES OF THE ARTIC NATIONAL PARK

74 NORTHERN FLOW

ALASKA REGIONAL MAP 3

Gates of the Arctic National Park

Arctic Circle

CHAPTER SIX 75

There are no established roads, trails,

visitor facilities, or campgrounds in

the park. However, the Dalton Highway

(Alaska State Highway 11) comes within

five miles (8 km) of the park’s eastern

boundary. The National Park Service

maintains a small visitor center in nearby

Coldfoot on the highway.

The geography contains the arête–

peaked Brooks Range and rolling valleys

of wild tundra. Fauna include moose, bar-

ren–ground grizzlies, Dall sheep, black

bears, wolves, and caribou.

The park contains mountains such as

the Arrigetch Peaks and Mount Igikpak.

The park also features six Wild and Scenic

Rivers including the following:

▶ Alatna River 83 miles (134 km)

▶ John River 52 miles (84 km)

▶ Kobuk River 110 miles (177 km)

▶ The North Fork of the Koyukuk River

102 miles (164 km)

▶ Part of the Noatak River

▶ Tinayguk River 44 miles (71 km)

A total of 133 species of birds have

been observed in the park and preserve

over the past 25–30 years. Nearly half of

those recorded are normally associated

with aquatic habitats.

Raptors inhabiting the park include

species of eagles, hawks, falcons, and owls,

three jaegers, and the northern shrike.

Because of their place high in the food

chain, raptors are more susceptible to

environmental disturbance and population

fluctuations. Arctic peregrine falcons, a

threatened species only recently removed

from the endangered list, nest in the area.

A total of 133 species of birds have

been observed in the park and preserve

over the past 25–30 years. Nearly half of

those recorded are normally associated

with aquatic habitats.

Raptors inhabiting the park include

species of eagles, hawks, falcons, and owls,

three jaegers, and the northern shrike.

Because of their place high in the food

chain, raptors are more susceptible to

environmental disturbance and population

fluctuations. Arctic peregrine falcons, a

threatened species only recently removed

from the endangered list, nest in the area.

If you look carefully, evidence of those

who lived in or passed through the area

before can be found. Inupiaq and Athabas-

can people, as well as their ancestors trav-

eled long distances throughout the central

Brooks Range surviving on plants and ani-

mals available during each season. Their

descendants now live in nearby communi-

ties and continue to hunt and gather in

the park and preserve.

Other visitors included early explorers,

scientists, and gold miners. Their broken–

down cabins and artifacts still remain

as reminders of the land’s rich history.

The area was proclaimed a national

monument in 1978 and established as a

national park and preserve on December

2, 1980. Today, mountain climbers, hunt-

ers, and wildlife enthusiasts have added

to the park’s history.

Weather is unpredictable so expect

snow or rain in any month. Fall and

summer are your best bets. Although

summer is short, the days are long and

temperatures are typically mild. Keep in

mind June and July are home to gnats

and mosquitoes. Fall colors peak mid–

August through September.

You can walk or fly into this national

park though many prefer the latter.

From Fairbanks, scheduled flights

run in Anaktuvuk Pass, Bettles, and

Ambler. From these points, as well as

Coldfoot, you can take an air taxi.

76 NORTHERN FLOW

INDEX A

American Whitewater Affiliation 04

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge 05–10

Aufeis 37

BBears 15

Boats 25–36

Brooks Range 39–40

CCanoes 15–16

CFS 17, 37, 41

Classification 21

Communication 24, 27

DDry suit 04

EEmergency 24, 27, 31

Equipment 34–37

INDEX 77

FFairbanks 22, 25, 31, 33

Fishing 16

Flow 17

Flying 37

Forest Service 29, 32

GGates of the Arctic National Park 41–43

Glacial 21, 24, 27, 38

HHunting 15

Hydrologic theory 26

Hypothermia 16–17

KKayaks 21–22

MMotorized boats 19–21

Mosquitoes 4, 7, 12, 17

NNavigation 18

PPaddles 05

Paddle boat 12

Paddler’s Organizations 20–22

PFD 21, 34, 35, 37–38

Planes 24

Pipeline 37

Portage 27

R Rafts 12–13

River Risks 11

Rowing 24

Rules 10–11

SSafety 14

Sea kayaks 17

Self bailers 17–24

Snow, Brad 25

Subsistence 35

TTendonitis 21

Tidewater 34

Training 25

VVillages 12, 14

WWatershed 31

Weather 16

Wild and Scenic Rivers Act 31–33

Wilderness 25

Wildlife 06

Yukon 07–10

The rich tapestry of Alaska is threaded together

by 365,000 miles of waterways, from cascad-

ing mountain streams to meandering valley riv-

ers, from the meltwaters of glaciers to broad

rivers that empty into the sea. The Alaska River

guide tempts your exploring instincts by walk-

ing you through general river preparation, plan-

ning, safety, equipment, and most importantly,

the pertinent concerns for traveling in Alaska.

Read about the six river basins located in Amer-

ica’s Last Frontier and the best way to access

the remote beauty and fun of those waterways.

This guide is complete with maps of each of the

six Alaskan river basins and their specific travel

information needs. Rivers are an ideal way to

experience the wildlife and serenity of Alaska,

while floating through the natural landscape, and

this guide is the best resource to help you access

the correct information to explore Alaskan rivers.

NORTHERN FLOW