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NOSTRATIC

ETYMOLOGICAL

INDEX

ALLAN R. BOMHARD RE-

VISED, CORRECTED, AND EXPANDED (NOVEMBER 2014)

CHARLESTON, SC, USA

ALLAN R. BOMHARD

REVISED, CORRECTED, AND EXPANDED (SEPTEMBER 2015)

CHARLESTON, SC, USA

NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL

INDEX

ALLAN R. BOMHARD

REVISED, CORRECTED, AND EXPANDED (SEPTEMBER 2015)

CHARLESTON, SC, USA

By Allan R. Bomhard

Nostratic Etymological

Index

CHARLESTON, SC, USA 2015

B , A R. (1943— )

Nostratic Etymological Index / by Allan R. Bomhard (1) Nostratic Hypothesis; (2) Comparative Linguistics; (3) Proto-Indo-European.

All rights reserved.

REVISED, CORRECTED, AND EXPANDED (AS OF SEPTEMBER 2015)

Copyright 2015 by Allan R. Bomhard.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword ……………………………………………..……..........….……… i 1. Proto-Nostratic *b ………………………………………..………..…..….... 1 2. Proto-Nostratic *pº (> Proto-Afrasian *p) …………….………..…..……. 11 3. Proto-Nostratic *pº (> Proto-Afrasian *f) …………………………...…… 17 4. Proto-Nostratic *p’ ……………………………………………………….. 19 5. Proto-Nostratic *d ……………………………………………………....... 21 6. Proto-Nostratic *tº ……………………………………………….……….. 27 7. Proto-Nostratic *t’ …………………………………………………….….. 33 8. Proto-Nostratic *d¨ ………………………………………………………. 37 9. Proto-Nostratic *t¨º ……………………………………………….……… 39 10. Proto-Nostratic *t’¨ ……………………………………………….……… 41 11. Proto-Nostratic *s¨ ……………………………………….………………. 43 12. Proto-Nostratic *ʒ ………………………………………….……….…….. 45 13. Proto-Nostratic *cº ………………………………………………….……. 47 14. Proto-Nostratic *c’ ……………………………………….……..………… 49 15. Proto-Nostratic *s …………………………………………….…………... 51 16. Proto-Nostratic *ǯ ………………………………………………..……….. 53 17. Proto-Nostratic *čº ……………………………………………….………. 55 18. Proto-Nostratic *č’ ……………………………………….……..….…….. 57 19. Proto-Nostratic *š ………………………………………...……….……… 59 20. Proto-Nostratic *g …………………………………….………………….. 61 21. Proto-Nostratic *kº …………………………………….……….……........ 67 22. Proto-Nostratic *k’ ………………………………………………………... 73 23. Proto-Nostratic *g¦ ……………………………………………….……… 79 24. Proto-Nostratic *k¦º …………………………………………….….…….. 81 25. Proto-Nostratic *k’¦ …………………..……………….………….……… 85 26. Proto-Nostratic *™ ……………………………………………..…………. 89 27. Proto-Nostratic *qº ……………………………………………..……........ 91 28. Proto-Nostratic *q’ …………………………………..………………........ 93 29. Proto-Nostratic *ɢ¦ …………………………………………..…………… 95 30. Proto-Nostratic *q’¦ …………………………………………..………….. 97 31. Proto-Nostratic *˜º ………………………………….…………………… 99 32. Proto-Nostratic *˜’ ……………………………………………………… 101 33. Proto-Nostratic *ʔ ……………………………………………………….. 103 34. Proto-Nostratic *h ……………………………………………………….. 111 35. Proto-Nostratic *ħ ………………………………………………….……. 113 36. Proto-Nostratic *ʕ ………………………………………………….……. 119 37. Proto-Nostratic *x ……………………………………………….………. 123 38. Proto-Nostraitc *x¦ ……………………………………….……………... 125 39. Proto-Nostratic *γ …………………………………….…………………. 127 40. Proto-Nostratic *y ……………………………………………….………. 129 41. Proto-Nostratic *w …………………………………………….……........ 131 42. Proto-Nostratic *m ………………………………….………………........ 137

vi NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX

43. Proto-Nostratic *n …………………………………………….…………. 147 44. Proto-Nostratic *n¨ ………………………..…………….………………. 151 45. Proto-Nostratic *l ……………………..………………….……………… 153 46. Proto-Nostratic *r ……………………………….…..…………….…….. 157 47. English-Nostratic Index …………………………………….…..……….. 159

FOREWORD

This Nostratic Etymological Index contains all of the Proto-Nostratic roots and their derived verbal and nominal forms cited in the second and third volumes (Part Three: Comparative Vocabulary) of the second revised, corrected, and expanded edition of my book A Comprehensive Introduction to Nostratic Comparative Linguistics (published on-line under a Creative Commons License [2015]). This Index does not include either the supporting data from the daughter languages or the references. The supporting data can be found in Volumes 2 and 3 of the above book, while the references can be found in Volume 4.

In comparing the lexical material from the various Nostratic daughter languages, I have tried to be very careful about the issue of semantic plausibility. Where there is either a one-to-one or an extremely close semantic correspondence, there is, of course, no problem. Unfortunately, things are not always this straightforward. Quite often, there is not a one-to-one semantic correspondence — in such cases, we must be able to derive the proposed cognates from the postulated ancestor form by widely-attested semantic shifts and not by mere speculation. Therefore, in attempting to determine whether or not particular lexical items from the various language families under consideration might be related, I have made extensive use of Carl Darling Buck’s A Dictionary of Selected Synonyms in the Principal Indo-European Languages (1949) as a control for the semantic develop-ment of the proposed lexical parallels, and references to the appropriate sections of this work are given at the end of each proposed Nostratic etymology in my book. It may be noted that, in examining the lexicons of Kartvelian, Afrasian, Uralic-Yukaghir, Elamo-Dravidian, Altaic, and Eskimo-Aleut, semantic shifts similar to those described by Buck for the Indo-European languages are found over and over again in these other language families as well. I cannot emphasize strongly enough that, in order to gain a complete understanding of how I arrived at my proposals, Buck’s dictionary must be consulted. However, in a number of instances, where I felt it was warranted due to the wide semantic differences found among the forms cited from the daughter languages, I have given brief explanations within the etymologies themselves.

As valuable as Buck’s dictionary is, however, it is not without its shortcomings. In the first place, as noted by Buck himself, the dictionary is not complete — due to the nature of the material involved, Buck and his assistants had to be selective in choosing what to include. Next, the research upon which the dictionary is based is now well over half a century old. Therefore, Buck’s dictionary must be supplemented by more recent scholarship. Unfortunately, however, this work is spread throughout so many journal articles, dissertations, and books that it is virtually impossible to consult all of it, especially when one is dealing with multiple language families.

It is not enough, moreover, simply to compare dictionary forms. Rather, when working with the lexical data from the various Nostratic daughter languages, one

ii NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX

must strive to ascertain the underlying semantics, that is to say, the fundamental meaning or meanings from which the full set of semantic nuances are derived, based upon actual usage, wherever this is possible, and one must be cognizant of the interrelationship between social, cultural, and conceptual factors on the one hand and semantic structures on the other. It goes without saying that this is neither a simple nor an easy undertaking.

The approach that I have followed thus leads to the establishment of what may be called “families of words” in the tradition of the great Indo-European comparative dictionaries by Julius Pokorny (1959) and Alois Walde (1927—1932). The starting point is always the reconstructed Nostratic forms. The material cited from the individual Nostratic daughter languages is then to be judged primarily by whether or not it can be convincingly derived from the antecedent Nostratic forms either directly or through widely-attested semantic shifts.

The difficulties involved in dealing with semantic change in unattested languages have been clearly articulated by Werner Winter:

The difficulties encountered by the etymologist reaching out toward unattested and hence textless languages are deep-rooted and virtually insurmountable. When one reads an intelligently written, richly documented book such as Blank 1997, one cannot help being impressed with the fact that it is relatively easy to describe and classify semantic changes such as metonymy and metaphor that occurred in the course of the history of an individual language or a group of closely related languages, but that there is a near total absence of what one might call determinacy and hence predictability as to the kind and direction of the changes that can be shown to have taken place and therefore can be expected to occur again under comparable circumstances. The applicability of a form may remain unchanged, it may be extended to cover additional meaning configurations, it may be narrowed, it may be eliminated altogether; new denotations added may concern closely related items, as in the case of metonymy, or seemingly very different ones, as when metaphors are used. As long as one limits oneself to a retrospective analysis of data from historically well-attested languages, the lack of regularity will not affect the descriptive adequacy of one’s findings; if, however, one turns to the study of prehistoric stages of a language or a group of languages, one is left with hardly any well-defined criteria by which to evaluate one’s hypotheses (and those of others). The only criterion that seems to be operationally usable derives from the assumption made above: if both phonetic and semantic change occurred in relatively small steps, feature by feature, component by component, then the likelihood that a hypothesis might be correct can be said to be supported in a more than subjective way. This does not eliminate the difficulty that observable change can occur in all possible directions and that to complicate matters even further, in the course of a historical development, the direction may change at any time. If that is the case, it follows that in the absence of observable data — that is, under conditions normal for reconstructional linguists — no objectifiable criteria can be called upon by the etymologist, and his proposals will always reflect his personal preferences.

FOREWORD iii

Another important point that needs to be reiterated concerns how I segment the reconstructed forms I am dealing with. Comparison of the various Nostratic daughter languages indicates that the rules governing the structural patterning of roots and stems is Proto-Nostratic were most likely as follows:

1. There were no initial vowels in Proto-Nostratic. Therefore, every root began

with a consonant. 2. There were no initial consonant clusters either. Consequently, every root began

with one and only one consonant. Medial clusters were permitted, however. 3. Two basic root types existed: (A) *CV and (B) *CVC, where C = any non-

syllabic, and V = any vowel. Permissible root forms coincided exactly with these two syllable types.

4. A stem could either be identical with a root or it could consist of a root plus a single derivational morpheme added as a suffix to the root: *CVC+C-. Any consonant could serve as a suffix. Note: In nominal stems, this derivational suffix was added directly to the root: *CVC+C-. In verbal stems, it was added to the root plus formative vowel: *CVC+V+C-.

5. A stem could thus assume any one of the following shapes: (A) *CV-, (B) *CVC-, (C) *CVC+C-, or (D) (reduplicated) *CVC-CVC-. As in Proto-Altaic, the undifferentiated stems were real forms in themselves and could be used without additional suffixes or grammatical endings. However, when so used, a vowel had to be added to the stem: (A) *CV- > *CV (no change), (B) *CVC- > *CVC+V, (C) *CVC+C- > *CVC+C+V, or (D) (reduplicated) *CVC-CVC- > *CVC-CVC+V. Following Afrasian terminology, this vowel may be called a “terminal vowel” (TV). Not only did terminal vowels exist in Proto-Afrasian, they are also found in Dravidian, where they are called “enunciative vowels”, and in Elamite, where they are called “thematic vowels”. In Proto-Dravidian, the enunciative vowel was only required in stems ending in obstruents, which could not occur in final position.

The original root structure patterning was maintained longer in Afrasian, Dravidian, and Altaic than in the other branches, while the patterning found in Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Kartvelian has been modified by developments specific to each of these branches. The root structure constraints found in Proto-Indo-European were an innovation. In Proto-Uralic, the rule requiring that all words end in a vowel was an innovation and arose from the incorporation of the so-called “terminal vowel” into the stem. It should be mentioned here that reduplication was a widespread phenomenon.

On the basis of the evidence of Proto-Indo-European, Proto-Kartvelian, Proto-Afrasian, Proto-Dravidian, and Proto-Altaic, it may be assumed that there were three fundamental stem types: (A) verbal stems, (B) nominal and adjectival stems, and (C) pronominal and indeclinable stems. Some stems were exclusively nominal. In the majority of cases, however, both verbal stems and nominal stems could be built from the same root. In Proto-Nostratic, only pronominal and indeclinable

iv NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX

stems could end in a vowel. Verbal and nominal stems, on the other hand, had to end in a consonant, though, as noted above, when the undifferentiated stems were used as real words in themselves, a “terminal vowel” had to be added to the stem. As explained in Chapter 17 of my book, the terminal vowels were morphologically significant (as were the “formative vowels”).

Etymological (where they exist) and non-etymological dictionaries for individual languages have also been heavily consulted, as have journal articles and papers beyond count — a complete list can be found in the references in Volume 4 of my forthcoming book.

Proto-Nostratic verbs are cited in their root/stem form, nouns in the “status indeterminatus” form (that is, *-a).

Adjectives did not exist as an independent grammatical category in Proto-Nostratic. Intransitive verbs could function as “adjectives”. Also, “adjectives” were differentiated from nouns mainly by syntactical means — a noun placed before another noun functioned as an attribute to the latter. In the Nostratic vocabulary that follows, the attributive meaning is indicated by “adj.”

ALLAN R. BOMHARD Charleston, SC, USA

Revised September 2015

CHAPTER 1

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *b

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

b- b- p- b- bº- p- b- p-

-b- -b- -pp-/-vv- -b- -bº- -w- -b- -v- 1. Proto-Nostratic root *baʕ- (~ *bǝʕ-):

(vb.) *baʕ- ‘to pour’; (n.) *baʕ-a ‘torrent, outpour’

2. Proto-Nostratic root *baʕ- (~ *bəʕ-):

(vb.) *baʕ- ‘to tie, to bind; to attach, to fasten’; (n.) *baʕ-a ‘tie, bond, bandage, fastening’

3. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *baba ‘father’ (nursery word) 4. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *baaba ‘child, babe’ (nursery word) 5. Proto-Nostratic root *bad- (~ *bǝd-):

(vb.) *bad- ‘to split, to cleave, to separate, to divide’; (n.) *bad-a ‘split, crack, breach, opening’

6. Proto-Nostratic root *bad- (~ *bǝd-):

(vb.) *bad- ‘to waste, to dissipate, to squander’; (n.) *bad-a ‘dissipation, waste, wasteland, desolated area’


(vb.) *bad- ‘to occur, to happen, to experience, to endure; to cause to endure, to make to suffer, to oppress’;

(n.) *bad-a ‘experience, happening, trouble, distress, suffering, oppression’ Derivative: (n.) *bad-a ‘need, want, lack, deprivation’

8. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *bad-a ‘need, want, lack, deprivation’ (> ‘hunger’): Derivative of:

(vb.) *bad- ‘to occur, to happen, to experience, to endure; to cause to endure, to make to suffer, to oppress’;

(n.) *bad-a ‘experience, happening, trouble, distress, suffering, oppression’

2 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX 9. Proto-Nostratic root *bad- (~ *bǝd-):

(vb.) *bad- ‘to fall down, to lie down; to decay, to weaken; to perish’; (n.) *bad-a ‘lying down, fall, sleep, ruin’


(vb.) *bad- ‘to bring into being, to bring forth; to bring into action, to initiate, to instigate, to activate, to originate’;

(n.) *bad-a ‘creation, initiation, origination’

11. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *bag-a ‘goat, sheep’ 12. Proto-Nostratic root *bag- (~ *bǝg-):

(vb.) *bag- ‘to tie or bind together’; (n.) *bag-a ‘collection of things bound together: bunch, bundle, pack’

13. Proto-Nostratic root *bah- (~ *bǝh-): (vb.) *bah- ‘to shine’; (n.) *bah-a ‘brilliance, brightness, splendor, beauty; light’; (adj.) ‘shining,

bright, radiant’

14. Proto-Nostratic root *baħ- (~ *bǝħ-): (vb.) *baħ- ‘to make noise’; (n.) *baħ-a ‘noise, sound; voice’

15. Proto-Nostratic root *baħ- (~ *bǝħ-):

(vb.) *baħ- ‘to cut, to cut off, to strike’; (n.) *baħ-a ‘cut, strike, blow’

16. Proto-Nostratic root *bakº- (~ *bǝkº-):

(vb.) *bakº- ‘to declare, to utter, to announce, to assert, to proclaim’; (n.) *bakº-a ‘declaration, utterance, announcement, assertion, proclamation’

17. Proto-Nostratic root *bak’- (~ *bǝk’-): (vb.) *bak’- ‘to cleave, to split, to break open’; (n.) *bak’-a ‘crack, split, break’

18. Proto-Nostratic root *bal- (~ *bǝl-):

(vb.) *bal- ‘to be or become dark, obscure, blind’; (n.) *bal-a ‘darkness, obscurity, blindness’; (adj.) ‘dark, obscure, blind’

19. Proto-Nostratic root *bal- (~ *bəl-):

(vb.) *bal- ‘to well up, to surge, to overflow, to pour over’; (n.) *bal-a ‘outpour, downpour, surge, flow’

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *b 3 20. Proto-Nostratic root *bal- (~ *bǝl-):

(vb.) *bal- ‘to bite, to eat’; (n.) *bal-a ‘bite, morsel’

21. Proto-Nostratic root *bal- (~ *bəl-):

(vb.) *bal- ‘to shine, to be bright’; (n.) *bal-a ‘glitter, gleam, brightness’

22. Proto-Nostratic root *ban- (~ *bǝn-):

(vb.) *ban- ‘to pour, to sprinkle, to drip’; (n.) *ban-a ‘a drop (of water, rain, dew, etc.)’


(vb.) *ban- ‘to separate, to open, to spread’; (n.) *ban-a ‘separation, opening, stretch, spread, scattering’

24. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) *ban- (~ *bǝn-):

(vb.) *ban- ‘to cut, to strike’; (n.) *ban-a ‘cut, wound’


Extended form: (vb.) *ban-V-d- ‘to tie, bind, fasten, or twist (together)’; (n.) *ban-d-a ‘tie, bond’ Note: Only the extended form is attested in the daughter languages.

26. Proto-Nostratic root *bar- (~ *bər-):

(vb.) *bar- ‘to swell, to puff up, to expand’; (n.) *bar-a ‘swelling, bulge, increase’ Derivatives: (vb.) *bar- ‘to bristle (up), to stand on end’; (n.) *bar-a ‘bristle, point, spike’ (vb.) bar- ‘to blow’; (n.) * bar-a ‘wind’ (vb.) *bar- ‘to be thick, bushy, shaggy; to be coarse, rough, harsh’ (n.) *bar-a ‘roughness, coarseness, harshness; thickness, shagginess’; (adj.)

‘rough, harsh, coarse; thick, shaggy, bushy’

27. Proto-Nostratic root *bar- (~ *bər-): (vb.) *bar- ‘to bristle (up), to stand on end’; (n.) *bar-a ‘bristle, point, spike’ Derivative of: (vb.) *bar- ‘to swell, to puff up, to expand’; (n.) *bar-a ‘swelling, bulge, increase’

4 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX 28. Proto-Nostratic root *bar- (~ *bǝr-):

(vb.) bar- ‘to blow’; (n.) * bar-a ‘wind’ Derivative of: (vb.) *bar- ‘to swell, to puff up, to expand’; (n.) *bar-a ‘swelling, bulge, increase’

29. Proto-Nostratic *bar- (~ *bər-):

(vb.) *bar- ‘to be thick, bushy, shaggy; to be coarse, rough, harsh’; (n.) *bar-a ‘roughness, coarseness, harshness; thickness, shagginess’; (adj.)

‘rough, harsh, coarse; thick, shaggy, bushy’ Derivative of: (vb.) *bar- ‘to swell, to puff up, to expand’; (n.) *bar-a ‘swelling, bulge, increase’


(vb.) *bar- ‘to bear children, to give birth’; (n.) *bar-a ‘child’

31. Proto-Nostratic root *bar- (~ *bǝr-): (vb.) *bar- ‘to take or seize hold of, to grasp’; (n.) *bar-a ‘hold, grasp, seizure’

32. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *bar-a ‘seed, grain’ 33. Proto-Nostratic root *bar- (~ *bǝr-):

(vb.) *bar- ‘to shine, to be bright, to sparkle, to flash’; (n.) *bar-a ‘light, brightness; lightning’

34. Proto-Nostratic root *bar- (~ *bǝr-):

(vb.) *bar- ‘to be kind, charitable, beneficent; to do good’; (n.) *bar-a ‘goodness, kindness’; (adj.) ‘good, kind, beneficent’

35. Proto-Nostratic root *bar- (~ *bər-): (vb.) *bar- ‘to split (with a tool or weapon); to cut into, to carve; to scrape’; (n.) *bar-a ‘carving, engraving, cuttings, chip’


(vb.) *bar- ‘to make a sound, to utter a noise’; (n.) *bar-a ‘sound, noise’

37. Proto-Nostratic *bar- (~ *bər-):

(vb.) *bar- ‘to walk, to go (away)’; (n.) *bar-a ‘walking, going (away), leaving, departing’

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *b 5 38. Proto-Nostratic root *bar¨- (~ *bǝr¨-):

(vb.) *bar¨- ‘to be or become barren, desolate, useless, unfruitful’; (n.) *bar¨-a ‘open, fallow, or barren land’; (adj.) ‘barren, desolate, useless,

unfruitful’

39. Proto-Nostratic root *baw- (~ *bəw-): (vb.) *baw- ‘to be or become aware of or acquainted with, to observe, to

notice’; (n.) *baw-a ‘awareness, knowledge’

40. Proto-Nostratic root *bay- (~ *bǝy-):

(vb.) *bay- ‘to apportion, to divide into shares, to distribute, to allot, to share’; (n.) *bay-a ‘portion, share’

41. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *bay-a ‘honey, bee’ 42. Proto-Nostratic root *baǯ- (~ *bǝǯ-):

(vb.) *baǯ- ‘to be abundant, to be numerous, to be much, to be many’; (n.) *baǯ-a ‘abundance’; (adj.) ‘abundant, much, many’

43. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ber-a ‘swamp’

44. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *b[e]r-a ‘knee’ 45. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *bey-a ‘spirit, soul, self’ 46. Proto-Nostratic relational marker *bi ‘in addition to, with, together with’ 47. Proto-Nostratic root *bin- (~ *ben-):

(vb.) *bin- ‘to tie (together), to fasten, to twist together, to bind (together)’; (n.) *bin-a ‘tie, bond’

48. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *bin-a, *ban-a ‘younger relative: (m.) younger brother,

younger son; (f.) younger sister, younger daughter’ 49. Proto-Nostratic root *bir- (~ *ber-):

(vb.) *bir- ‘to swell, to rise, to grow’; (n.) *bir-a ‘largeness, greatness, height, tallness’; (adj.) ‘big, large, great, tall’ Extended form: (vb.) *bir-V-g- ‘to be high’; (n.) *bir-g-a ‘height, high place’; (adj.) ‘high, tall, lofty’ Note: The unextended form is found in Dravidian.

6 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX 50. Proto-Nostratic root *bir- (~ *ber-):

(vb.) *bir- ‘to sing, to play (a musical instrument)’; (n.) *bir-a ‘singing, playing (a musical instrument), musical instrument’

51. Proto-Nostratic root *bir- (~ *ber-):

(vb.) *bir- ‘to cut, rip, pull, break, or tear off; to pull’; (n.) *bir-a ‘the act of cutting, ripping, pulling, breaking, or tearing off’

52. Proto-Nostratic *bir¨- (~ *ber¨-):

(vb.) *bir¨- ‘to enjoy, to savor’; (n.) *bir¨-a ‘fruit’ Extended form: (n.) *bir¨-q’-a ‘plum’

53. Proto-Nostratic root *bit’¨- (~ *bet’¨-):

(vb.) *bit’¨- ‘to press between the fingers, to squeeze, to crush’; (n.) *bit’¨-a ‘squeeze, pinch, pressure’

54. Proto-Nostratic root *bi˜º- (~ *be˜º-):

(vb.) *bi˜º- ‘to break, to split, to prick (tr.); to split apart, to break open, to burst forth (intr.)’;

(n.) *bi˜º-a ‘break, slit, hole, piece broken off’

55. Proto-Nostratic *bor¨-a ‘(n.) a dark color; (adj.) dark, dark-colored’ 56. Proto-Nostratic root *bud- (~ *bud-):

(vb.) *bud- ‘to set fire to something, to kindle’; (n.) *bud-a ‘blaze, light, fire’

57. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *bud-a ‘lowest part or region (of anything)’

58. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *bud-a ‘stick’ 59. Proto-Nostratic root *bug- (~ *bog-):

(vb.) *bug- ‘to blister, to swell’; (n.) *bug-a ‘boil, blister, pustule’

60. Proto-Nostratic root *bug- (~ *bog-):

Extended form: (vb.) *bug-V-r- ‘to make a sound, to make a noise’; (n.) *bug-r-a ‘sound, noise’ Note: Only the extended form is attested in the daughter languages.

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *b 7 61. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *buk’-a (~ *bok’-a) ‘male of small, hoofed animals: he-

goat, buck’ 62. Proto-Nostratic root *bul- (~ *bol-):

(vb.) *bul- ‘to swell, to expand, to spread out, to overflow; to puff up, to inflate’;

(n.) *bul-a ‘large quantity or amount; expansion, spread, inflation; puff, blow’ Derivatives: (n.) *bul-a (~ *bol-a) ‘penis, testicle(s)’ (vb.) *bul-V-¦- ‘to ripen, to blossom, to bloom, to sprout, to mature’; (n.) *bul-¦-a ‘increase, growth, ripening, maturity, prosperity, blossoming’ Reduplicated: (vb.) *bul-bul- ‘to swell, to bubble up’; (n.) *bul-bul-a ‘puff, bubble, swelling’

63. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *bul-a (~ *bol-a) ‘penis, testicle(s)’:

Derivative of: (vb.) *bul- ‘to swell, to expand, to spread out, to overflow; to puff up, to

inflate’; (n.) *bul-a ‘large quantity or amount; expansion, spread, inflation; puff, blow’

64. Proto-Nostratic root *bul- (~ *bol-):

Extended form: (vb.) *bul-V-¦- ‘to ripen, to blossom, to bloom, to sprout, to mature’; (n.) *bul-¦-a ‘increase, growth, ripening, maturity, prosperity, blossoming’ Derivative of: (vb.) *bul- ‘to swell, to expand, to spread out, to overflow; to puff up, to


65. Proto-Nostratic root (reduplicated) *bul-bul- (~ *bol-bol-) (> *bum-bul- [~ *bom-bol-]): (vb.) *bul-bul- (> *bum-bul-) ‘to swell, to bubble up’; (n.) *bul-bul-a (> *bum-bul-a) ‘puff, bubble, swelling’ Derivative of: (vb.) *bul- ‘to swell, to expand, to spread out, to overflow; to puff up, to


66. Proto-Nostratic root *bul- (~ *bol-): (vb.) *bul- ‘to mix, to mix up, to confuse’; (n.) *bul-a ‘mixture, confusion, turbidity, blur’ Derivative: (n.) *bul-a ‘that which is dark, dark colored; that which has mixed colors, that

which is spotted’

8 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX 67. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *bul-a ‘that which is dark, dark-colored; that which has

mixed colors, that which is spotted’ Derivative of: (vb.) *bul- ‘to mix, to mix up, to confuse’; (n.) *bul-a ‘mixture, confusion, turbidity, blur’

68. Proto-Nostratic root *bul- (~ *bol-): (vb.) *bul- ‘to crush, to grind, to weaken, to wear down; to become worn out,

weak, tired, old’; (n.) *bul-a ‘that which is worn out, weak, tired: weakness, decline, decay,

wear, etc.; (adj.) worn out, weak, tired, old’ 69. Proto-Nostratic root *bun- (~ *bon-):

(vb.) *bun- ‘to puff up, to inflate, to expand, to swell’; (n.) *bun-a ‘rounded protuberance, swelling, lump, hump, growth’ Extended form: (vb.) *bun-V-g- ‘to swell, to increase, to expand’; (n.) *bun-g-a ‘swelling’; (adj.) ‘swollen, fat, thick’ Derivative: (vb.) *bun- ‘to flow, to overflow’; (n.) *bun-a ‘flow, flood’

70. Proto-Nostratic root *bun- (~ *bon-):

(vb.) *bun- ‘to flow, to overflow’; (n.) *bun-a ‘flow, flood’ Derivative of: (vb.) *bun- ‘to puff up, to inflate, to expand, to swell’; (n.) *bun-a ‘rounded protuberance, swelling, lump, hump, growth’

71. Proto-Nostratic root *bur- (~ *bor-):

(vb.) *bur- ‘to twist, to turn’; (n.) *bur-a ‘twist, turn’ Derivatives: (vb.) *bur- ‘to fight, to wrangle (over), to quarrel, to wrestle’; (n.) *bur-a ‘fight, dispute, quarrel, battle, struggle’ (vb.) *bur- ‘to bore, to pierce’; (n.) *bur-a ‘gimlet, borer, auger’


(vb.) *bur- ‘to fight, to wrangle (over), to quarrel, to wrestle’; (n.) *bur-a ‘fight, dispute, quarrel, battle, struggle’ Derivative of: (vb.) *bur- ‘to twist, to turn’; (n.) *bur-a ‘twist, turn’

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *b 9 73. Proto-Nostratic root *bur- (~ *bor-):

(vb.) *bur- ‘to bore, to pierce’; (n.) *bur-a ‘gimlet, borer, auger’ Derivative of: (vb.) *bur- ‘to twist, to turn’; (n.) *bur-a ‘twist, turn’


(vb.) *bur- ‘to blow, to blow about, to whirl, to rage’; (n.) *bur-a ‘storm, whirl, rage’

75. Proto-Nostratic root *bur- (~ *bor-): (vb.) *bur- ‘to bite, to eat’; (n.) *bur-a ‘food’

76. Proto-Nostratic root *bur- (~ *bor-): (vb.) *bur- ‘to cover, to wrap up’; (n.) *bur-a ‘cover, covering’

77. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *bur-a ‘(fine, soft) feathers, fur, wool, (body) hair’

78. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *bur-a ‘eyelash, eyebrow’ 79. Proto-Nostratic root *buw- (~ *bow-):

(vb.) *buw- ‘to go, to come, to proceed, to spend time’; (n.) *buw-a ‘going, coming, staying; abode, dwelling, residence’

80. Proto-Nostratic root *buw- (~ *bow-): (vb.) *buw- ‘to become, to arise, to come into being, to grow’; (n.) *buw-a ‘growth, fullness, prosperity; blossom, bloom’

CHAPTER 2

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *pº (> PROTO-AFRASIAN *p)

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

pº- p- p- p- pº- p- pº- p-

-pº- -p- -pp-/-v- -p- -pº- -p- -pº- -p(p)- 81. Proto-Nostratic root *pºačº- (~ *pºəčº-):

(vb.) *pºačº- ‘to split or break open, to split or break apart’; (n.) *pºačº-a ‘crack, split, opening, break’

82. Proto-Nostratic root *pºač’- (~ *pºǝč’-): (vb.) *pºač’- ‘to cover up’; (n.) *pºač’-a ‘skin, hide, covering’

83. Proto-Nostratic root *pºaħ- (~ *pºǝħ-): (vb.) *pºaħ- ‘to eat; (n.) *pºaħ-a ‘food, nourishment’

84. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pºakº-a ‘scab, dried mucus’

85. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pºal-a (metathesized variant *lapº-a in Uralic, Altaic, and part of Afrasian) ‘spleen’

86. Proto-Nostratic root *pºal- (~ *pºǝl-): (vb.) *pºal- ‘to split, to cleave’; (n.) *pºal-a ‘split, crack’ Derivative: (n.) *pºal-a ‘stone’

87. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pºal-a ‘stone’ Derivative of: (vb.) *pºal- ‘to split, to cleave’ (in the sense ‘to chip or break stone[s]’); (n.) *pºal-a ‘split, crack’

88. Proto-Nostratic root *pºal- (~ *pºǝl-): (vb.) *pºal- ‘to spread, to extend’; (n.) *pºal-a ‘that which is wide, flat, level, broad, open: expanse, open space or

surface’; (adj.) ‘wide, flat, level, broad, open’ Derivative: (n.) *pºal- ‘flat of the hand, palm’

12 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX

89. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pºal- ‘flat of the hand, palm’ Derivative of: (vb.) *pºal- ‘to spread, to extend’; (n.) *pºal-a ‘that which is wide, flat, level, broad, open: expanse, open space or

surface’; (adj.) ‘wide, flat, level, broad, open’

90. Proto-Nostratic root *pºal- (~ *pºǝl-): (vb.) *pºal- ‘to fill’; (n.) *pºal-a ‘fullness’; (adj.) ‘much, many’

91. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pºal-a ‘settlement, settled place’

92. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pºal-a ‘thumb, big toe’

93. Proto-Nostratic root *pºal- (~ *pºǝl-): (vb.) *pºal- ‘to cover, to hide, to conceal’; (n.) *pºal-a ‘covering’

94. Proto-Nostratic root *pºal¨- (~ *pºǝl¨-): (vb.) *pºal¨- ‘to burn, to be warm; to smart, to be painful’; (n.) *pºal¨-a ‘burn, burning sensation, pain’

95. Proto-Nostratic root *pºaŋ- (~ *pºəŋ-): (vb.) *pºaŋ- ‘to take in hand, to take hold of, to handle’; (n.) *pºaŋ-a ‘hand, handle’ Extended form (Indo-European and Uralic): (vb.) *pºaŋ-V-k¦º- ‘to take in hand, to take hold of, to handle’; (n.) *pºaŋ-k¦º-a ‘hand, handle’

96. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pºa—-a ‘front part, head, forehead, face’

97. Proto-Nostratic root *pºar- (~ *pºǝr-):

(vb.) *pºar- ‘to be fond of, to care for, to feel affection for; to be pleased, happy, satisfied, or delighted with’;

(n.) *pºar-a ‘love, affection; delight, joy’:

98. Proto-Nostratic root *pºar- (~ *pºǝr-): (vb.) *pºar- ‘to separate, to divide, to break (apart)’; (n.) *pºar-a ‘part, portion, share’

99. Proto-Nostratic root *pºar- (~ *pºər-): (vb.) *pºar- ‘to spread, to scatter’; (n.) *pºar-a ‘breadth, width, extension, space’; (adj.) ‘broad, extended, spread

out, scattered’

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *pº (> PROTO-AFRASIAN *p) 13

100. Proto-Nostratic root *pºar- (~ *pºǝr-): (vb.) *pºar- ‘to press forward, to precede, to hasten in advance, to overtake, to

surpass, to outstrip’; (n.) *pºar-a ‘leader, master, lord, hero’; (adj.) ‘chief, foremost, first’


(vb.) *pºar- ‘to move swiftly, to hasten, to be in a hurry, to be greatly agitated; to flutter, to fly, to flee’;

(n.) *pºar-a ‘flying, flight, fleeing’ Note also: (vb.) *pºir- ‘to move swiftly, to hasten, to be in a hurry, to be greatly agitated;

to flutter, to fly, to flee’; (n.) *pºir-a ‘flying, flight, fleeing’

102. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pºar-a ‘calf, heifer’

Note also: (n.) *pºur-a ‘calf, heifer’

103. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pºar-a, (?) *pºur-a ‘house’


(vb.) *pºar- ‘to go or pass; to go or pass over or across; to go forth or out’; (n.) *pºar-a ‘going, passage, journey, crossing’

105. Proto-Nostratic root *pºar¨- (~ *pºǝr¨-):

(vb.) *pºar¨- ‘to cover’; (n.) *pºar¨-a ‘covering’

106. Proto-Nostratic root *pºar¨- (~ *pºǝr¨-):

(vb.) *pºar¨- ‘to ripen, to mature, to grow old, (hair) to turn gray’; (n.) *pºar¨-a ‘ripeness, maturity’; (adj.) ‘ripe, mature, gray’

107. Proto-Nostratic root *pºas¨- (~ *pºǝs¨-):

(vb.) *pºas¨- ‘to breathe out, to blow; to fart’; (n.) *pºas¨-a ‘a fart’

108. Proto-Nostratic root *pºas¨- (~ *pºǝs¨-):

(vb.) *pºas¨- ‘to split, to cleave, to break, to shatter’; (n.) *pºas¨-a ‘split, break; part, share, portion’

109. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pºas¨-a ‘sperm, semen; male genitals, penis; descendant, offspring’


110. Proto-Nostratic root *pºatº- (~ *pºǝtº-): (vb.) *pºatº- ‘to flutter, to quiver, to tremble, to palpitate, to move rapidly’; (n.) *pºatº-a ‘haste, hurry’

111. Proto-Nostratic root *pºat’- (~ *pºǝt’-):

(vb.) *pºat’- ‘to hasten, to move quickly’; (n.) *pºat’-a ‘foot’

112. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pºat’-a ‘chaff, husk, (unripe or blighted) grain’

113. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) *pºek¦º-:

(vb.) *pºek¦º- ‘to warm, to heat’ (> ‘to cook, to bake’); (n.) *pºek¦º-a ‘warmth, heat’; (adj.) ‘warm, hot’ (> ‘cooked, baked’)

114. Proto-Nostratic root *pºel-:

(vb.) *pºel- ‘to tremble, to shake; to be frightened, fearful, afraid’; (n.) *pºel-a ‘fright, fear’

115. Proto-Nostratic root *pºid- (~ *pºed-):

(vb.) *pºid- ‘to seize, to hold, to clutch, to capture, to cling to’; (n.) *pºid-a ‘hold, grasp’

116. Proto-Nostratic root *pºin¨- (~ *pºen¨-):

(vb.) *pºin¨- ‘to watch (over), to protect, to nourish, to nurture’; (n.) *pºin¨-a ‘protection, care; feeding, nourishing, nourishment’

117. Proto-Nostratic root *pºir- (~ *pºer-):

(vb.) *pºir- ‘to bring forth, to bear fruit’; (n.) *pºir-a ‘birth, issue, offspring, descendant, fruit’


(vb.) *pºir- ‘to move swiftly, to hasten, to be in a hurry, to be greatly agitated; to flutter, to fly, to flee’;

(n.) *pºir-a ‘flying, flight, fleeing’ Note also: (vb.) *pºar- ‘to move swiftly, to hasten, to be in a hurry, to be greatly

agitated; to flutter, to fly, to flee’; (n.) *pºar-a ‘flying, flight, fleeing’

119. Proto-Nostratic root *pºir- (~ *pºer-): (vb.) *pºir- ‘to twist, to turn’; (n.) *pºir-a ‘twist, twining, turn; twine, string, rope, cord’

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *pº (> PROTO-AFRASIAN *p) 15

120. Proto-Nostratic root *pºir- (~ *pºer-): (vb.) *pºir- ‘to tremble, to shake; to be afraid, to fear’; (n.) *pºir-a ‘trembling, fear’

121. Proto-Nostratic root *pºitº- (~ *pºetº-):

(vb.) *pºitº- ‘to spread, to open; to burst open; to be open’; (n.) *pºitº-a ‘opening, open space’; (adj.) ‘open, spacious; wide, broad’

122. Proto-Nostratic root *pºit’¨- (~ *pºet’¨-):

(vb.) *pºit’¨- ‘to give birth to’; (n.) *pºit’¨-a ‘genitals (male or female); birth, origin’

123. Proto-Nostratic root *pºuʔ- (~ *pºoʔ-):

(vb.) *pºuʔ- ‘to swell, to fatten’; (n.) *pºuʔ-a ‘swelling, fullness, fat(ness)’

124. Proto-Nostratic root *pºul- (~ *pºol-) stem indicating downward motion:

(vb.) *pºul- ‘to fall, to fall down, to collapse, to ruin, etc.’; (n.) *pºul-a ‘fall, collapse, ruin’; (n.) ‘fallen, ruined, weakened; low, base,

vile, mean’

125. Proto-Nostratic root *pºul¨- (~ *pºol¨-): (vb.) *pºul¨- ‘to swell’; (n.) *pºul¨-a ‘a swelling (on the skin): blister, abscess, pimple, etc.’ Derivative: (n.) *pºul¨-a ‘that which is fat, swollen, etc.’ (> ‘tallow, grease, fat, oil,

blubber, etc.’ in the daughter languages)

126. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pºul¨-a ‘that which is fat, swollen, etc.’ (> ‘tallow, grease, fat, oil, blubber, etc.’ in the daughter languages) Derivative of: (vb.) *pºul¨- ‘to swell’; (n.) *pºul¨-a ‘a swelling (on the skin): blister, abscess, pimple, etc.’

127. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pºur-a ‘calf, heifer’

Note also: (n.) *pºar-a ‘calf, heifer’

128. Proto-Nostratic root *pºuš- (~ *pºoš-):

(vb.) *pºuš- ‘to breathe out, to sigh; to blow, to puff (up), to inflate’; (n.) *pºuš-a ‘puff, breath, snort; bulge’

CHAPTER 3

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *pº (> PROTO-AFRASIAN *f)

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

pº- f- p- p- pº- p- pº- p-

-pº- -f- -pp-/-v- -p- -pº- -p- -pº- -p(p)- 129. Proto-Nostratic root *pºaħ- (~ *pºǝħ-):

(vb.) *pºaħ- ‘to warm, to heat, to burn’; (n.) *pºaħ-a ‘fire, flame, spark’ Extended form: (vb.) *pºaħ-V-w- ‘to warm, to heat, to burn’; (n.) *pºaħ-w-a ‘fire, flame, spark’

130. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pºal-a ‘skin, hide’

131. Proto-Nostratic root *pºid- (~ *pºed-):

(vb.) *pºid- ‘to tear, to pluck, to pull; to tear off, to pluck off, to pull off; to tear out, to pluck out, to pull out’;

(n.) *pºid-a ‘the act of pulling, tearing, plucking’

132. Proto-Nostratic root *pºil¨- (~ *pºel¨-): (vb.) *pºil¨- ‘to split, to cleave’; (n.) *pºil¨-a ‘split, crack’

133. Proto-Nostratic root *pºin- (~ *pºen-):

(vb.) *pºin- ‘to break’; (n.) *pºin-a ‘break’


(vb.) *pºir- ‘to ask, to request, to entreat, to beseech, to pray’; (n.) *pºir-a ‘request, entreaty, prayer’

135. Proto-Nostratic root *pºutº- (~ *pºotº-):

(vb.) *pºutº- ‘to vomit’; (n.) *pºutº-a ‘vomit’

136. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *pºutº-a ‘hole, opening’

18 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX 137. Proto-Nostratic root *pºuw- (~ *pºow-):

(vb.) *pºuw- ‘to puff, to blow, to exhale; to puff up, to inflate’; (n.) *pºuw-a ‘a puff, the act of blowing, breath’

CHAPTER 4

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *p’

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

p’- p’- p- p’- p’- p- p- p-

-p’- -p’- -pp-/-v- -p’- -p’- -p- -p- -p-/ -pp-

138. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *p’ap’-a ‘old man, old woman’

139. Proto-Nostratic root *p’ul- (~ *p’ol-):

(vb.) *p’ul- ‘to swell’; (n.) *p’ul-a ‘swelling, hump, lump, bulge’; (adj.) ‘swollen, round, bulbous’

140. Proto-Nostratic root *p’ul¨- (~ *p’ol¨-):

(vb.) *p’ul¨- ‘to blow about; to give off smoke, vapor, steam’; (n.) *p’ul¨-a ‘mist, fog, haze; smoke, steam; cloud’

141. Proto-Nostratic root *p’ut’- (~ *p’ot’-):

(vb.) *p’ut’- ‘to cut, tear, break, or pull off or apart’; (n.) *p’ut’-a ‘cut-off, pulled-off, torn-off, or broken-off piece or part’

CHAPTER 5

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *d

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

d- d- t- d- dº- t- d- t-

-d- -d- -ṭ(ṭ)- -d- -dº- -t- -d- -ð- 142. Proto-Nostratic relational marker *da- (~ *dǝ-) ‘along with, together with, in

addition to’

143. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *da- ‘mother, sister’; (reduplicated) (n.) *da-da- ‘mother, sister’ (nursery words)

144. Proto-Nostratic root *dab- (~ *dǝb-):

(vb.) *dab- ‘to make fast, to join together, to fit together, to fasten (together)’; (n.) *dab-a ‘joining, fitting, fastening’

145. Proto-Nostratic root *dag- (~ *dǝg-):

(vb.) dag- ‘to put, to place, to put in place; to be put in place, to be stable, to be firmly established’;

(n.) *dag-a ‘place’

146. Proto-Nostratic root *daɢ- (~ *dǝɢ-): (vb.) *daɢ- ‘to glitter, to shine, to burn’; (n.) *daɢ-a ‘day’

147. Proto-Nostratic root *dal- (~ *dǝl-):

(vb.) *dal- ‘to cut, to prick, to pierce, to gash, to notch, to gouge, to wound’; (n.) *dal-a ‘gash, notch, strike, split’

148. Proto-Nostratic root *dal- (~ *dəl-):

(vb.) *dal- ‘to stir up, to disturb, to roil (water), to agitate; to be disturbed, confused, agitated, troubled’;

(n.) *dal-a ‘disturbance, agitation’ Note also: (vb.) *dul- ‘to disturb, to perplex, to bewilder, to confuse, to ruffle, to upset, to

baffle, to stir up trouble, to agitate; to be disturbed, perplexed, bewildered, confused, ruffled, upset, baffled, troubled, agitated’ (> ‘to drive someone crazy, mad, insane; to be crazy, mad, insane; to be dumb, stupid’);

(n.) *dul-a ‘confusion, disturbance, trouble, agitation, perplexity’ (> ‘madness, craziness, insanity; stupidity’)

22 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX 149. Proto-Nostratic root *dal¨- (~ *dǝl¨-):

(vb.) *dal¨- ‘to oppress, to harass, to weaken, to tire’; (n.) *dal¨-a ‘tiredness, weakness, exhaustion, weariness’; (adj.) ‘oppressed,

tired, weary, weak, exhausted’

150. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *daqº-a ‘male of certain animals: billy-goat, ram’

151. Proto-Nostratic root *dar- (~ *dǝr-): (vb.) *dar- ‘to bend, to twist, to turn; to twist, wrap, or join together’; (n.) *dar-a ‘bend, turn, curve; that which bends, turns, winds, or twists:

winding course or way’; (adj.) ‘bent, curved, crooked; wrapped, twisted, turned, or joined together’

152. Proto-Nostratic root *dar- (~ *dǝr-):

(vb.) *dar- ‘to pound, to break; to harm, to injure, to torment’; (n.) *dar-a ‘harm, injury’; (adj.) ‘harmful, malevolent’ (> ‘bad’ in Kartvelian

and, within Indo-European, in Celtic)

153. Proto-Nostratic root *dar- (~ *dǝr-): (vb.) *dar- ‘to be or become dark’; (n.) *dar-a ‘dark spot, darkness’; (adj.) ‘dark, black’

154. Proto-Nostratic root *dar¨- (~ *dǝr¨-):

(vb.) *dar¨- ‘to swell, to enlarge’; (n.) *dar¨-a ‘swelling, inflammation, blister, blotch, blemish; outgrowth,

tumor’

155. Proto-Nostratic root (?) *daw- (~ *dǝw-): (vb.) *daw- ‘to sound, to resound, to make a noise’; (n.) *daw-a ‘sound, noise’

156. Proto-Nostratic root *daw- (~ *dǝw-):

(vb.) *daw- ‘to put, to place, to set; to set up, to establish; to do, to make’; (n.) *daw-a ‘work, labor; deed, act’

157. Proto-Nostratic root *daw- (~ *dǝw-):

(vb.) *daw- ‘to become deathly sick, to be ill; to die’; (n.) *daw-a ‘(deadly) disease, sickness; death’

158. Proto-Nostratic root *day- (~ *dǝy-):

(vb.) *day- ‘to throw, to cast, to put, to place’; (n.) *day-a ‘act, deed’

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *d 23 159. Proto-Nostratic root *day- (~ *dǝy-):

(vb.) *day- ‘to look at, to consider, to examine’; (n.) *day-a ‘judgment, examination, consideration’

160. Proto-Nostratic root *day- (~ *dǝy-):

(vb.) *day- ‘to take, to bring, to convey’; (n.) *day-a ‘leader, guide’

161. Proto-Nostratic root *did- (~ *ded-):

(vb.) *did- ‘to swell, to rise’; (n.) *did-a ‘prominence, protuberance’; (adj.) ‘swollen, raised’

162. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *dig-a ‘fish’

163. Proto-Nostratic root *diɢ- (~ *deɢ-): (vb.) *diɢ- ‘to be confused, puzzled, perplexed’; (n.) *diɢ-a ‘confusion, perplexity’

164. Proto-Nostratic root *dil¨- (~ *del¨-):

(vb.) *dil¨- ‘to shine, to be or become bright’; (n.) *dil¨-a ‘daylight, morning’

165. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *dim-a ‘raised or elevated place’; (adj.) ‘raised, elevated’

166. Proto-Nostratic root *diqº- (~ *deqº-):

(vb.) *diqº- ‘to crush, to pound or tamp (earth), to mold or knead (clay)’; (n.) *diqº-a ‘earth, clay, mud’

167. Proto-Nostratic root *diy- (~ *dey-): (vb.) *diy- ‘to suck, to suckle’; (n.) *diy-a ‘breast, teat, nipple’

168. Proto-Nostratic root *dow-, *doy-:

(vb.) *dow-, *doy- ‘to slacken, to slow down; to grow weary, weak, faint’; (n.) *dow-a, *doy-a ‘slackness, slowness, laxity, weariness, fatigue’; (adj.)

‘slow, slack, lax, weary’

169. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *dub-a ‘back, hind part’

170. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *dud-a ‘tip, point’ 171. Proto-Nostratic root *dul- (~ *dol-):

(vb.) *dul- ‘to burn, to be bright, to warm, to heat up’; (n.) *dul-a ‘heat, warmth, fire’

24 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX 172. Proto-Nostratic root *dul- (~ *dol-):

(vb.) *dul- ‘to disturb, to perplex, to bewilder, to confuse, to ruffle, to upset, to baffle, to stir up trouble, to agitate; to be disturbed, perplexed, bewildered, confused, ruffled, upset, baffled, troubled, agitated’ (> ‘to drive someone crazy, mad, insane; to be crazy, mad, insane; to be dumb, stupid’);

(n.) *dul-a ‘confusion, disturbance, trouble, agitation, perplexity’ (> ‘madness, craziness, insanity; stupidity’)

Note also: (vb.) *dal- ‘to stir up, to disturb, to roil (water), to agitate; to be disturbed,

confused, agitated, troubled’; (n.) *dal-a ‘disturbance, agitation’

173. Proto-Nostratic root *dul¨- (~ *dol¨-):

(vb.) *dul¨- ‘to dangle, to hang, to swing back and forth’; (n.) *dul¨- ‘hanging, swinging; shaking, agitation, disturbance’

174. Proto-Nostratic root *dum- (~ *dom-):

(vb.) *dum- ‘to cut (off), to sever’; (n.) *dum-a ‘cut, severance; piece cut off, bit, fragment’


(vb.) *dum- ‘to be silent’; (n.) *dum-a ‘silence’


(vb.) *dum- ‘to cover over, to obscure; to cloud over; to become dark, to make dark, to darken’;

(n.) *dum-a ‘darkness, cloud, fog’; (adj.) ‘dark, cloudy’ Derivative: (n.) (*dum-k’¦-a >) *dun-k’¦-a ‘darkness, cloud’; (adj.) ‘dark, cloudy’

177. Proto-Nostratic (n.) (*dum-k’¦-a >) *dun-k’¦-a ‘darkness, cloud’; (adj.) ‘dark,

cloudy’: Derivative of: (vb.) *dum- ‘to cover over, to obscure; to cloud over; to become dark, to make

dark, to darken’; (n.) *dum-a ‘darkness, cloud, fog’; (adj.) ‘dark, cloudy’

178. Proto-Nostratic root *dun- (~ *don-):

(vb.) *dun- ‘to run, to flow (out), to leak’; (n.) *dun-a ‘flow, spill, leak’

179. Proto-Nostratic root *dun¨- (~ *don¨-):

(vb.) *dun¨- ‘to cut off, to cleave, to split’; (n.) *dun¨-a ‘part, share; piece cut off, bit, fragment’

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *d 25 180. Proto-Nostratic root *dur- (~ *dor-):

(vb.) *dur- ‘to bore, to drill, to make a hole’; (n.) *dur-a ‘hole, opening’

181. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *dur-a ‘goat, sheep, ram’ (perhaps originally ‘horned

animal’)

182. Proto-Nostratic root *duw- (~ *dow-): (vb.) *duw- ‘to blow about, to fly about, to scatter; to be blown, strewn, or

scattered about’; (n.) *duw-a ‘anything blown, sprinkled, scattered, or strewn about: smoke,

steam, vapor; rain, shower, drizzle, raindrops; dust’; (adj.) ‘blown about, sprinkled, scattered, strewn’

CHAPTER 6

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *tº

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

tº- t- t- t- tº- t- tº- t-

-tº- -t- -t(t)- -t- -tº- -t(t)- -tº- -t(t)- 183. Proto-Nostratic demonstrative stems:

Proximate: *tºa- (~ *tºǝ-) ‘this’; Intermediate: *tºi- (~ *tºe-) ‘that’; Distant: *tºu- (~ *tºo-) ‘that yonder’

184. Proto-Nostratic root *tºaħ- (~ *tºǝħ-):

(vb.) *tºaħ- ‘to reduce, to diminish, to wear away, to lessen; to waste away, to grow thin’;

(n.) *tºaħ-a ‘wear, decay, dissipation, maceration’ 185. Proto-Nostratic root *tºakº- (~ *tºǝkº-):

(vb.) *tºakº- ‘to twist, to bend; to fasten, twist, bend, join, or hook together; to be twisted, bent’;

(n.) *tºakº-a ‘hook, peg’

186. Proto-Nostratic root *tºak’- (~ *tºǝk’-): (vb.) *tºak’- ‘to touch, to push, to strike’; (n.) *tºak’-a ‘touch, stroke’

187. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *tºal-a ‘head, top, end’ 188. Proto-Nostratic root *tºal¨- (~ *tºǝl¨-):

(vb.) *tºal¨- (primary meaning) ‘to stretch, to spread, to extend’, (secondary meaning) ‘to endure, to suffer, to bear’;

(n.) *tºal¨-a ‘stretch, spread, thinness, breadth; pain, suffering, endurance’; (adj.) ‘stretched, spread out, extended’ (> ‘broad, wide, thin, flat, etc.’)

189. Proto-Nostratic root *tºal¨- (~ *tºǝl¨-):

(vb.) *tºal¨- ‘to press, to thrust, to force, to push’; (n.) *tºal¨-a ‘pressure, thrust, force, push’

190. Proto-Nostratic root *tºan¨- (~ *tºən¨-):

(vb.) *tºan¨- ‘to extend, to spread, to stretch; to endure, to be long-lasting’;


(n.) *tºan¨-a ‘extension, width, length, breadth’; (adj.) ‘stretched, extended, wide, broad, long-lasting’

Derivative: (vb.) *tºan¨- ‘to be or become worn out, tired, old’; (n.) *tºan¨-a ‘exhaustion, weariness, fatigue’; (adj.) ‘worn out, tired, old’

191. Proto-Nostratic root *tºan¨- (~ *tºən¨-):

(vb.) *tºan¨- ‘to grow weary, exhausted, tired, old’; (n.) *tºan¨-a ‘exhaustion, weariness, fatigue, old age’; (adj.) ‘tired, weary,

exhausted, old’ Derivative of: (vb.) *tºan¨- ‘to extend, to spread, to stretch; to endure, to be long-lasting’; (n.) *tºan¨-a ‘extension, width, length, breadth’; (adj.) ‘stretched, extended,

wide, broad, long-lasting’

192. Proto-Nostratic root *tºapº- (~ *tºǝpº-): (vb.) *tºapº- ‘to strike, to knock, to hit, to beat, to pound; to trample’; (n.) *tºapº-a ‘stroke, slap, blow, hit’ Note also: (vb.) *t’apº- ‘to strike, to beat, to pound’; (n.) *t’apº-a ‘stroke, blow’

193. Proto-Nostratic root *tºar- (~ *tºər-):

(vb.) *tºar- ‘to draw, to drag, to pull’; (n.) *tºar-a ‘drag, pull; something dragged or pulled along’ Possible derivative: (vb.) *tºar- ‘to spread, to spread out or about, to expand, to extend; to stretch,

to stretch out; to scatter, to strew’; (n.) *tºar-a ‘stretch, spread, expanse’; (adj.) ‘stretched, tight, taut; spread,

scattered, dispersed’

194. Proto-Nostratic root *tºar- (~ *tºǝr-): (vb.) *tºar- ‘to spread, to spread out or about, to expand, to extend; to stretch,

to stretch out; to scatter, to strew’; (n.) *tºar-a ‘stretch, spread, expanse’; (adj.) ‘stretched, tight, taut; spread,

scattered, dispersed’ Perhaps derived from: (vb.) *tºar- ‘to draw, to drag, to pull’, in the sense ‘to stretch by pulling’; (n.) *tºar-a ‘drag, pull; something dragged or pulled along’

195. Proto-Nostratic root *tºar- (~ *tºǝr-):

(vb.) *tºar- ‘to tear, to break, to split, to pierce’; (n.) *tºar-a ‘cut, tear, split, incision; wound, injury; spear’

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *tº 29

196. Proto-Nostratic root *tºar- (~ *tºǝr-): (vb.) *tºar- ‘to rub, to wear down’; (n.) *tºar-a ‘wear’; (adj.) ‘worn out, rubbed, abraded’ Possible Derivatives: (vb.) *tºar- ‘to wither, to wane, to dry up’; (n.) *tºar-a ‘dryness’; (adj.) ‘withered, dry, dried up, arid’ (vb.) *tºar- ‘to scratch, to scrape, to plane’; (n.) *tºar-a ‘scratching, scraping, raking; rake, comb’

197. Proto-Nostratic root *tºar- (~ *tºǝr-): (vb.) *tºar- ‘to wither, to wane, to dry up’; (n.) *tºar-a ‘dryness’; (adj.) ‘withered, dry, dried up, arid’ Perhaps derived from: (vb.) *tºar- ‘to rub, to wear down’; (n.) *tºar-a ‘wear’; (adj.) ‘worn out, rubbed, abraded’

198. Proto-Nostratic root *tºar- (~ *tºǝr-): (vb.) *tºar- ‘to scratch, to scrape, to plane’; (n.) *tºar-a ‘scratching, scraping, raking; rake, comb’ Perhaps derived from: (vb.) *tºar- ‘to rub, to wear down’; (n.) *tºar-a ‘wear’; (adj.) ‘worn out, rubbed, abraded’


(vb.) *tºar- ‘to drink’; (n.) *tºar-a ‘a drink; the act of drinking’; (adj.) ‘drunk, tipsy, intoxicated’


(vb.) *tºar- ‘to tremble, to shake’; (n.) *tºar-a ‘trembling, shaking (from fear, fright)’

201. Proto-Nostratic root *tºaw- (~ *tºǝw-):

(vb.) *tºaw- ‘to swell’; (n.) *tºaw-a ‘swelling, protuberance, bulge, lump, hump’; (adj.) ‘swollen, full,

fat’

202. Proto-Nostratic *tºekº-: (vb.) *tºekº- ‘to take (away), to grasp, to seize, to remove’; (n.) *tºekº-a ‘the act of taking, grasping, seizing, removing’

203. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) *tºepº-:

(vb.) *tºepº- ‘to warm, to burn’; (n.) *tºepº-a ‘heat, warmth’


Note also: (vb.) *t’ab- ‘to be or become warm; to make warm, to heat up; to cook’; (n.) *t’ab-a ‘heat, warmth’; (adj.) ‘hot, warm; cooked, baked’

204. Proto-Nostratic second person pronoun stem: *tºi- (~ *tºe-) ‘you’; (oblique

form) *tºa- (~ *tºǝ-)

205. Proto-Nostratic root *tºikº- (~ *tºekº-): (vb.) *tºikº- ‘to form, to fashion, to make, to create’; (n.) *tºikº-a ‘tool used to form, fashion, make, or create something: axe, adze,

chisel, etc.; the act of forming, fashioning, making, or creating something: action, deed, etc.’

206. Proto-Nostratic root *tºik’- (~ *tºek’-):

(vb.) *tºik’- ‘to press or squeeze together’; (n.) *tºik’-a ‘pressure, solidity, hardness, massiveness, firmness’; (adj.)

‘compact, thick, massive, solid, firm’

207. Proto-Nostratic root *tºir- (~ *tºer-): (vb.) *tºir- ‘to have enough or more than enough, to have all needs fulfilled,

to be satisfied, to have plenty’; (n.) *tºir-a ‘abundance, fullness’; (adj.) ‘enough, abundant, full’ Extended form: (vb.) *tºir-V-pº- ‘to have enough, to have all needs fulfilled, to be satisfied, to

have plenty’; (n.) *tºir-pº-a ‘abundance, excess, surplus, plenty’

208. Proto-Nostratic root *tºir- (~ *tºer-):

Extended form: (vb.) *tºir-V-pº- ‘to have enough, to have all needs fulfilled, to be satisfied, to

have plenty’; (n.) *tºir-pº-a ‘abundance, excess, surplus, plenty’ Derivative of: (vb.) *tºir- ‘to have enough or more than enough, to have all needs fulfilled,

to be satisfied, to have plenty’; (n.) *tºir-a ‘abundance, fullness’; (adj.) ‘enough, abundant, full’

209. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *tºor¨-a ‘dust, soil, earth’

210. Proto-Nostratic root *tºow-:

(vb.) *tºow- ‘to snow’; (n.) *tºow-a ‘snow-storm; snow, (hoar)frost’

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *tº 31

211. Proto-Nostratic root *tºukº- (~ *tºokº-): (vb.) *tºukº- ‘to burn, to blaze’; (n.) *tºukº-a ‘ash(es), soot’

212. Proto-Nostratic root *tºul- (~ *tºol-):

(vb.) *tºul- ‘to lift, to raise; to pile up, to stack (in a heap)’; (n.) *tºul-a ‘hill, mound; stack, heap’

213. Proto-Nostratic root *tºum- (~ *tºom-):

(vb.) *tºum- ‘to cover over, to hide; to become dark’; (n.) *tºum-a ‘darkness’; (adj.) ‘dark’

214. Proto-Nostratic root *tºupº-:

(vb.) *tºupº- ‘to spit’; (n.) *tºupº-a ‘spittle, saliva’

215. Proto-Nostratic root *tºur- (~ *tºor-): (vb.) *tºur- ‘to cram, to push in, to stuff, to thrust in, to press in’; (n.) *tºur-a ‘pressure, force, thrust’

CHAPTER 7

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *t’

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

t’- t’- t- t’- t’- t- t- t-

-t’- -t’- -t(t)- -t’- -t’- -t- -t- -t- 216. Proto-Nostratic root *t’ab- (~ *t’əb-):

(vb.) *t’ab- ‘to be or become warm; to make warm, to heat up; to cook’; (n.) *t’ab-a ‘heat, warmth’; (adj.) ‘hot, warm; cooked, baked’ Note also: (vb.) *tºepº- ‘to warm, to burn’; (n.) *tºepº-a ‘heat, warmth’

217. Proto-Nostratic root *t’ad- (*t’əd-):

(vb.) *t’ad- ‘to hinder, to stop, to obstruct’; (n.) *t’ad-a ‘hindrance, obstacle, impediment, obstruction’

218. Proto-Nostratic root *t’aħ- (~ *t’əħ-):

(vb.) *t’aħ- ‘to break, to split; to crush, to grind, to pound’; (n.) *t’aħ-a ‘break, split, division; anything ground or pulverized’

219. Proto-Nostratic root *t’akº- (~ *t’əkº-):

(vb.) *t’akº- ‘to be fit, appropriate, suitable, proper’; (n.) *t’akº-a ‘fitness, appropriateness, suitability, propriety’; (adj.) ‘fit,

appropriate, suitable, proper’

220. Proto-Nostratic root *t’al- (~ *t’ǝl-): (vb.) *t’al- ‘to lick’; (n.) *t’al-a ‘licking’

221. Proto-Nostratic root *t’al- (~ *t’ǝl-):

(vb.) *t’al- ‘to plunge, sink, dive, dip, or fall into; to immerse’; (n.) *t’al-a ‘immersion; depth’

222. Proto-Nostratic root *t’al- (~ *t’ǝl-):

(vb.) *t’al- ‘to stretch out, to extend’; (n.) *t’al-a ‘length; height’; (adj.) ‘long, tall; high’

223. Proto-Nostratic root *t’al¨-:

(vb.) *t’al¨- ‘to drip, to fall in drops, to sprinkle, to wet, to moisten’;


(n.) *t’al¨-a ‘dew, (rain) drop, drizzle’

224. Proto-Nostratic root *t’an- (~ *t’ǝn-): (vb.) *t’an- ‘to fill, to stuff, to pack or load tightly together’; (n.) *t’an-a ‘closeness, thickness, density; load, burden’; (adj.) ‘tightly packed

or pressed together; close, thick, dense’

225. Proto-Nostratic root *t’an- (~ *t’ən-): (vb.) *t’an- ‘to tie, to bind, to plait, to weave’; (n.) *t’an-a ‘anything woven or plaited’

226. Proto-Nostratic root *t’apº- (~ *t’əpº-):

(vb.) *t’apº- ‘to strike, to beat, to pound’; (n.) *t’apº-a ‘stroke, blow’ Note also: (vb.) *tºapº- ‘to strike, to knock, to hit, to beat, to pound; to trample’; (n.) *tºapº-a ‘stroke, slap, blow, hit’

227. Proto-Nostratic root *t’aq’- (~ *t’ǝq’-):

(vb.) *t’aq’- ‘to cover, to protect’; (n.) *t’aq’-a ‘covering’

228. Proto-Nostratic root *t’ar- (~ *t’ǝr-):

(vb.) *t’ar- ‘to tear, to rend, to cut, to sever’; (n.) *t’ar-a ‘rip, tear, cut, slice’ Extended form: (vb.) *t’ar-V-pº- ‘to tear, to rend, to pluck’; (n.) *t’ar-pº-a ‘tearing, rending, plucking’

229. Proto-Nostratic root *t’ar- (~ *t’ǝr-):

Extended form: (vb.) *t’ar-V-pº- ‘to tear, to rend, to pluck’; (n.) *t’ar-pº-a ‘tearing, rending, plucking’ Derivative of: (vb.) *t’ar- ‘to tear, to rend, to cut, to sever’; (n.) *t’ar-a ‘rip, tear, cut, slice’

230. Proto-Nostratic root *t’aw- (~ *t’ǝw-):

(vb.) *t’aw- ‘to go, to leave, to go away; to let go’; (n.) *t’aw-a ‘distance, remoteness’; (adj.) ‘far away, remote, at a distance’

231. Proto-Nostratic root *t’aw- (~ *t’ǝw-):

(vb.) *t’aw- ‘to hit, to strike’;

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *t’ 35

(n.) *t’aw-a ‘stroke, blow, injury, harm, damage’

232. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *t’ay-a ‘(elder) male in-law, (elder) male relative’

233. Proto-Nostratic root *t’ay- (~ *t’ǝy-) or *t’iy- (~ *t’ey-):

(vb.) *t’ay- or *t’iy- ‘to shine, to gleam, to be bright, to glitter, to glow; to burn brightly’;

(n.) *t’ay-a or *t’iy-a ‘light, brightness, heat’

234. Proto-Nostratic root *t’eʔ-: (vb.) *t’eʔ- ‘to say, to speak’; (n.) *t’eʔ-a ‘sound, speech’

235. Proto-Nostratic root *t’el-:

(vb.) *t’el- ‘to ask for, to request, to beg, to beseech’; (n.) *t’el-a ‘request, wish, desire’

236. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *t’id-a ‘elevated ground, hill, mountain’:

237. Proto-Nostratic root *t’il- (~ *t’el-):

(vb.) *t’il- ‘to say, to tell; to recount, to list, to enumerate’; (n.) *t’il-a ‘talk, speech, discourse, tale’ Derivative: (n.) *t’il-a ‘tongue, language’

238. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *t’il-a ‘tongue, language’:

Derivative of: (vb.) *t’il- ‘to say, to tell; to recount, to list, to enumerate’; (n.) *t’il-a ‘talk, speech, discourse, tale’

239. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) *t’ox¦-: (vb.) *t’ox¦- ‘to give, to bring’; (n.) *t’ox¦-a ‘giving, gift, present’

240. Proto-Nostratic root *t’uʔ¦- (~ *t’oʔ¦-):

(vb.) *t’uʔ¦- ‘to separate, divide, or split into two parts; to cut in half’; (n.) *t’uʔ¦-a ‘separation or division into two; two halves’ (used as the base for the numeral ‘two’ in Indo-European and Altaic)

241. Proto-Nostratic root *t’uk’- (~ *t’ok’-): (vb.) *t’uk’- ‘to knock, to beat, to strike, to pound, to trample’; (n.) *t’uk’-a ‘knock, thump, blow, stroke’


242. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *t’ul¨-a ‘wedge, peg’

243. Proto-Nostratic root *t’um- (~ *t’om-): (vb.) *t’um- ‘to quiet, to calm, to pacify, to tame’; (n.) *t’um-a ‘quietness, calmness, peace, tranquility’; (adj.) ‘quiet, calm, tame,

peaceful’

244. Proto-Nostratic root *t’uq’¦- (~ *t’oq’¦-): (vb.) *t’uq’¦- ‘to be dark, cloudy, dusty, dirty, sooty, smoky’; (n.) *t’uq’¦-a ‘darkness, (dark) cloud, dust, dirt, soot, smoke’

CHAPTER 8

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *d¨

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto-Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

d¨- d¨- c- ǯg- dº- t¨- ǯ- c-

-d¨- -d¨- -c(c)-/ -y-

-ǯg- -dº- -t¨- -ǯ-/ -d-

-c-

245. Proto-Nostratic root *däb- (~ *d¨ǝb-):

(vb.) *däb- ‘to beat, to hit, to strike, to harm, to injure’; (n.) *däb-a ‘stroke, blow, harm, injury; slaughter, killing’

246. Proto-Nostratic root *däk¦º- (~ *d¨ək¦º-):

(vb.) *däk¦º- ‘to blaze, to be bright’; (n.) *däk¦º-a ‘(burning) embers, fire, flame’

247. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *dän-w-a ‘a kind of tree or bush’

248. Proto-Nostratic root *där- (~ *d¨ǝr-):

(vb.) *där- ‘to hold firmly’; (n.) *där-a ‘firm grip; hand, arm’

249. Proto-Nostratic root *däw- (~ *d¨ǝw-):

(vb.) *däw- ‘to run, to flow’; (n.) *däw-a ‘stream, current, flow’; (adj.) ‘running, flowing’

250. Proto-Nostratic indefinite pronoun stem *dï- (~ *dë-) ‘this one, that one’

251. Proto-Nostratic root *dïʔ- (~ *dëʔ-):

(vb.) *dïʔ- ‘to reach, to arrive at, to come to; to surpass, to exceed’; (n.) *dïʔ-a ‘arrival, attainment, ripening’

252. Proto-Nostratic root *dïpº- (~ *dëpº-):

(vb.) *dïpº- ‘to stink, to give off a strong odor’; (n.) *dïpº-a ‘pungent smell, stench’

CHAPTER 9

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *t¨º

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

t¨º- t¨- c- čk- tº- t¨- čº- c-

-t¨º- -t¨- -c(c)-/ -y-

-čk- -tº- -t¨- -čº- -c(c)-

253. Proto-Nostratic deictic stem *t¨ºa- ‘that over there, that yonder (not very far)’

254. Proto-Nostratic root *t¨ºal- (~ *t¨ºəl-):

(vb.) *t¨ºal- ‘to strike with a sharp instrument’; (n.) *t¨ºal-a ‘strike, blow; sharp instrument’ Derivative: (n.) *t¨ºal-m-a ‘breach, opening, gap; crack, fissure, rift; hole’

255. Proto-Nostratic root *t¨ºal- (~ *t¨ºəl-):

Extended form: (n.) *t¨ºal-m-a ‘breach, opening, gap; crack, fissure, rift; hole’ Derivative of: (vb.) *t¨ºal- ‘to strike with a sharp instrument’; (n.) *t¨ºal-a ‘strike, blow; sharp instrument’

256. Proto-Nostratic root *t¨ºar- (~ *t¨ºǝr-):

(vb.) *t¨ºar- ‘to advance to or toward an end or a goal; to attain or achieve an end or a goal, to reach, to come to, to arrive at’;

(n.) *t¨ºar-a ‘advance, arrival, goal, attainment, end, aim; approach’

257. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *t¨ºin-a ‘the other or opposite side’; (adj.) ‘different, other’

258. Proto-Nostratic root *t¨ºiq’¦- (~ *t¨ºeq’¦-):

(vb.) *t¨ºiq’¦- ‘to swell’; (n.) *t¨ºiq’¦-a ‘swelling, growth’

259. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *t¨ºom-a ‘wild bovine’

260. Proto-Nostratic root *t¨ºum- (~ *t¨ºom-):

(vb.) *t¨ºum- ‘to strike, to beat, to pound, to knock; to tire out, to weary; to be or become weak or weary, to fade, to waste away’;

(n.) *t¨ºum-a ‘fatigue, weariness, dullness, stupor’

CHAPTER 10

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *t’¨

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

t’¨- t’¨- c- č’k’- t’- t¨- č- c-

-t’¨- -t’¨- -c(c)-/ -y-

-č’k’- -t’- -t¨t¨- -č- -c-

261. Proto-Nostratic root *t’äd- (~ *t’¨ǝd-):

(vb.) *t’äd- ‘to strike, to beat, to pound, to hammer’; (n.) *t’äd-a ‘hammer’

262. Proto-Nostratic root *t’äkº- (~ *t’¨ǝkº-):

(vb.) *t’äkº- ‘to cut into small pieces, to chop, to chip’; (n.) *t’äkº-a ‘chip, small piece’

263. Proto-Nostratic root *t’äl- (~ *t’¨ǝl-) and/or *t’ïl- (~ *t’ël-):

(vb.) *t’äl- and/or *t’ïl- ‘to overshadow, to cover over, to make dark’; (n.) *t’äl-a and/or *t’ïl-a ‘shade, shadow; covering; darkness’

264. Proto-Nostratic root *t’äm- (~ *t’¨əm-):

(vb.) *t’äm- ‘to be sour, bitter’; (n.) *t’äm-a ‘that which is sour, bitter, rotten, or spoiled’

265. Proto-Nostratic root *t’är- (~ *t’¨ǝr-):

(vb.) *t’är- ‘to be or become stuck, joined, or bound together; to be firmly or strongly attached’;

(n.) *t’är-a ‘firmness, solidity, strength’; (adj.) ‘firm, solid, strong, steadfast’ Derivative: (vb.) *t’är- ‘to be rough, coarse, rigid, stiff, hard’; (n.) *t’är-a ‘that which is rough, coarse, rigid, stiff, hard’; (adj.) ‘rough,

coarse, rigid, stiff, hard’

266. Proto-Nostratic root *t’är- (~ *t’¨ǝr-): (vb.) *t’är- ‘to be rough, coarse, rigid, stiff, hard’; (n.) *t’är-a ‘that which is rough, coarse, rigid, stiff, hard’; (adj.) ‘rough,

coarse, rigid, stiff, hard’ Derivative of: (vb.) *t’är- ‘to be or become stuck, joined, or bound together; to be firmly or

strongly attached’; (n.) *t’är-a ‘firmness, solidity, strength’; (adj.) ‘firm, solid, strong, steadfast’


267. Proto-Nostratic root *t’är- (~ *t’¨ǝr-): (vb.) *t’är- ‘to cut, to split’; (n.) *t’är-a ‘cut, split, rip, tear; damage’; (adj.) ‘cut, split, ripped, torn’

268. Proto-Nostratic root *t’är- (~ *t’¨ər-) (onomatopoeic): (vb.) *t’är- ‘to make a noise’; (n.) *t’är-a ‘(rustling or rumbling) noise’

269. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *t’äw-a ‘bad thing, evil, wickedness’; (adj.) ‘bad, evil’

270. Proto-Nostratic root *t’ïŋ- (~ *t’ëŋ-):

(vb.) *t’ïŋ- ‘to think, to consider’; (n.) *t’ïŋ-a ‘thought, consideration, idea’

271. Proto-Nostratic root *t’ïpº- (~ *t’ëpº-):

(vb.) *t’ïpº- ‘to pinch, to nip’; (n.) *t’ïpº-a ‘fingernail, claw’

272. Proto-Nostratic root *t’ör-:

(vb.) *t’ör- ‘to run, to flow’; (n.) *t’ör-a ‘running, flowing’; (adj.) ‘speedy, swift’

CHAPTER 11

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *s¨

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

s¨- s¨- c- šk- s- s¨- s- s¨-

-s¨- -s¨- -c(c)-/ -y-

-šk- -s- -s¨- -s- -s¨-

273. Proto-Nostratic root *säm- (~ *s¨ǝm-):

(vb.) *säm- ‘to be hot, sunny’; (n.) *säm-a ‘summer’

274. Proto-Nostratic root *säw- (~ *s¨ǝw-):

(vb.) *säw- ‘to be dry, arid, withered’; (n.) *säw-a ‘dryness, dry place’; (adj.) ‘dry, arid, withered’

275. Proto-Nostratic root *säw- (~ *s¨ǝw-) or *sëw-:

(vb.) *säw- ‘to give birth, to bring forth, to be born’; (n.) *säw-a ‘son, child’

276. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *säw-a ‘wild boar’

277. Proto-Nostratic root *säx¦- (~ *s¨əx¦-):

(vb.) *säx¦- ‘to be or become hot, warm; to heat up, to make hot, to warm, to burn’;

(n.) *säx¦-a ‘warmth, heat; sun’ 278. Proto-Nostratic root *sën¨-:

(vb.) *sën¨- ‘to change, to deteriorate, to grow old’; (n.) *sën¨-a ‘old age; old person’; (adj.) ‘aged, old’

279. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *sïl-a ‘fat, lard’

280. Proto-Nostratic root *sïl¨- (~ *sël¨-):

(vb.) *sïl¨- ‘to take (away), to seize, to snatch’; (n.) *sïl¨-a ‘removal, robbery, plunder’

281. Proto-Nostratic root *sïr- (~ *sër-):

(vb.) *sïr- ‘to twist, turn, tie, or bind together’; (n.) *sïr-a ‘band, cord, any cord-like object: sinew, tendon, nerve, vein’ Perhaps related to: (n.) *sïr-a ‘root (of tree or plant)’


282. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *sïr-a ‘root (of tree or plant)’ Perhaps related to: (vb.) *sïr- ‘to twist, turn, tie, or bind together’; (n.) *sïr-a ‘band, cord, any cord-like object: sinew, tendon, nerve, vein’

283. Proto-Nostratic root *söl-:

(vb.) *söl- ‘to be safe, well, sound’; (n.) *söl-a ‘safety; health, welfare’; (adj.) ‘safe, well, sound’

284. Proto-Nostratic root *sör-:

(vb.) *sör- ‘to surge, gush, flow, spring, or spread forth’; (n.) *sör-a ‘surge, gush, flow’

285. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *süb-a ‘end, edge; top, front part’

286. Proto-Nostratic root *sür- (~ *sör-):

(vb.) *sür- ‘to frighten; to be or become frightened, to fear’; (n.) *sür-a ‘fear’

287. Proto-Nostratic root *süw- (~ *söw-):

(vb.) *süw- ‘to be proper, fitting, suitable, appropriate, good, well, fine, beautiful’;

(n.) *süw-a ‘propriety, suitability, appropriateness’; (adj.) ‘proper, fitting, suitable, appropriate’

Semantics as in Geez / Ethiopic šannaya [ሠነየ] ‘to be beautiful, to be good, to seem good, to be well, to be fine, to be excellent, to be fitting, to be appropriate’ and its derivatives.

CHAPTER 12

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *ʒ

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto-Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

ʒ- ʒ- c- ʒ- dº- č- ǯ- c-

-ʒ- -ʒ- -c(c)- -ʒ- -dº- -č- -ǯ-/ -d-

-c-

288. Proto-Nostratic root *ʒag- (~ *ʒǝg-):

(vb.) *ʒag- ‘to push, to shove, to drive’; (n.) *ʒag-a ‘push, shove, force’ Related to: (vb.) *ʒag- ‘to stuff, press, or squeeze tight’; (n.) *ʒag-a ‘plug’; (adj.) ‘pressing, squeezing, cramming’


(vb.) *ʒag- ‘to stuff, press, or squeeze tight’; (n.) *ʒag-a ‘plug’; (adj.) ‘pressing, squeezing, cramming’ Related to: (vb.) *ʒag- ‘to push, to shove, to drive’; (n.) *ʒag-a ‘push, shove, force’


(vb.) *ʒag- ‘to whet, to sharpen’; (n.) *ʒag-a ‘edge, side’

291. Proto-Nostratic root *ʒak’- (~ *ʒǝk’-):

(vb.) *ʒak’- ‘to make fun of, to deride, to mock; to make sport, to play about, to joke’;

(n.) *ʒak’-a ‘mockery, ridicule, sport’

292. Proto-Nostratic root *ʒar- (~ *ʒǝr-) or *ǯar- (~ *ǯǝr-): (vb.) *ʒar- or *ǯar- ‘to run, flow, leak, or spill out; to spring forth, to issue

(from); to flow or gush forth’; (n.) *ʒar-a or *ǯar-a ‘drizzle, rain, downpour; current, stream, torrent’

293. Proto-Nostratic root *ʒer- or *ǯer-:

(vb.) *ʒer- or *ǯer- ‘to pierce, to jab, to stab, to thrust or shove into’; (n.) *ʒer-a or *ǯer-a ‘spear, javelin, weapon’

46 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX 294. Proto-Nostratic root *ʒil- (~ *ʒel-) or *ǯil- (~ *ǯel-):

(vb.) *ʒil- or *ǯil- ‘to flow, to flow forth’; (n.) *ʒil-a or *ǯil-a ‘drip, drop, raindrop’; (adj.) ‘flowing, trickling, dropping,

sprinkling’ Probably identical to: (vb.) *ʒil- or *ǯil- ‘to glide, to slide’; (n.) *ʒil-a or *ǯil-a ‘the act of slipping, sliding, gliding’; (adj.) ‘smooth,

slippery’

295. Proto-Nostratic root *ʒil- (~ *ʒel-) or *ǯil- (~ *ǯel-): (vb.) *ʒil- or *ǯil- ‘to glide, to slide’; (n.) *ʒil-a or *ǯil-a ‘the act of slipping, sliding, gliding’; (adj.) ‘smooth,

slippery’ Probably identical to: (vb.) *ʒil- or *ǯil- ‘to flow, to flow forth’; (n.) *ʒil-a or *ǯil-a ‘drip, drop, raindrop’; (adj.) ‘flowing, trickling, dropping,

sprinkling’

296. Proto-Nostratic root *ʒim- (~ *ʒem-) or *ǯim- (~ *ǯem-): (vb.) *ʒim- or *ǯim- ‘to blow, to play (a wind instrument)’; (n.) *ʒim-a or *ǯim-a ‘blowing, playing (a wind instrument)’

297. Proto-Nostratic root *ʒum- (~ *ʒom-) or *ǯum- (~ *ǯom-):

(vb.) *ʒum- or *ǯum- ‘to take, to seize’; (n.) *ʒum-a or *ǯum-a ‘the act of taking or seizing’; (adj.) ‘taking, seizing’

298. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʒuʒ-a ‘nipple, breast’

CHAPTER 13

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *cº

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto-Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

cº- c- c- c- tº- č- čº- c-

-cº- -c- -c(c)- -c- -tº- -č- -čº- -c(c)- 299. Proto-Nostratic root *cºag- (~ *cºǝg-):

(vb.) *cºag- ‘to prick, to pierce’; (n.) *cºag-a ‘prick, sting, rupture’

300. Proto-Nostratic root *cºaħ- (~ *cºǝħ-):

(vb.) *cºaħ- ‘to crush, to pound, to grind, to beat, to bruise, to destroy’; (n.) *cºaħ-a ‘the act of crushing, beating, thrashing, pounding, grinding’;

(adj.) ‘crushing, beating, thrashing, pounding, grinding’

301. Proto-Nostratic root *cºal- (~ *cºǝl-): (vb.) *cºal- ‘to cut, to split, to cleave, to break off or apart’; (n.) *cºal-a ‘cut, crack, split; stroke, blow’ Derivative: (n.) *cºal-a ‘part, piece, chip, fragment’

302. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *cºal-a ‘part, piece, chip, fragment’:

Derivative of: (vb.) *cºal- ‘to cut, to split, to cleave, to break off or apart’; (n.) *cºal-a ‘cut, crack, split; stroke, blow’

303. Proto-Nostratic root *cºukº- (~ *cºokº-):

(vb.) *cºukº- ‘to close, to shut, to cover’; (n.) *cºukº-a ‘closure, cover, stoppage’

CHAPTER 14

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *c’

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

c’- c’- c- c’- t’- č- č- c-

-c’- -c’- -c(c)- -c’- -t’- -č- -č- -c- 304. Proto-Nostratic root *c’al- (~ *c’əl-) or *č’al- (~ *č’əl-):

(vb.) *c’al- or *č’al- ‘to stretch out, to extend, to exceed; to be wealthy, to prosper, to do well’;

(n.) *c’al-a or *č’al-a ‘wealth, prosperity, abundance’

305. Proto-Nostratic root *c’ar- (~ *c’ǝr-) stem indicating downward motion: (vb.) *c’ar- ‘to slip or slide down, to fall down, to roll down, to lean or bend

down, to throw down’; (n.) *c’ar-a ‘the act of slipping, sliding, falling, or rolling down’; (particle) *c’ar- ‘down’

306. Proto-Nostratic root *c’ar- (~ *c’ǝr-) or *č’ar- (~ *č’ǝr-):

(vb.) *c’ar- or *č’ar- ‘to be or become visible, clear, evident; to reveal, to make known, to make clear, to clarify’;

(n.) *c’ar-a or *č’ar-a ‘visibility, clarity’; (adj.) ‘visible, clear, evident’

307. Proto-Nostratic root *c’aw- (~ *c’ǝw-): (vb.) *c’aw- ‘to be or become dry, withered, emaciated, lean’; (n.) *c’aw-a ‘that which is withered, dry, lean, blighted’; (adj.) ‘dry, withered,

lean, blighted’ Extended form: (vb.) *c’aw-V-l¨- ‘to be or become dry, withered, emaciated, lean’; (adj.) *c’aw-l¨-a ‘that which is withered, dry, lean, blighted’; (adj.) ‘dry,

withered, lean, blighted’

308. Proto-Nostratic root *c’il¨- (~ *c’el¨-): (vb.) *c’il¨- ‘to strip off, to peel off, to pick, to pluck’; (n.) *c’il¨-a ‘peeling, picking, plucking’

309. Proto-Nostratic root *c’ir¨- (~ *c’er¨-):

(vb.) *c’ir¨- ‘to squeak, to chirp, to cheep, to peep’; (n.) *c’ir¨-a ‘a kind of bird’


310. Proto-Nostratic root *c’ur- (~ *c’or-): (vb.) *c’ur- ‘to twist, to turn, to revolve; to press, tie, or bind together; to wrap

up; to surround, to encircle, to enclose’; (n.) *c’ur-a ‘that which is tied, twisted, wrapped, or bound together: coil,

wrapping, binding, loop, etc.; that which surrounds, encircles, or encloses: enclosure, wall, surroundings, circle’

CHAPTER 15

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *s

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

s- s- c- s- s- s- s-

-s- -s- -c(c)- -s- -s- -s- -s- 311. Proto-Nostratic root *saʔ- (~ *səʔ-):

Extended form: (vb.) *saʔ-V-y- ‘to sift’; (n.) *saʔ-y-a ‘sieve’

312. Proto-Nostratic root *sad¨- (~ *səd¨-):

(vb.) *sad¨- ‘to hear, to listen, to judge’; (n.) *sad¨-a ‘hearing, judgment, condemnation, punishment’

313. Proto-Nostratic root *sag- (~ *sǝg-) or *šag- (~ *šǝg-):

(vb.) *sag- or *šag- ‘to reach, to arrive at, to attain, to achieve, to get, to obtain’;

(n.) *sag-a or *šag-a ‘acquisition, attainment, victory’

314. Proto-Nostratic root *saħ- (~ *səħ-) or *šaħ- (~ *šəħ-): (vb.) *saħ- or *šaħ- ‘to examine, to consider, to try to find out, to try to

understand, to think about’; (n.) *saħ-a or *šaħ-a ‘thought, idea, understanding, inquiry, examination,

consideration, investigation’ 315. Proto-Nostratic root *sakº- (~ *sǝkº-):

(vb.) *sakº- ‘to cut, to split’; (n.) *sakº-a ‘any sharp instrument used for cutting: knife, sword, dagger, axe,

etc.’

316. Proto-Nostratic root *sak’¦- (~ *sǝk’¦-): (vb.) *sak’¦- ‘to tie, to bind, to fasten’; (n.) *sak’¦-a ‘fastening, loop’

317. Proto-Nostratic root *sal- (~ *sǝl-):

(vb.) *sal- ‘to go up, to lift up, to raise up’; (n.) *sal-a ‘ascent; height’; (adj.) ‘elevated, high, raised’

318. Proto-Nostratic root *sam- (~ *səm-):

(vb.) *sam- ‘to resemble, to be like’;


(n.) *sam-a ‘form, shape, appearance, likeness’; (adj.) ‘similar, alike, same’

319. Proto-Nostratic root *san- (~ *sən-) or *šan- (~ *šən-), *sin- (~ *sen-) or *šin- (~ *šen-), *sun- (~ *son-) or *šun- (~ *šon-): (vb.) *san- or *šan-, *sin- or *šin-, *sun- or *šun- ‘to sense, to perceive’; (n.) *san-a or *šan-a, *sin-a or *šin-a, *sun-a or *šun-a ‘(a) that which

senses or perceives: mind, nose; (b) that which is sensed or perceived: perception, sense, feeling’

320. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *s[e]n-a or *š[e]n-a (the root vowel is

uncertain but is probably *e) ‘sinew, tendon’

321. Proto-Nostratic second person pronoun stem *si- (~ *se-) ‘you’

322. Proto-Nostratic 3rd person pronoun stem *si- (~ *se-) ‘he, she, it; him, her; they, them’; 3rd person possessive suffix *-si (~ *-se) ‘his, her, its; their’

323. Proto-Nostratic root *sig- (~ *seg-):

(vb.) *sig- ‘to flow forth, to rain’; (n.) *sig-a ‘flowing, raining, storm’

324. Proto-Nostratic root *siħ- (~ *seħ-):

(vb.) *siħ- ‘to scatter, to strew, to cast or throw, to sprinkle (with water)’; (n.) *siħ-a ‘the act of scattering, strewing, casting, or throwing about’; (adj.)

‘scattered, strewn, cast, or thrown about’

CHAPTER 16

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *ǯ

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto-Karvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

ǯ- ʒ- c- ǯ- dº- č- ǯ- c-

-ǯ- -ʒ- -c(c)- -ǯ- -dº- -č- -ǯ-/ -d-

-c-

325. Proto-Nostratic root *ǯaʔ- (~ *ǯǝʔ-):

(vb.) *ǯaʔ- ‘to die, to fade, to wither’; (n.) *ǯaʔ-a ‘death’

326. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ǯag¦-a ‘a small tree, a bush or shrub’

327. Proto-Nostratic root *ǯaħ- (~ *ǯəħ-):

(vb.) *ǯaħ- ‘to call (out), to cry (out)’; (n.) *ǯaħ-a ‘call, cry; name’

328. Proto-Nostratic root *ǯal- (~ *ǯǝl-):

(vb.) *ǯal- ‘to fasten, to tie’; (n.) *ǯal-a ‘string, strap, cord’

329. Proto-Nostratic root *ǯaw- (~ *ǯǝw-):

(vb.) *ǯaw- ‘to wear out, to be used up, to cease to function’; (n.) *ǯaw-a ‘cessation, end, extinction’; (adj.) ‘worn out, used up, wasted,

decrepit, old’

330. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ǯem-a ‘anything that is sour, bitter, pungent, sharp’; (adj.) ‘sour, bitter, pungent, sharp’

CHAPTER 17

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *čº

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto-Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

čº- c- c- č- tº- č- čº- c-

-čº- -c- -c(c)- -č- -tº- -č- -čº- -c(c)- 331. Proto-Nostratic root *čºal- (~ *čºǝl-):

(vb.) *čºal- ‘to leave, to leave behind, to abandon, to get rid of, to empty; to set free, to release, to let go’;

(n.) *čºal-a ‘freedom, leisure, emptiness’; (adj.) ‘empty, abandoned, released, freed (from), at leisure’

Semantics as in Sanskrit ric- and its derivatives: ric- ‘to empty, to evacuate, to leave, to give up, to resign; to release, to set free; to leave behind; to separate, to remove from’, ricyáte ‘to be emptied, to be deprived of or freed from’, riktá-ḥ ‘emptied, empty, void’.

332. Proto-Nostratic root *čºan- (~ *čºǝn-):

(vb.) *čºan- ‘to bring forth, to produce, to grow, to be born’; (n.) *čºan-a ‘that which is brought forth, produced, grown: fruit; bringing

forth: birth’

333. Proto-Nostratic root *čºečº-: (vb.) *čºečº- ‘to press, to squeeze, to crush’; (n.) *čºečº-a ‘the act of pressing, squeezing, crushing; that which is pressed,

squeezed, crushed: crumb(s)’ 334. Proto-Nostratic root *čºokº-:

(vb.) *čºokº- ‘to bend, to twist, to turn, to wind’; (n.) *čºokº-a ‘the act of bending, twisting, turning, winding’

CHAPTER 18

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *č’

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

č’- c’- c- č’- t’- č- č- c-

-č’- -c’- -c(c)- -č’- -t’- -č- -č- -c- 335. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *č’am-a ‘reed, grass’

336. Proto-Nostratic root *č’ik’- (~ *č’ek’-):

(vb.) *č’ik’- ‘to be small’; (n.) *č’ik’-a ‘small things’; (adj.) ‘small’

337. Proto-Nostratic root *č’ir- (~ *č’er-):

(vb.) *č’ir- ‘to cut, to cut off, to cut through; to cut into, to scratch, to scrape’; (n.) *č’ir-a ‘that which is cut, cut off, cut into: slice, board, plank, scratch;

that which cuts: knife, axe, adze’

CHAPTER 19

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *š

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

š- s- c- š- s- s- s-

-š- -s- -c(c)- -š- -s- -s- -s- 338. Proto-Nostratic demonstrative pronoun stem *ša- (~ *šǝ-) ‘this, that’

339. Proto-Nostratic root *šar- (~ *šǝr-):

(vb.) *šar- ‘to split, to rip apart, to tear asunder’; (n.) *šar-a ‘that which splits: knife’

340. Proto-Nostratic root *šaw- (~ *šǝw-):

(vb.) *šaw- ‘to drink, to swallow’; (n.) *šaw-a ‘drink, juice’


(vb.) *šaw- ‘to sigh, to pant, to gasp, to breathe deeply’; (n.) *šaw-a ‘breath, sigh’ Related to: (vb.) *šaw- ‘to sleep, to rest’; (n.) *šaw-a ‘sleep, slumber, rest’


(vb.) *šaw- ‘to sleep, to rest’; (n.) *šaw-a ‘sleep, slumber, rest’ Related to: (vb.) *šaw- ‘to sigh, to pant, to gasp, to breathe deeply’; (n.) *šaw-a ‘breath, sigh’

343. Proto-Nostratic root *šiħ- (~ *šeħ-): (vb.) *šiħ- ‘to separate into (equal) parts, to divide’; (n.) *šiħ-a ‘part, portion, separation, division, section’

344. Proto-Nostratic root *šiw- (~ *šew-):

(vb.) *šiw- ‘to swell’; (n.) *šiw-a ‘swelling’; (adj.) ‘swollen, puffed up’

345. Proto-Nostratic root *šuw- (~ *šow-):

(vb.) *šuw- ‘to be wet, moist; to make wet, to soak’; (n.) *šuw-a ‘liquid, moisture’; (adj.) ‘moist, wet, soaked’


Extended form: (vb.) *šuw-V-l- ‘to be wet, moist; to make wet, to soak’; (n.) *šuw-l-a ‘liquid, moisture’; (adj.) ‘moist, wet, soaked’

CHAPTER 20

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *g

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto-Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

g- g- k- g- gº- k- g- k- q-

-g- -g- -k- -g- -gº- -x- -g- -ɣ- 346. Proto-Nostratic root *gaʔ- (~ *gəʔ-):

(vb.) *gaʔ- ‘to go, to leave, to depart; to leave behind, to abandon, to forsake’; (n.) *gaʔ-a ‘abandonment, lack, want, need, deprivation, loss, deficit’; (adj.)

‘abandoned, forsaken, left behind; wanting, lacking, deprived of’

347. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *gab-a ‘front, front part’ Probably identical to: (n.) *gab-a ‘peak, tip, top’

348. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *gab-a ‘peak, tip, top’

Probably identical to: (n.) *gab-a ‘front, front part’ Note also: (n.) *gub-a ‘highest point, summit, top’

349. Proto-Nostratic root *gab- (~ *gǝb-):

(vb.) *gab- ‘to grasp, to seize’; (n.) *gab-a ‘hand, arm’

350. Proto-Nostratic root *gad- (~ *gǝd-):

(vb.) *gad- ‘to be or become big, great, mighty’; (n.) *gad-a ‘bigness, greatness, might’; (adj.) ‘big, great, mighty’

351. Proto-Nostratic root *gad- (~ *gǝd-):

(vb.) *gad- ‘to cut, to split, to strike (with an instrument)’; (n.) *gad-a ‘that which cuts: (pick)axe, saw; that which is cut, split: cut, split,

piece, fragment, bit’

352. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *gad-a ‘kid, young goat’

353. Proto-Nostratic root *gal- (~ *gəl-): (vb.) *gal- ‘to cut, break, tear, or pluck off; to separate’; (n.) *gal-a ‘cut, break, tear, separation’ Derivative: (vb.) *gal- ‘to dig, scoop, or hollow out’ (> ‘to plow’);


(n.) *gal-a ‘the act of digging, scooping, or hollowing out’

354. Proto-Nostratic root *gal- (~ *gǝl-): (vb.) *gal- ‘to dig, scoop, or hollow out’ (> ‘to plow’); (n.) *gal-a ‘the act of digging, scooping, or hollowing out’ Derivative of: (vb.) *gal- ‘to cut, break, tear, or pluck off; to separate’; (n.) *gal-a ‘cut, break, tear, separation’

355. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *gal-a ‘pot, vessel’

356. Proto-Nostratic root *gal- (~ *gǝl-):

(vb.) *gal- ‘to be or become visible, clear, obvious, evident; to regard, to look at, to peer at’;

(n.) *gal-a ‘visibility, clarity, understanding’; (adj.) ‘clear, plain, evident’

357. Proto-Nostatic *gal- (~ *gəl-): (vb.) *gal- ‘to cry out, to shout, to clamor; to be noisy, boisterous’; (n.) *gal-a ‘clamor, uproar, tumult, disturbance, turmoil, noise’

358. Proto-Nostratic root *gal- (~ *gəl-):

(vb.) *gal- ‘to ache, to be in pain, to be ill, to suffer’; (n.) *gal-a ‘ache, pain, disease, illness’

359. Proto-Nostatic (n.) *gal-a ‘blemish, fault, scar, sore on the skin’

360. Proto-Nostratic root *gal- (~ *gəl-):

(vb.) *gal- ‘to be strong, powerful; to be able’; (n.) *gal-a ‘strength, power, ability’

361. Proto-Nostratic root *gam- (~ *gǝm-):

(vb.) gam- ‘to bend, to be bent’; (n.) gam-a ‘a bent or curved object: hook; wrist, ankle; etc.’

362. Proto-Nostratic root *gam- (~ *gəm-):

(vb.) *gam- ‘to fill (up)’; (n.) *gam-a ‘plenty, surplus, abundance’

363. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *gaŋ-a (with different extensions in the various daughter

languages: *gaŋ-s¨- and/or *gaŋ-s-, *gaŋ-t¨-, etc. and sporadic loss of ŋ) ‘a waterfowl, an aquatic bird: goose, duck, etc.’

364. Proto-Nostratic root *gaŋ- (~ *gəŋ-):

(vb.) *gaŋ- ‘to bend: to bend forward; to bend back; to bend to the side’; (n.) *gaŋ-a ‘side, corner, flank, edge’

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *g 63 365. Proto-Nostratic root *gar- (~ *gǝr-):

(vb.) *gar- ‘to seize, to grasp, to take hold of’; (n.) *gar-a ‘hand’

366. Proto-Nostratic root *gar- (~ *gǝr-):

(vb.) *gar- ‘to cut, to split’; (n.) *gar-a ‘cut, injury; that which cuts: (pick)axe’; (adj.) ‘cut, separated,

shortened’ 367. Proto-Nostratic root *gar- (~ *gər-):

(vb.) *gar- ‘to scratch, to scrape’; (n.) *gar-a ‘that which scratches, scrapes: spade, rake’ Derivative: (n.) *gar-b-a ‘itch, scab, sore’

368. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *gar-b-a ‘itch, scab, sore’:

Derivative of: (vb.) *gar- ‘to scratch, to scrape’; (n.) *gar-a ‘that which scratches, scrapes: spade, rake’

369. Proto-Nostratic root *gar¨- (~ *gǝr¨-):

(vb.) *gar¨- ‘to swell, to increase, to grow’; (n.) *gar¨-a ‘swelling, increase, growth; great quantity, abundance, excess’ Identical to: (vb.) *gar¨- ‘to stick out, to stand out, to jut out, to project, to protrude; to be

or become erect, rigid, stiff’; (n.) *gar¨- ‘tip, point, peak’

370. Proto-Nostratic root *gar¨- (~ *gər¨-):

(vb.) *gar¨- ‘to stick out, to stand out, to jut out, to project, to protrude; to be or become erect, rigid, stiff’;

(n.) *gar¨- ‘tip, point, peak’ Identical to: (vb.) *gar¨- ‘to swell, to increase, to grow’; (n.) *gar¨-a ‘swelling, increase, growth; great quantity, abundance, excess’

371. Proto-Nostratic root *gas¨- (~ *gəs¨-):

(vb.) *gas¨- ‘to touch, to feel, to handle’; (n.) *gas¨-a ‘hand’

372. Proto-Nostratic root *gat’- (~ *gət’-):

(vb.) *gat’- ‘to take (with the hand), to grasp’; (n.) *gat’-a ‘hand’

373. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *gen-a ‘jaw, cheek’

64 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX 374. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *g[e]n-d-a ‘virility, strength; a male (human or animal)’ 375. Proto-Nostratic pronominal base of unclear deictic function *gi- (~ *ge-)

376. Proto-Nostratic root *gib- (~ *geb-):

(vb.) *gib- ‘to bestow upon, to give’; (n.) *gib-a ‘gift’

377. Proto-Nostratic root *gid- (~ *ged-) or *ɢid- (~ *ɢed-):

(vb.) *gid- or *ɢid- ‘to force, drive, or press together; to join; to unite; to gather (together); to collect’;

(n.) *gid-a or *ɢid-a ‘force, compulsion; collection, heap; union’; (adj.) ‘pressed close together, near, united’

378. Proto-Nostratic root *gil- (~ *gel-):

(vb.) *gil- ‘to glide, to slip, to slide’; (n.) *gil-a ‘gliding, sliding’; (adj.) ‘smooth, slippery’

379. Proto-Nostratic root *gil- (~ *gel-):

(vb.) *gil- ‘to freeze’; (n.) *gil-a ‘ice’

380. Proto-Nostratic root *gin- (~ *gen-) or *ɢin- (~ *ɢen-):

(vb.) *gin- or *ɢin- ‘to be young, small, weak’; (n.) *gin-a or *ɢin-a ‘youth, young one’; (adj.) ‘young, small, weak’

381. Proto-Nostratic root *gin- (~ *gen-): (vb.) *gin- ‘to grind, to pound, to break or crush into pieces’; (n.) *gin-a ‘the act of grinding, pounding, crushing’

382. Proto-Nostratic root *gir- (~ *ger-):

(vb.) *gir- ‘to gird, to enclose’; (n.) *gir-a ‘enclosure, fence, wall’

383. Proto-Nostratic root *gir¨- (~ *ger¨-): (vb.) *gir¨- ‘to be or become old’; (n.) *gir¨-a ‘old age, old person’; (adj.) ‘old’

384. Proto-Nostratic root *gir¨- (~ *ger¨-) or *ɢir¨- (~ *ɢer¨-):

(vb.) *gir¨- or *ɢir¨- ‘to move, to move swiftly, to hasten, to hurry; to run, to flow; to go, to walk’;

(n.) *gir¨-a or *ɢir¨-a ‘movement, flow, flux, step, course’

385. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *gol-a ‘edge, corner, valley’

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *g 65 386. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *gub-a ‘highest point, summit, top’

Note also: (n.) *gab-a ‘peak, tip, top’

387. Proto-Nostratic root *gub- (~ *gob-:

(vb.) *gub- ‘to cook, to roast, to burn’; (n.) *gub-a ‘the act of cooking; that which is used for cooking: pot, pan; stove,

furnace’ 388. Proto-Nostratic root *gud- (~ *god-):

(vb.) *gud- ‘to throw, to toss, to shake’; (n.) *gud-a ‘that which is thrown or tossed off or aside: rubbish, refuse, cast-

out things’

389. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *gul-a (~ *gol-a) ‘enclosed space’

390. Proto-Nostratic root *gun- (~ *gon-): (vb.) *gun- ‘to perceive, to notice’; (n.) *gun-a ‘notice, memory, mind, perception, remembrance, recollection’

391. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) *gupº- (~ *gopº-):

(vb.) *gupº- ‘to extinguish; to be extinguished, to die out, to perish’; (n.) *gupº-a ‘loss, destruction’

392. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) (?) *gur- (~ *gor-):

(n.) *gur-a ‘gut, cord’

393. Proto-Nostratic root *gur- (onomatopoeic): (vb.) *gur- ‘to rumble, to roar, to growl, to gurgle’; (n.) *gur-a ‘rumbling, roaring, gurgling, growling noise or sound’

394. Proto-Nostratic root *gus- (~ *gos-):

(vb.) *gus- ‘to go outside of or forth from; to make to go outside or forth from, to drive away, to chase away’;

(n.) *gus-a ‘outsider, stranger’

395. Proto-Nostratic root *guw- (~ *gow-): (vb.) *guw- ‘to observe, to notice, to watch, to pay attention to, to heed, to be

or become aware of’; (n.) *guw-a ‘observation, heed, awareness, attention, notice’

396. Proto-Nostratic root *guw- (~ *gow-):

(vb.) *guw- ‘to hunt wild animals’; (n.) *guw-a ‘wild animal, wild beast, game’; (adj.) ‘wild, untamed’ Extended form: (vb.) *guw-V-r- ‘to hunt wild animals’;


(n.) *guw-r-a ‘wild animal, wild beast, game’; (adj.) ‘wild, untamed’ Notes: 1. The unextended stem is preserved in Egyptian. 2. The Afrasian (Cushitic and Chadic) and Indo-European forms are dever-

batives: *guw-V-r-.

CHAPTER 21

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *kº

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto-Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

kº- k- k- k- kº- k- kº- k- q-

-kº- -k- -k(k)- -k- -kº- -k(k)- -kº- -k(k)- -q(q)-

397. Proto-Nostratic 1st person pronoun stem (stative) *kºa-

398. Proto-Nostratic demonstrative pronoun stem:

Proximate: *kºa- (~ *kºǝ-) ‘this’; Intermediate: *kºi- (~ *kºe-) ‘that’; Distant: *kºu- (~ *kºo-) ‘that yonder’

399. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kºab-a ‘he-goat, male sheep, buck, ram’

400. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kºab-a ‘foot, hoof’

401. Proto-Nostratic root *kºad- (~ *kºǝd-):

(vb.) *kºad- ‘to cover, to wrap, to clothe’; (n.) *kºad-a ‘covering, shield, protection’ Perhaps identical to: (vb.) *kºad- ‘to tie, to bind’; (n.) *kºad-a ‘tie, band, fastening’

402. Proto-Nostratic root *kºad- (~ *kºǝd-):

(vb.) *kºad- ‘to tie, to bind’; (n.) *kºad-a ‘tie, band, fastening’ Perhaps identical to: (vb.) *kºad- ‘to cover, to wrap, to clothe’; (n.) *kºad-a ‘covering, shield, protection’

403. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kºal-a ‘female in-law’

Note also: (n.) *k’el-a ‘female in-law’

404. Proto-Nostratic root *kºal- (~ *kºǝl-):

(vb.) *kºal- ‘to make a noise, to sound; to call out, to shout’; (n.) *kºal-a ‘noise, sound’


405. Proto-Nostratic root *kºal- (~ *kºǝl-): (vb.) *kºal- ‘to guard, to hold (back), to watch’; (n.) *kºal-a ‘protection, care, support; restraint, detention, custody, hold’

406. Proto-Nostratic root *kºal- (~ *kºǝl-):

(vb.) *kºal- ‘to point out, to make clear, to make known, to disclose, to explain’;

(n.) *kºal-a ‘study, learning; investigation, explanation, clarification’

407. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kºal¨-a ‘reed, stalk, stem, blade of grass, haulm’ 408. Proto-Nostratic root *kºal¨- (~ *kºǝl¨-):

(vb.) *kºal¨- ‘to rob, to steal, to hide’; (n.) *kºal¨-a ‘theft’

409. Proto-Nostratic root *kºam- (~ *kºǝm-) or *qºam- (~ *qºǝm-):

(vb.) *kºam- or *qºam- ‘to seize, to grasp, to grip, to clutch’; (n.) *kºam-a or *qºam-a ‘grip, hold, hand(ful); bond, fetter’

410. Proto-Nostratic root *kºam- (~ *kºǝm-):

(vb.) *kºam- ‘to work, to labor, to toil; to do, to make’; (n.) *kºam-a ‘work, labor, toil’

411. Proto-Nostratic root *kºam- (~ *kºǝm-):

(vb.) *kºam- ‘to gather together, to collect’; (adv.) ‘together, along with’; (n.) *kºam-a ‘collection, assemblage, gathering’

412. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kºan¨-a ‘stem, stalk, stick’

413. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kºan¨-a ~ *kºin¨-a ~ *kºun¨-a ‘bee, honey’

414. Proto-Nostratic root *kºaŋ- (~ *kºəŋ-):

(vb.) *kºaŋ- ‘to make a noise, to sound’; (n.) *kºaŋ-a ‘noise, (ringing or tinkling) sound’

415. Proto-Nostratic root *kºapº-:

(vb.) *kºapº- ‘to take, seize, or grasp with the hand; to press or squeeze with the hand’;

(n.) *kºapº-a ‘hand’

416. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kºapº-a ‘bowl, cup, jar, container; skull’

417. Proto-Nostratic root *kºap’- (~ *kºǝp’-): (vb.) *kºap’- ‘to buy; to pay back’;

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *kº 69

(n.) *kºap’-a ‘recompense, tribute, pay-back’

418. Proto-Nostratic root *kºar- (~ *kºǝr-): (vb.) *kºar- ‘to cut, to cut into, to cut off’; (n.) *kºar-a ‘cut, incision’ Derivative: (n.) *kºar-a ‘skin, hide; bark, rind’

419. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kºar-a ‘skin, hide; bark, rind’:

Derivative of: (vb.) *kºar- ‘to cut, to cut into, to cut off’; (n.) *kºar-a ‘cut, incision’

420. Proto-Nostratic root *kºar- (~ *kºǝr-): (vb.) *kºar- ‘to twist, turn, spin, or wind around’; (n.) *kºar-a ‘ring, circle, curve’; (adj.) ‘round, curved, twisted’ Possible derivative: (n.) *kºar-a ‘edge, side, bank’

421. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kºar-a ‘edge, side, bank’

Perhaps a derivative of: (vb.) *kºar- ‘to twist, turn, spin, or wind around’; (n.) *kºar-a ‘ring, circle, curve’; (adj.) ‘round, curved, twisted’

422. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kºar-a ‘hardness, strength, firmness, fortitude’; (adj.)

‘hard, strong, firm’ Identical to: (n.) *kºar-a ‘roughness, coarseness’; (adj.) ‘rough, coarse’

423. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kºar-a ‘roughness, coarseness’; (adj.) ‘rough, coarse’

Identical to: (n.) *kºar-a ‘hardness, strength, firmness, fortitude’; (adj.) ‘hard, strong, firm’ Derivative: (n.) *kºar-a ‘bitterness, pungency, harshness’; (adj.) ‘bitter, pungent, harsh,

sharp, caustic, hot (of taste), acrid’

424. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kºar-a ‘bitterness, pungency, harshness’; (adj.) ‘bitter, pungent, harsh, sharp, caustic, hot (of taste), acrid’ Derivative of: (n.) *kºar-a ‘roughness, coarseness’; (adj.) ‘rough, coarse’

425. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kºar-a ‘blackness, darkness’; (adj.) ‘black, dark’ 426. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kºar-a ‘heart, core, essence’


427. Proto-Nostratic root *kºas- (~ *kºǝs-): (vb.) *kºas- ‘to cut or break off, to divide, to separate’; (n.) *kºas-a ‘cut, separation, division, break; cutting, clipping, fragment,

piece, bit’ 428. Proto-Nostratic root *kºatº- (~ *kºǝtº-):

(vb.) *kºatº- ‘to plait, to weave, to twist’; (n.) *kºatº-a ‘that which is plaited, woven, twisted: mat, net, knot’ Derivative: (n.) *kºatº-a ‘rag, cloth’

429. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kºatº-a ‘rag, cloth’:

Derivative of: (vb.) *kºatº- ‘to plait, to weave, to twist’; (n.) *kºatº-a ‘that which is plaited, woven, twisted: mat, net, knot’

430. Proto-Nostratic root *kºatº-: (vb.) *kºatº- ‘to fall down, to set down, to drop down’; (n.) *kºatº-a ‘lower part, lower place, lower thing’; (adj.) ‘lower, inferior’; (particle) *kºatº- ‘down’

431. Proto-Nostratic root *kºatº-: (vb.) *kºatº- ‘to make a harsh, shrill screech or sound: to cackle, to caw, to

screech, to cry, to yelp’; (n.) *kºatº-a ‘cackling, cawing, screeching, crying, yelping’; (adj.) ‘harsh,

shrill, sharp, piercing (of sounds)’ 432. Proto-Nostratic root *kºaw- (~ *kºǝw-):

(vb.) *kºaw- ‘to swell, to expand, to inflate, to grow, to increase’; (n.) *kºaw-a ‘accumulation, inflation, expansion, growth; heap, pile; height’

433. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kºay-a ‘solitude, loneliness, separateness’; (adj.) ‘alone’

Extended form (Afrasian and Indo-European): (n.) *kºay-w-a ‘solitude, loneliness, separateness’; (adj.) ‘alone’

434. Proto-Nostratic root *kºay- (~ *kºǝy-):

(vb.) *kºay- ‘to put, to place, to set, to lay; to be placed, to lie’; (n.) *kºay-a ‘resting place, abode, dwelling; cot, bed’

435. Proto-Nostratic root *kºay- (~ *kºǝy-):

(vb.) *kºay- ‘to be or become warm or hot; to make warm, to heat’; (n.) *kºay-a ‘heat’

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *kº 71

436. Proto-Nostratic root *kºay-: (vb.) *kºay- ‘to scoop out’; (n.) *kºay-a ‘spoon, ladle’ Extended form: (vb.) *kºay-V-w- ‘to dig’; (n.) *kºay-w-a ‘cave, pit, hollow’

437. Proto-Nostratic root *kºil- (~ *kºel-):

(vb.) *kºil- ‘to make a sound or a noise; to say, to speak, to talk’; (n.) *kºil-a ‘sound, noise; tongue, speech, language’

438. Proto-Nostratic root *kºil¨- (~ *kºel¨-):

(vb.) *kºil¨- ‘to rise, to ascend, to lift up’; (n.) *kºil¨-a ‘hill, height’; (adj.) ‘raised, high’

439. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kºir-a ‘uppermost part (of anything): horn, head, skull,

crown of head; tip, top, summit, peak’

440. Proto-Nostratic root *kºir- (~ *kºer-): (vb.) *kºir- ‘to freeze, to be cold’; (n.) *kºir-a ‘frost, cold’

441. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kºiw-a ‘stone’

442. Proto-Nostratic root *kºol¨-:

(vb.) *kºol¨- ‘to tie, bind, fasten, fit, combine, or join two things together; to couple, to pair’;

(n.) *kºol¨-a ‘any combination of two things: couple, pair’ 443. Proto-Nostratic roots *kºon-k’-, *kºok’-:

(vb.) *kºon-V-k’-, *kºok’- ‘to be bent, curved, crooked’; (n.) *kºon-k’-a, *kºok’-a ‘hook, clasp’; (adj.) ‘bent, curved, crooked’

444. Proto-Nostratic root *kºul- (~ *kºol-):

(vb.) *kºul- ‘to hear, to listen’; (n.) *kºul-a ‘renown, fame; ear’ Possible derivative: (vb.) *kºul- ‘to tell’; (n.) *kºul-a ‘story, tale’

445. Proto-Nostratic root *kºul- (~ *kºol-):

(vb.) *kºul- ‘to tell’; (n.) *kºul-a ‘story, tale’


Perhaps a derivative of: (vb.) *kºul- ‘to hear, to listen’; (n.) *kºul-a ‘renown, fame; ear’ Assuming semantic development as in Greek êëÝù ‘to tell of, to make famous, to celebrate’; or Pāḷi (causative) sāvēti (also suṇāpēti) ‘to cause to hear, to tell, to declare, to announce’ (suṇāti ‘to hear’); or Romany (Palestinian) snaúăr ‘to inform’ ― all ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *kºl-ew-/*kºl-ow-/*kºl-u- ‘to hear’.

446. Proto-Nostratic root *kºum-:

(vb.) *kºum- ‘to heap up, to pile up, to accumulate’; (n.) *kºum-a ‘large amount, accumulation, heap; crowd, multitude’

447. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kºum-a ‘man, male; penis’ 448. Proto-Nostratic root *kºum- (~ *kºom-):

(vb.) *kºum- ‘to char, to blacken; to burn, to smolder; to be or become hot’; (n.) *kºum-a ‘(hot or smoldering) ashes, embers, charcoal; heat, warmth’;

(adj.) ‘warm, hot; glowing, smoldering; black’

449. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kºur-a ‘blood’

450. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *kºuwan-a or *kºun-a originally a generic term meaning ‘young (especially of animals)’; later specialized as ‘young dog, puppy’ (as in Kannaḍa and Kolami cited below) and then simply ‘dog’

Note: This term may be an early borrowing.

CHAPTER 22

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *k’

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

k’- k’- k- k’- k’- k- k- k- q-

-k’- -k’- -k(k)- -k’- -k’- -k- -k- -k- -q- 451. Proto-Nostratic root *k’ab- (~ *k’ǝb-):

(vb.) *k’ab- ‘to seize, to take hold of; to seize with the teeth, to bite’; (n.) *k’ab-a ‘seizure, grasp, grip, hold; bite’

452. Proto-Nostratic root *k’acº- (~ *k’ǝcº-):

(vb.) *k’acº- ‘to labor, to strain; to become fatigued, exhausted, wearied (from straining, laboring)’;

(n.) *k’acº-a ‘trouble, difficulty, pain, strain’

453. Proto-Nostratic root *k’ačº- (~ *k’ǝčº-): (vb.) *k’ačº- ‘to put, join, fasten, wrap, fold, or tie together’; (n.) *k’ačº-a ‘tie, band, knot, fastening, wrapping’

454. Proto-Nostratic root *k’ad- (~ *k’ǝd-):

(vb.) *k’ad- ‘to tie, to fasten; to build, to construct’; (n.) *k’ad-a ‘tie, band, fastening’

455. Proto-Nostratic root *k’ak’- (onomatopoeic):

(vb.) *k’ak’- ‘to cackle, to chatter’; (n.) *k’ak’-a ‘crackling sound’ Derivative: (n.) *k’ak’-a (onomatopoeic bird name) ‘partridge’

456. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *k’ak’-a (onomatopoeic bird name) ‘partridge’

Derivative of: (vb.) *k’ak’- ‘to cackle, to chatter’; (n.) *k’ak’-a ‘crackling sound’

457. Proto-Nostratic root *k’al- (~ *k’ǝl-):

(vb.) *k’al- ‘to feed, to nourish’; (n.) *k’al-a ‘nourishment, sustenance, nutriment’

458. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *k’al-a ‘stone, rock’


459. Proto-Nostratic root *k’al- (~ *k’ǝl-): (vb.) *k’al- ‘to take away, to remove, to deprive of; to decrease, to diminish,

to reduce; to be or become reduced or diminished’; (n.) *k’al-a ‘littleness, small quantity, scarcity; few things; lack, want,

poverty, deficiency, insufficiency’; (adj.) ‘little, scanty, sparse, meager, insufficient, lacking, short of, wanting, needy’


(vb.) *k’al- ‘to burn, to warm, to cook, to roast’; (n.) *k’al-a ‘cooking, roasting, baking; glowing embers’


(vb.) *k’al- ‘to move, to tremble, to shake, to agitate, to stir, to mix’; (n.) *k’al-a ‘agitation, trembling, perturbation, distress, confusion, uneasiness,

disturbance’ 462. Proto-Nostratic root *k’al- (~ *k’ǝl-):

(vb.) *k’al- ‘to come into being, to be born’; (n.) *k’al-a ‘existence, presence, appearance, birth’

463. Proto-Nostratic root *k’al¨- (~ *k’ǝl¨-):

(vb.) *k’al¨- ‘to separate, to remove, to strip off or away: to pluck, tear, or pull off or out’;

(n.) *k’al¨-a ‘separation, removal, stripping off or away, etc.’ Derivative: (n.) *k’al¨-a ‘bald spot’; (adj.) ‘bald, bare’

464. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *k’al¨-a ‘bald spot’; (adj.) ‘bald, bare’

Derivative of: (vb.) *k’al¨- ‘to separate, to remove, to strip off or away: to pluck, tear, or pull

off or out’; (n.) *k’al¨-a ‘separation, removal, stripping off or away, etc.’

465. Proto-Nostratic root *k’an- (~ *k’ǝn-):

(vb.) *k’an- ‘to get, to acquire, to create, to produce, to beget’; (n.) *k’an-a ‘birth, offspring, child, young, produce’; (adj.) ‘born, begotten,

produced’

466. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *k’an-a ‘jaw, cheek’ 467. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *k’an-a ‘thickness, density, fatness, abundance’; (adj.)

‘thick, dense, fat, abundant, much’

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *k’ 75

468. Proto-Nostratic root *k’an- (~ *k’ǝn-): (vb.) *k’an- ‘to pound, to beat, to strike’; (n.) *k’an-a ‘knock, strike, cuff, thump; mallet, club, cudgel, truncheon’

469. Proto-Nostratic root *k’aŋ- (~ *k’ǝŋ-):

(vb.) *k’aŋ- ‘to bend, twist, turn, or tie together’; (n.) *k’aŋ-a ‘wreath, rope, cord, fiber, tie, band, string’ Derivative: (n.) *k’aŋ-a ‘knot, knob, joint’

470. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *k’aŋ-a ‘knot, knob, joint’ Derivative of: (vb.) *k’aŋ- ‘to bend, twist, turn, or tie together’; (n.) *k’aŋ-a ‘wreath, rope, cord, fiber, tie, band, string’

471. Proto-Nostratic root *k’an¨- (~ *k’ǝn¨-):

(vb.) *k’an¨- ‘to observe, to perceive’; (n.) *k’an¨-a ‘the act of observing, perceiving; that which observes, perceives:

eye; perception, observation, recognition, comprehension’

472. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *k’apº-a and/or *k’epº-a ‘jaw, jawbone’

Note: The Altaic cognates seem to point to Proto-Nostratic *k’epº-a, while the Indo-European cognates can be derived from either *k’apº-a or *k’epº-a.

473. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *k’apº-a ‘nape of the neck, back of the head’

474. Proto-Nostratic root *k’apº- (~ *k’ǝpº-):

(vb.) *k’apº- ‘to cover; to shut, to close’; (n.) *k’apº-a ‘covering’

475. Proto-Nostratic root *k’ar- (~ *k’ǝr-):

(vb.) *k’ar- ‘to shout, to screech, to call (out to), to cry (out)’; (n.) *k’ar-a ‘call, cry, invocation, proclamation; roar, lamentation’

476. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *k’ar-a ‘blackness, darkness, obscurity; dark cloud, rainy

weather; dirt, grime’; (adj.) ‘dark, dark-colored; dirty, soiled’

477. Proto-Nostratic root *k’ar- (~ *k’ǝr-): (vb.) *k’ar- ‘to twist, to turn, to bend, to wind; to tie (together), to bind’; (n.) *k’ar-a ‘that which is tied or bound together: bunch, bundle’; (adj.) ‘bent,

curved, crooked; tied, bound’ Possible derivative: (n.) *k’ar-a ‘protuberance, lump, hump, breast’


478. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *k’ar-a ‘protuberance, lump, hump, breast’ Possibly derived from (in the sense ‘curved shape, swelling’): (vb.) *k’ar- ‘to twist, to turn, to bend, to wind; to tie (together), to bind’; (n.) *k’ar-a ‘that which is tied or bound together: bunch, bundle’; (adj.) ‘bent,

curved, crooked; tied, bound’

479. Proto-Nostratic root *k’atº- (~ *k’ǝtº-): (vb.) *k’atº- ‘to add, join, bring, come, gather, or mix together’; (n.) *k’atº-a ‘blend, mixture, conglomeration, gathering’

480. Proto-Nostratic root *k’aw- (~ *k’ǝw-):

(vb.) *k’aw- ‘to bend, twist, curve, or turn round; to rotate’; (n.) *k’aw-a ‘any round object’; (adj.) ‘bent, curved, round’

481. Proto-Nostratic root *k’aw- (~ *k’ǝw-):

(vb.) *k’aw- ‘to take, to seize, to grasp, to hold’; (n.) *k’aw-a ‘hand’

482. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *k’el-a ‘female in-law: husband’s sister,

sister-in-law; daughter-in-law’ Note also: (n.) *kºal-a ‘female in-law’

483. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *k’en¨-a ‘knot, joint’ 484. Proto-Nostratic root *k’ep’-:

(vb.) *k’ep’- ‘to cut, chop, split, or break into small pieces; to munch, to chew’;

(n.) *k’ep’-a ‘the act of cutting, chopping, splitting, or breaking into small pieces, the act of mincing; chewing (the cud), rumination’

485. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) *k’er-:

(vb.) *k’er- ‘to decay, to wear out, to wither, to waste away, to become old’; (n.) *k’er-a ‘old age, old person’; (adj.) ‘decayed, worn out, withered, wasted,

old’

486. Proto-Nostratic root *k’er-: (vb.) *k’er- ‘to gather, to collect; to take a handful, to pick, to pluck’; (n.) *k’er-a ‘collection, gathering, handful’

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *k’ 77

487. Proto-Nostratic root *k’ir- (~ *k’er-) or *k’ur- (~ *k’or-): (vb.) *k’ir- or *k’ur- ‘to cut, to cut into, to incise, to engrave, to notch; to cut

off, to sever, to nip off, to clip; to cut in two, to split’; (n.) *k’ir-a or *k’ur-a ‘cut, slit, notch; chip, piece cut off’

488. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *k’om-a ‘hand, fist’

Perhaps related to: (vb.) *k’um- ‘to seize, to grasp, to press together’; (n.) *k’um-a ‘heap, mass, lump, clump; pressure, compression’

489. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *k’or-a or *k’ar-a ‘crane’

490. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *k’os-a ‘bone’ 491. Proto-Nostratic root *k’ud- (~ *k’od-):

(vb.) *k’ud- ‘to strike’; (n.) *k’ud-a ‘stroke, blow, knock, cuff, thump’

492. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *k’ud-a (~ *k’od-a) ‘vessel, pot’ 493. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *k’uɢ-n-a (~ *k’oɢ-n-a) ‘gnat, mosquito’ 494. Proto-Nostratic root *k’ul- (~ *k’ol-):

(vb.) *k’ul- ‘to lift, to raise, to pick up; to rise, to ascend; to make high, to elevate’;

(n.) *k’ul-a ‘highest point’ 495. Proto-Nostratic root *k’ul¨- (~ *k’ol¨-):

(vb.) *k’ul¨- ‘to be or become cold; to freeze’; (n.) *k’ul¨-a ‘cold, coldness, chill, frost’

496. Proto-Nostratic root *k’um- (~ *k’om-):

(vb.) *k’um- ‘to sigh, to weep, to lament, to moan, to groan’; (n.) *k’um-a ‘sigh, mourning, lamentation, moan, groan, roar, grumble’


(vb.) *k’um- ‘to seize, to grasp, to press together’; (n.) *k’um-a ‘heap, mass, lump, clump; pressure, compression’ Perhaps related to: (n.) *k’om-a ‘hand, fist’


(vb.) *k’um- ‘to bend, to curve; to bend the head or body, to bow or stoop down’;


(n.) *k’um-a ‘bend, curve; the act of bending, bowing, stooping’ Identical to: (n.) *k’um-a ‘a bent or curved object: hollow, cavity; knob, lump, hump; etc.’

499. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *k’um-a ‘a bent or curved object: hollow, cavity; knob,

lump, hump; etc.’: Identical to: (vb.) *k’um- ‘to bend, to curve; to bend the head or body, to bow or stoop

down’; (n.) *k’um-a ‘bend, curve; the act of bending, bowing, stooping’

500. Proto-Nostratic root *k’un- (~ *k’on-):

(vb.) *k’un- ‘to bend; to bend or fold together; to tie or bind together’; (n.) *k’un-a ‘that which is bent, folded, crooked, curved, hooked: bend, fold,

curve, curvature, angle, wrinkle’

501. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *k’uŋ-a ‘buttocks, rump, anus’

502. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *k’ut’-a ‘shortness, smallness’; (adj.) ‘short, small’

CHAPTER 23

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *g¦

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto-Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

g¦- g¦- k- gw/u- g¦º- k- g- k- q-

-g¦- -g¦- -k- -gw/u- -g¦º- -x- -g- -ɣ-

503. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *g¦al-a ‘snake’

504. Proto-Nostratic root *g¦an- (~ *g¦ǝn-):

(vb.) *g¦an- ‘to hit, to strike, to slay, to kill, to wound, to harm, to injure’; (n.) *g¦an-a ‘strike, harm, injury’

505. Proto-Nostratic root *g¦an- (~ *g¦ǝn-):

(vb.) *g¦an- ‘to swell, to abound’; (n.) *g¦an-a ‘swelling, abundance, large quantity, prosperity’

506. Proto-Nostratic root *g¦ar- (~ *g¦ǝr-):

(vb.) *g¦ar- ‘to turn, to twist, to wind, to wrap, to roll’; (n.) *g¦ar-a ‘any round or circular object’; (adj.) ‘rolling, round, bent, twisted,

turned’ 507. Proto-Nostratic root *g¦ir- (~ *g¦er-):

(vb.) *g¦ir- ‘to be or become hot, to warm’; (n.) *g¦ir-a ‘heat, fire’

CHAPTER 24

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *k¦º

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto-Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

k¦º- k¦- k- kw/u- k¦º- k- kº- k- q-

-k¦º- -k¦- -k(k)- -kw/u- -k¦º- -k(k)- -kº- -k(k)- -q(q)-

508. Proto-Nostratic post-positional intensifying and conjoining particle *k¦ºa- (~

*k¦ºǝ-)

509. Proto-Nostratic root *k¦ºal- (~ *k¦ºǝl-): (vb.) *k¦ºal- ‘to go, to walk, to move about’; (n.) *k¦ºal-a ‘walking, walk, wandering, roaming’ Probably identical to: (vb.) *k¦ºal- ‘to revolve, to go around, to roll’; (n.) *k¦ºal-a ‘circle, circuit’

510. Proto-Nostratic root *k¦ºal- (~ *k¦ºəl-):

(vb.) *k¦ºal- ‘to revolve, to go around, to roll’; (n.) *k¦ºal-a ‘circle, circuit’ Probably identical to: (vb.) *k¦ºal- ‘to go, to walk, to move about’; (n.) *k¦ºal-a ‘walking, walk, wandering, roaming’ Derivative: (n.) *k¦ºal-a ‘that which turns, rolls, revolves, or goes round and round’ (>

‘wheel’ in the daughter languages)

511. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *k¦ºal-a ‘that which turns, rolls, revolves, or goes round and round’ (> ‘wheel’ in the daughter languages) Derivative of: (vb.) *k¦ºal- ‘to revolve, to go around, to roll’; (n.) *k¦ºal-a ‘circle, circuit’

512. Proto-Nostratic root *k¦ºal- (~ *k¦ºǝl-):

(vb.) *k¦ºal- ‘to end, to come to an end; to bring to an end, to complete, to finish’;

(n.) *k¦ºal-a ‘end, finish, completion, fulfillment’

513. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (adv.) (?) *k¦ºal- ‘far off, far away, distant’

514. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *k¦ºal-a ‘a large fish’

82 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX 515. Proto-Nostratic root *k¦ºar- (~ *k¦ºǝr-):

(vb.) *k¦ºar- ‘to cut’; (n.) *k¦ºar-a ‘piece cut off; knife’ Derivatives: (vb.) *k¦ºar- ‘to cut a groove, to hollow out, to dig’; (n.) *k¦ºar-a ‘cut, hole, hollow, digging, excavation, pit, groove, trench’ (vb.) *k¦ºar- ‘to cut short, to reduce, to decrease, to diminish, to lessen’; (n.) *k¦ºar-a ‘shortness’; (adj.) ‘short’

516. Proto-Nostratic root *k¦ºar- (~ *k¦ºǝr-):

(vb.) *k¦ºar- ‘to cut a groove, to hollow out, to dig’; (n.) *k¦ºar-a ‘cut, hole, hollow, digging, excavation, pit, groove, trench’ Derivative of: (vb.) *k¦ºar- ‘to cut’; (n.) *k¦ºar-a ‘piece cut off; knife’


(vb.) *k¦ºar- ‘to cut short, to reduce, to decrease, to diminish, to lessen’; (n.) *k¦ºar-a ‘shortness’; (adj.) ‘short’ Derivative of: (vb.) *k¦ºar- ‘to cut’; (n.) *k¦ºar-a ‘piece cut off; knife’

518. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *k¦ºar-a ‘vessel, pot’


(vb.) *k¦ºar- ‘to procure’; (n.) *k¦ºar-a ‘payment, procurement’

520. Proto-Nostratic root *k¦ºatº- (~ *k¦ºǝtº-): (vb.) *k¦ºatº- ‘to move rapidly, to shake’; (n.) *k¦ºatº-a ‘rapid movement, shaking’

521. Proto-Nostratic (particle) *k¦ºay- ‘when, as, though, also’

Possibly derived from: Relative pronoun stem *k¦ºi-; interrogative pronoun stem *k¦ºa-

522. Proto-Nostratic root *k¦ºey-:

(vb.) *k¦ºey- ‘to repay in kind, to return an equal measure’; (n.) *k¦ºey-a ‘payment, repayment’

523. Proto-Nostratic root *k¦ºey-:

(vb.) *k¦ºey- ‘to do, to make, to create; to form, to fashion’; (n.) *k¦ºey-a ‘act, deed, creation’

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *k¦º 83

524. Proto-Nostratic relative pronoun stem *k¦ºi- (~ *k¦ºe-); interrogative pronoun

stem *k¦ºa- (~ *k¦ºǝ-)

525. Proto-Nostratic root *k¦ºir- (~ *k¦ºer-): (vb.) *k¦ºir- ‘to twist or twine together, to tie together, to bind, to fasten’; (n.) *k¦ºir-a ‘twist, tie, bundle, rope; the act of twisting or twining together:

work, craft, act, action’

526. Proto-Nostratic (n.) (?) *k¦ºur-a ‘body, belly’ 527. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *k¦ºur-a ‘worm, grub, maggot, insect’

CHAPTER 25

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *k’¦

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto-Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

k’¦- k’¦- k- k’w/u- k’¦- k- k- k- q-

-k’¦- -k’¦- -k(k)- -k’w/u- -k’¦- -k- -k- -k- -q- 528. Proto-Nostratic root *k’¦ad- (~ *k’¦ǝd-):

(vb.) *k’¦ad- ‘to strike, to beat, to smash, to pound’; (n.) *k’¦ad-a ‘knock, stroke, thrust’ Note also: (vb.) *k’¦ed- ‘to destroy, to damage, to ruin; to decay, to rot, to spoil’; (n.) *k’¦ed-a ‘death, destruction, damage, ruin, decay’

529. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *k’¦ad-a ‘hind part, end, tail’

530. Proto-Nostratic root *k’¦aħ- (~ *k’¦ǝħ-):

(vb.) *k’¦aħ- ‘to hit, to strike, to beat, to pound; to push or press in’; (n.) *k’¦aħ-a ‘club, cudgel’; (adj.) ‘hit, beaten, pounded, pushed or pressed

together, crammed, filled’

531. Proto-Nostratic root *k’¦al- (~ *k’¦ǝl-): (vb.) *k’¦al- ‘to go: to go away from, to go after or behind’; (n.) *k’¦al-a ‘track, way’

532. Proto-Nostratic root *k’¦al¨- (~ *k’¦ǝl¨-):

(vb.) *k’¦al¨- ‘to gush forth, to overflow; to flow, to leak, to ooze, to drip, to trickle’;

(n.) *k’¦al¨-a ‘gush, flow, drip, trickle; river, stream, spring’ 533. Proto-Nostratic root *k’¦am- (~ *k’¦ǝm-):

(vb.) *k’¦am- ‘to burn slowly, to smolder; to be hot, to be red-hot, to be glowing; to smoke’;

(n.) *k’¦am-a ‘embers, ashes; heat; smoke’

534. Proto-Nostratic root *k’¦an- (~ *k’¦ǝn-): (vb.) *k’¦an- ‘to suckle, to nurse; to suck’; (n.) *k’¦an-a ‘udder, bosom, breast’ Derivative: (n.) *k’¦an-a ‘woman, wife’

535. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *k’¦an-a ‘woman, wife’


Derivative of: (vb.) *k’¦an- ‘to suckle, to nurse; to suck’; (n.) *k’¦an-a ‘udder, bosom, breast’ Semantic development as in Latin fēmina ‘female, woman’ from the same root as in fēlō ‘to suck’, hence, ‘one who gives suck’.

536. Proto-Nostratic root *k’¦ar- (~ *k’¦ǝr-):

(vb.) *k’¦ar- ‘to be cold’; (n.) *k’¦ar-a ‘cold, coldness’

537. Proto-Nostratic root *k’¦ar- (~ *k’¦ǝr-):

(vb.) *k’¦ar- ‘to rest, to stay, to remain’; (n.) *k’¦ar-a ‘stillness, quietude, repose, rest, resting place’; (adj.) ‘still, quiet,

at rest’

538. Proto-Nostratic root *k’¦ar- (~ *k’¦ǝr-): (vb.) *k’¦ar- ‘to crush, to grind’; (n.) *k’¦ar-a ‘grinding pestle, grinding stone; stone, rock’

539. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *k’¦ar-b-a ‘the inside, the middle, interior, inward part’

540. Proto-Nostratic root *k’¦ar¨- (~ *k’¦ər¨-):

(vb.) *k’¦ar¨- ‘to thunder, to rumble’; (n.) *k’¦ar¨-a ‘rain, storm, stormy weather, thunderstorm’

541. Proto-Nostratic root *k’¦as- (~ *k’¦ǝs-):

(vb.) *k’¦as- ‘to strike fire, to put out (fire)’; (n.) *k’¦as-a ‘spark, fire’

542. Proto-Nostratic root *k’¦as- (~ *k’¦ǝs-) (onomatopoeic):

(vb.) *k’¦as- ‘to sigh, to moan, to groan; to whisper, to murmur, to mumble’; (n.) *k’¦as-a ‘sigh, moan, groan, whisper, murmur, mumble’

543. Proto-Nostratic root *k’¦at’- (~ *k’¦ǝt’-):

(vb.) *k’¦at’- ‘to burn, to smolder, to smoke’; (n.) *k’¦at’-a ‘burning, heat, smoke’

544. Proto-Nostratic root *k’¦at’- (~ *k’¦ǝt’-):

(vb.) *k’¦at’- ‘to cut’; (n.) *k’¦at’-a ‘knife, cutting instrument’; (adj.) ‘sharp’

545. Proto-Nostratic root *k’¦ed-:

(vb.) *k’¦ed- ‘to destroy, to damage, to ruin; to decay, to rot, to spoil’; (n.) *k’¦ed-a ‘death, destruction, damage, ruin, decay’

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *k’¦ 87

Note also: (vb.) *k’¦ad- ‘to strike, to beat, to smash, to pound’; (n.) *k’¦ad-a ‘knock, stroke, thrust’

546. Proto-Nostratic root *k’¦iy- (~ *k’¦ey-): (vb.) *k’¦iy- ‘to be putrid, purulent’; (n.) *k’¦iy-a ‘pus’

547. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *k’¦ow-a ‘bullock, ox, cow’

548. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *k’¦oy-a ‘outer covering: skin, hide,

leather; bark (of a tree), shell, crust’

549. Proto-Nostratic root *k’¦ur¨- (~ *k’¦or¨-): (vb.) *k’¦ur¨- ‘to be heavy, weighty, solid, bulky’; (n.) *k’¦ur¨-a ‘heaviness, weight, solidity, thickness’; (adj.) ‘heavy, weighty,

solid, bulky’

CHAPTER 26

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *ɢ

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto-Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

ɢ- ɢ- (?) k- ɢ- gº- k- g- k- q-

-ɢ- -ɢ- (?) -k- -ɢ- -gº- -x- -g- -ɣ-

550. Proto-Nostratic root *ɢad- (~ *ɢǝd-):

(vb.) *ɢad- ‘to make a loud sound or loud noise’; (n.) *ɢad-a ‘loud noise, clap of thunder, loud clatter, loud rumble’ Reduplicated (Semitic and Dravidian): (vb.) *ɢad-ɢad- ‘to make a loud sound or loud noise’; (n.) *ɢad-ɢad-a ‘loud noise, clap of thunder, loud clatter, loud rumble’

551. Proto-Nostratic root *ɢal- (~ *ɢəl-):

(vb.) *ɢal- ‘to come, to go’; (n.) *ɢal-a ‘the act of coming or going; trip, voyage’


(vb.) *ɢal- ‘to flow’; (n.) *ɢal-a ‘ravine, gully, watercourse, river’


(vb.) *ɢal- ‘to stir up, to agitate, to disturb; to be stirred up, agitated, disturbed’;

(n.) *ɢal-a ‘agitation, disturbance, perturbation; quarrel, fight, battle’

554. Proto-Nostratic root *ɢam- (~ *ɢəm-): (vb.) *ɢam- ‘to gather together, to bring together, to put together, to join

together, to come together, to do together’; (n.) *ɢam-a ‘gathering, collection, crowd, multitude, throng’

555. Proto-Nostratic root *ɢar- (~ *ɢər-):

(vb.) *ɢar- ‘to mutter, to groan, to grumble, to howl, to roar’; (n.) *ɢar-a ‘groan, howl, murmur, roar, cry’ Reduplicated (Semitic and Kartvelian): (vb.) *ɢar-ɢar- ‘to mutter, to groan, to grumble, to howl, to roar’; (n.) *ɢar-ɢar-a ‘groan, howl, murmur, roar, cry’

90 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX 556. Proto-Nostratic root *ɢar- (~ *ɢər-):

(vb.) *ɢar- ‘to crush, to grate, to grind; to melt, to dissolve’; (n.) *ɢar-a ‘the act of crushing, grating, grinding’; (adj.) ‘crushed, grated,

ground, dissolved, melted, softened’ 557. Proto-Nostratic root *ɢar- (~ *ɢər-):

(vb.) *ɢar- ‘to dig, to dig up, to dig out’; (n.) *ɢar-a ‘that which is used to dig: spade; that which is dug (out): furrow,

ditch, gutter, canal’

558. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ɢar¨-a ‘stick, staff, rod, pole, stalk, stem’

559. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ɢar¨-a ‘wildfowl, wild goose’ Reduplicated: (n.) *ɢar¨-ɢar¨-a ‘wildfowl, wild goose’

560. Proto-Nostratic root *ɢat’¨- (~ *ɢət’¨-):

(vb.) *ɢat’¨- ‘to bite’; (n.) *ɢat’¨-a ‘bite’; (adj.) ‘biting, sharp, bitter’ Derivative: (n.) *ɢat’¨-a ‘jaw, chin’

561. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ɢat’¨-a ‘jaw, chin’

Derivative of: (vb.) *ɢat’¨- ‘to bite’; (n.) *ɢat’¨-a ‘bite’; (adj.) ‘biting, sharp, bitter’

562. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) *ɢil- (~ *ɢel-):

(vb.) *ɢil- ‘to shine, to glisten’; (n.) *ɢil-a ‘brilliance, shine’; (adj.) ‘shining, glistening, gleaming, brilliant’

563. Proto-Nostratic root *ɢit’- (~ *ɢet’-):

(vb.) *ɢit’- ‘to tickle’; (n.) *ɢit’-a ‘armpit’

564. Proto-Nostratic root *ɢub- (~ *ɢob-):

(vb.) *ɢub- ‘to bend, to twist’; (n.) *ɢub-a ‘that which is twisted, bent, curved: hunch, wattle’

CHAPTER 27

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *qº

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto-Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

qº- q- (?) k- q- kº- k- kº- k- q-

-qº- -q- (?) -k(k)- -q- -kº- -k(k)- -kº- -k(k)- -q(q)-

565. Proto-Nostratic root *qºad- (~ *qºəd-):

(vb.) *qºad- ‘to move, to put in motion, to be in motion’; (n.) *qºad-a ‘way, path, direction, passage; movement, motion; hard work,

diligence’

566. Proto-Nostratic root *qºal- (~ *qºəl-): (vb.) *qºal- ‘to strike, to split, to cut, to wound, to injure’; (n.) *qºal-a ‘stroke, blow, wound, cut, slash, damage, injury’

567. Proto-Nostratic root *qºam- (~ *qºəm-):

(vb.) *qºam- ‘to cover, to conceal’; (n.) *qºam-a ‘covering’

568. Proto-Nostratic root *qºar¨- (~ *qºǝr¨-):

(vb.) *qºar¨- ‘to make a rasping sound, to be hoarse; to creak, to croak’; (n.) *qºar¨-a ‘neck, throat’

569. Proto-Nostratic root *qºatº- (~ *qºǝtº-):

(vb.) *qºatº- ‘to beat, to strike, to fight’; (n.) *qºatº-a ‘anger, fury, wrath, spite; fight, battle, quarrel; killing, slaughter’

CHAPTER 28

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *q’

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

q’- q’- (?) k- q’- k’- k- k- k- q-

-q’- -q’- (?) -k(k)- -q’- -k’- -k- -k- -k- -q- 570. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *q’ab-a ‘jaw’

571. Proto-Nostratic root *q’al- (~ *qəl-) or *q’el-:

(vb.) *q’al- or *q’el- ‘to glitter, to sparkle, to shine, to be or become bright; to make bright’;

(n.) *q’al-a or *q’el-a ‘any bright, shining object: star’

572. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *q’al¨-a ‘sexual organs, genitals, private parts (male or female)’

573. Proto-Nostratic root *q’am- (~ *q’ǝm-):

(vb.) *q’am- ‘to crush, to grind; to chew, to bite, to eat’; (n.) *q’am-a ‘bite; tooth’

574. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *q’an-a ‘field, land, (open) country’

575. Proto-Nostratic root *q’ar¨- (~ *q’ər¨-):

(vb.) *q’ar¨- ‘to rot, to stink’; (n.) *q’ar¨-a ‘rotten, stinking, putrid thing’; (adj.) ‘rotten, stinking, putrid’

576. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *q’aw-a ‘head, forehead, brow’

577. Proto-Nostratic root *q’el-:

(vb.) *q’el- ‘to swallow’; (n.) *q’el-a ‘neck, throat’

578. Proto-Nostratic root *q’in- (~ *q’en-):

(vb.) *q’in- ‘to freeze, to be or become cold’; (n.) *q’in-a ‘cold, frost’

CHAPTER 29

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *ɢ¦

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto-Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

ɢ¦- g¦- k- ɢw/u- g¦º- k- g- k- q-

-ɢ¦- -g¦- -k- -ɢw/u- -g¦º- -x- -g- -ɣ- 579. Proto-Nostratic root *ɢ¦al- (~ *ɢ¦əl-):

(vb.) *ɢ¦al- ‘to curve, to bend, to roll; to be round’; (n.) *ɢ¦al-a ‘round object: circle, globe, sphere, ball, etc.’ Derivative: (n.) *ɢ¦al-a ‘head, skull’

580. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ɢ¦al-a ‘head, skull’

Derivative of: (vb.) *ɢ¦al- ‘to curve, to bend, to roll; to be round’; (n.) *ɢ¦al-a ‘round object: circle, globe, sphere, ball, etc.’

CHAPTER 30

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *q’¦

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto-Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

q’¦- q’¦- (?) k- q’w/u- k’¦- k- k- k- q-

-q’¦- -q’¦- (?) -k(k)- -q’w/u- -k’¦- -k- -k- -k- -q- 581. Proto-Nostratic root *q’¦ad- (~ *q’¦ǝd-):

(vb.) *q’¦ad- ‘to abide, to dwell; to relax, to rest, to be or become calm’; (n.) *q’¦ad-a ‘dwelling, abode, house’

582. Proto-Nostratic root *q’¦al- (~ *q’¦ǝl-):

(vb.) *q’¦al- ‘to call (out), to cry (out), to shout’; (n.) *q’¦al-a ‘call, cry, outcry, sound, noise, hubbub, uproar’


(vb.) *q’¦al- ‘to strike, to hit, to cut, to hurt, to wound, to slay, to kill’; (n.) *q’¦al-a ‘killing, murder, manslaughter, destruction, death’ Probably identical to: (vb.) *q’¦al- ‘to throw, to hurl’; (n.) *q’¦al-a ‘sling, club; throwing, hurling’


(vb.) *q’¦al- ‘to throw, to hurl’; (n.) *q’¦al-a ‘sling, club; throwing, hurling’ Probably identical to: (vb.) *q’¦al- ‘to strike, to hit, to cut, to hurt, to wound, to slay, to kill’; (n.) *q’¦al-a ‘killing, murder, manslaughter, destruction, death’

585. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *q’¦ar-a ‘edge, point, tip, peak’ 586. Proto-Nostratic root *q’¦ar- (~ *q’¦ǝr-) or *q’¦ur- (~ *q’¦or-):

(vb.) *q’¦ar- or *q’¦ur- ‘to call out, to cry out’; (n.) *q’¦ar-a or *q’¦ur-a ‘call, cry, shout’

587. Proto-Nostratic root *q’¦ar¨- (~ *q’¦ǝr¨-) or *q’¦ur¨- (~ *q’¦or¨-):

(vb.) *q’¦ar¨- or *q’¦ur¨- ‘to hear’; (n.) *q’¦ar¨-a or *q’¦ur¨-a ‘ear’

588. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) *q’¦at¨º- (~ *q’¦ǝt¨º-):

(vb.) *q’¦at¨º- ‘to say, to speak, to call’;


(n.) *q’¦at¨º-a ‘call, invocation, invitation, summons’

589. Proto-Nostratic root *q’¦ur- (~ *q’¦or-): (vb.) *q’¦ur- ‘to swallow’; (n.) *q’¦ur-a ‘neck, throat’

CHAPTER 31

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *˜º

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto-Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

˜º- ˜- c- x- kº- s¨- š- V- -˜º- -˜- -k- -x- -kº- -δ- (?) -V-

590. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *˜ºaħ-a ‘(young) sheep or goat’

591. Proto-Nostratic root *˜ºak¦º- (~ *˜ºək¦º-):

(vb.) *˜ºak¦º- ‘to prick, to pierce, to stab’; (n.) *˜ºak¦º-a ‘stab, thrust, jab; thorn, spike, prong, barb’

592. Proto-Nostratic root *˜ºal- (~ *˜ºəl-):

(vb.) *˜ºal- ‘to cut, split, or break open’; (n.) *˜ºal-a ‘slit, crack’

593. Proto-Nostratic root *˜ºar- (~ *˜ºər-):

(vb.) *˜ºar- ‘to cause harm, to injure, to cause strife’; (n.) *˜ºar-a ‘injury, harm, strife’


(vb.) *˜ºar- ‘to cut, to cut into’; (n.) *˜ºar-a ‘cut, slit, slice, slash; that which cuts: saw, knife, axe’ Extended form: (vb.) *˜ºar-V-t’- ‘to make incisions, to cut into’; (n.) *˜ºar-t’-a ‘scratch, incision’


Extended form: (vb.) *˜ºar-V-t’- ‘to make incisions, to cut into’; (n.) *˜ºar-t’-a ‘scratch, incision’ Derivative of: (vb.) *˜ºar- ‘to cut, to cut into’; (n.) *˜ºar-a ‘cut, slit, slice, slash; that which cuts: saw, knife, axe’

596. Proto-Nostratic root *˜ºay- (~ *˜ºəy-):

(vb.) *˜ºay- ‘to grow old, to turn gray (hair)’; (n.) *˜ºay-a ‘old age, gray hair’

597. Proto-Nostratic root *˜ºer-:

(vb.) *˜ºer- ‘to burn, to roast’;


(n.) *˜ºer-a ‘ash(es), charcoal, burnt wood; firewood’; (adj.) ‘burned, heated, roasted, charred, parched’

598. Proto-Nostratic root *˜ºiʕ- (~ *˜ºeʕ-):

Extended form: (vb.) *˜ºiʕ-V-r- ‘to comb’; (n) *˜ºiʕ-r-a ‘hair’:

Note: The original meaning of the stem *˜ºiʕ- (~ *˜ºeʕ-) may have been ‘to scratch, to scrape’ (> ‘to comb’ > ‘hair’); this stem may be preserved in Cushitic: Proto-Cushitic *Vaʕf-/*Viʕf- or *laʕf-/*liʕf- ‘to claw, to scratch’ (cf. Ehret 1995:429, no. 891). For derivation of the word for ‘hair’ from a stem with the meaning ‘to scratch, to scrape’, cf. Old Church Slavic kosa ‘hair’, Serbo-Croatian kòsa ‘hair, wool’, etc., o-grade of the root found in Common Slavic *česati ‘to scratch, to comb’ > Russian česátʹ [чесать] ‘to scratch, to comb’.

599. Proto-Nostratic root *˜ºil- (~ *˜ºel-) or (?) *˜ºir- (~ *˜ºer-):

(vb.) *˜ºil- or (?) *˜ºir- ‘to see’; (n.) *˜ºil-a or (?) *˜ºir-a ‘eye’

600. Proto-Nostratic root *˜ºir- (~ *˜ºer-):

(vb.) *˜ºir- ‘to be highly esteemed, eminent, illustrious, glorious’; (n.) *˜ºir-a ‘high rank, chief, chieftain, ruler’

601. Proto-Nostratic root *˜ºuŋ- (~ *˜ºoŋ-):

Extended form: (vb.) *˜ºuŋ-V-kº- ‘to hook up, to hang up, to suspend (tr.); to dangle, to hang

(intr.)’; (n.) *˜ºuŋ-kº-a ‘peg, hook’

602. Proto-Nostratic root *˜ºut’- (~ *˜ºot’-):

(vb.) *˜ºut’- ‘to cut, to split’; (n.) *˜ºut’-a ‘cut, split’

CHAPTER 32

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *˜’

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto-Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

˜’- ˜’- t- k’- k’- δ¨- -˜’- -˜’- -ṭ(ṭ)- -k’- -k’- -δ¨-

603. Proto-Nostratic root *˜’ar- (~ *˜’ər-):

(vb.) *˜’ar- ‘to bite, to gnaw’; (n.) *˜’ar-a ‘bite’ Extended form (in Semitic and Indo-European): (vb.) *˜’ar-V-s- ‘to bite, to gnaw’; (n.) *˜’ar-s-a ‘tooth; morsel bitten, food, nourishment’

604. Proto-Nostratic root *˜’il- (~ *˜’el-):

(vb.) *˜’il- ‘to be bent, curved, round’; (n.) *˜’il-a ‘bent, curved, round thing or object’; (adj.) ‘bent, curved, round’

605. Proto-Nostratic root *˜’im- (~ *˜’em-):

(vb.) *˜’im- ‘to join, bind, press, or unite together’; (n.) *˜’im-a ‘bond, tie, union, connection’; (adj.) ‘joined, bound, pressed, or

united together; tied, harnessed, glued, etc.’

606. Proto-Nostratic root *˜’ukº- (~ *˜’okº-): (vb.) *˜’ukº- ‘to push, to shove, to thrust (in), to press (in)’; (n.) *˜’ukº-a ‘push, shove, thrust’

CHAPTER 33

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *ʔ

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto-Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

ʔ- ʔ- Ø- Ø- ʔ- Ø- Ø- Ø- -ʔ- -ʔ- -Ø- -Ø- -ʔ- -Ø- -Ø- -Ø-

607. Proto-Nostratic 1st singular personal pronoun stem *ʔa- (~ *ʔə-), *ʔi- (~ *ʔe-)

‘I, me’ No doubt originally the same as the deictic particles *ʔa-, *ʔi- listed below.

Note: The Chukchi forms support the view that we are dealing with what was originally a deictic particle here inasmuch as the same patterning is found in both the first and second person predicative pronoun stems. Moreover, it is the proximate deictic form *ʔi- (~ *ʔe-) that is represented in Chukchi-Kamchatkan as opposed to the distant form *ʔa- (~ *ʔə-) found in Afrasian (the Proto-Indo-European forms *ʔe+k’-, *ʔe+gº-, and *ʔe+kº- are phonolo-gically ambiguous). This seems to indicate that independent developments were involved in each branch, using the same basic elements.

608. Proto-Nostratic demonstrative stems (originally deictic particles):

Proximate: *ʔi- (~ *ʔe-) ‘this’; Intermediate: *ʔu- (~ *ʔo-) ‘that’; Distant: *ʔa- (~ *ʔə-) ‘that yonder, that over there’ Note: These stems often combined with other deictic particles: *ʔa/i/u+na-,

*ʔa/i/u+ša-,*ʔa/i/u+ma-,*ʔa/i/u+tºa-, *ʔa/i/u+kºa-, *ʔa/i/u+ya-, etc.

609. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʔab-a ‘strength, power’; (adj.) ‘strong, mighty’

610. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʔab(b)a ~ *ʔapº(pº)a ‘father, forefather’ (nursery word)

611. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔad- (~ *ʔəd-): (vb.) *ʔad- ‘to be strong, mighty, powerful, exalted’; (n.) *ʔad-a ‘lord, master’; (adj.) ‘strong, mighty, powerful, exalted’

612. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʔad¨-a ‘thorn’; (adj.) ‘pointed, sharp, prickly’

613. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʔaħ-a ‘cow’

104 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX 614. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔaħ- (~ *ʔǝħ-):

(vb.) *ʔaħ- ‘to be young, youthful, tender, fresh’; (n.) *ʔaħ-a ‘a youth, young man, younger brother’; (adj.) ‘young, tender’

615. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔakº- (~ *ʔəkº-):

(vb.) *ʔakº- ‘to eat’; (n.) *ʔakº-a ‘food, meal; fodder, feed, morsel’


(vb.) *ʔakº- ‘to be evil, wicked, bad; to hurt, to harm’; (n.) *ʔakº-a ‘evil, wickedness, harm’


(vb.) *ʔakº- ‘to dig’; (n.) *ʔakº-a ‘that which is dug: digging, ditch, trench, hole; that which is used

to dig: carving tool, chisel, cutter, gouge’

618. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʔakºkºa ‘older female relative’ (nursery word) Note also: (n.) *ʔakºkºa ‘older male relative’

619. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʔakºkºa ‘older male relative’ (nursery word)

Note also: (n.) *ʔakºkºa ‘older female relative’

620. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔak¦º- (~ *ʔək¦º-):

(vb.) *ʔak¦º- ‘to be hot, to burn; to warm oneself’; (n.) *ʔak¦º-a ‘heat, fire’

621. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔal- (~ *ʔəl-):

(vb.) *ʔal- ‘to purify, to cleanse’ (> ‘to sift, to clean grain’ in the daughter languages);

(n.) *ʔal-a ‘the act of washing, cleaning; that which is washed, cleaned’

Semantics as in Sanskrit punā́ti ‘to make clean, clear, pure, or bright; to cleanse, to purify, to purge, to clarify; (with sáktum) to cleanse from chaff, to winnow; to sift, to discriminate, to discern’, (passive) pūyáte ‘to be cleaned, washed, or purified’; related to Old High German fowen ‘to sift, to clean grain’ and Latin pūrus ‘clean, pure’.

622. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔal- (~ *ʔəl-) (perhaps also *ʔel-, *ʔul-):

(vb.) *ʔal- ‘to be not so-and-so or such-and-such’; (n.) *ʔal-a ‘nothing’

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *ʔ 105

Originally a negative verb stem meaning ‘to be not so-and-so or such-and-such’ — later used in some branches as a negative particle.

623. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔam- (~ *ʔəm-):

(vb.) *ʔam- ‘to seize, to grasp, to take, to touch, to hold (closely or tightly)’; (n.) *ʔam-a ‘grasp, hold, hand(ful)’; (adj.) ‘seized, grasped, touched, held,

obtained’

624. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʔam-a ‘time, moment, point of time’; (particle) ‘now’

625. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʔam(m)a ‘mother’ (nursery word) Note also: (n.) *ʔema ‘older female relative; mother; (older) woman’

626. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔan- (~ *ʔən-):

(vb.) *ʔan- ‘to load up and go, to send off’; (n.) *ʔan-a ‘load, burden’

627. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔan¨- (~ *ʔən¨-):

(vb.) *ʔan¨- ‘to be quiet, still, at peace, at rest’; (n.) *ʔan¨-a ‘tranquility, peace, rest’; (adj.) ‘quiet, still, peaceful, restful’

628. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔan¨- (~ *ʔən¨-):

(vb.) *ʔan¨- ‘to draw near to, to approach, to come (close to)’; (n.) *ʔan¨-a ‘nearness, proximity’ Derivative: (particle) *ʔan¨-‘to, towards, over, for, against, upon, on’

629. Proto-Nostratic (particle) *ʔan¨-‘to, towards, over, for, against, upon, on’

Derivative of: (vb.) *ʔan¨- ‘to draw near to, to approach, to come (close to)’; (n.) *ʔan¨-a ‘nearness, proximity’

630. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʔan¨a ‘mother, aunt’ (nursery word)

Note also: (n.) *ʔen¨a ‘mother, elder sister’

631. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔaŋ- (~ *ʔəŋ-):

(vb.) *ʔaŋ- ‘to divide, to separate’; (n.) *ʔaŋ-a ‘separation, difference’; (adj.) ‘separate, different’

632. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʔaŋ(ŋ)a ‘(older) female relative’ (nursery word)

633. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʔaŋ(ŋ)a ‘(older) male relative’

106 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX 634. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔapº- (~ *ʔəpº-):

(vb.) *ʔapº- ‘to be more, over, above, extra’; (n.) *ʔapº-a ‘that which is more, over, above, extra’; (adj.) ‘many, more, extra,

additional, numerous, teeming’ (particle) *ʔapº- ‘also, moreover, besides’ Note: The CVC- patterning shows that this stem could not originally have been a particle, though this is how it is preserved in the daughter languages. Though the original meaning is unknown, we may speculate that it may have been something like ‘(vb.) to be more, over, above, extra; (n.) that which is more, over, above, extra; (adj.) many, more, extra, additional, numerous, teeming’.

635. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔar- (~ *ʔər-):

(vb.) *ʔar- ‘to cut (off, apart), to sever, to separate, to part asunder’; (n.) *ʔar-a ‘half, side, part’; (adj.) ‘severed, separated, parted, disjoined’

636. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʔar-a ‘male, man, husband’

637. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʔar-a ‘associated or related person or thing; associate,

companion, friend; kinsman, relative’; (adj.) ‘associated, related’ 638. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔar- (~ *ʔər-) (used as the base for the designation of

various horned animals): (n.) *ʔar-a ‘ram, goat, mountain-goat, chamois, ibex, gazelle, etc.’

639. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔas- (~ *ʔəs-): (vb.) *ʔas- ‘to gather, to collect’; (n.) *ʔas-a ‘the act of gathering, collecting’

640. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔas¨- (~ *ʔəs¨-): (vb.) *ʔas¨- ‘to put, to place, to set; to sit, to be seated’; (n.) *ʔas¨-a ‘place, seat’; (adj.) ‘put, placed, set, established’

641. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʔatºtºa ‘older male relative, father’ (nursery word)

642. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʔat’¨a ‘older relative (male or female)’ (nursery word) 643. Proto-Nostratic coordinating conjunction *ʔaw-, *ʔwa- (~ *ʔwə-) ‘or’

644. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔay- (~ *ʔəy-) (interrogative verb stem):

(vb.) *ʔay- ‘to do what?, to act in what manner?’ Derivative: Interrogative-relative pronoun stem *ʔay-, *ʔya- ‘(relative) who, which, what;

(interrogative) who?, which?, what?’


645. Proto-Nostratic interrogative-relative pronoun stem *ʔay-, *ʔya- ‘(relative) who, which, what; (interrogative) who?, which?, what?’: Derivative of: (vb.) *ʔay- ‘to do what?, to act in what manner?’

646. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔay- (~ *ʔəy-):

(vb.) *ʔay- ‘to go, to proceed’; (n.) *ʔay-a ‘journey’ Note also: (vb.) *ʔiy- ‘to come, to go’; (n.) *ʔiy-a ‘approach, arrival; path, way’

647. Proto-Nostratic *#ay-a ‘brain’: 648. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʔay(y)a ‘mother, female relative’ (nursery word) 649. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʔay(y)a ‘father, male relative’ (nursery word)

650. Proto-Nostratic negative particle *ʔe ‘no, not’ 651. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔeb-:

(vb.) *ʔeb- ‘to become weak, exhausted, wasted, debilitated, wiped out; to yield, to succumb; to go mad, to become insane, to lose one’s mind; to lose one’s way’;

(n.) *ʔeb-a ‘weakness, exhaustion; madness, silliness, foolishness’; (adj.) ‘weakened, exhausted, debilitated, wiped out; mad, foolish, silly, half-witted’

652. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) *ʔekº-:

(vb.) *ʔekº- ‘to move quickly, to rage; to be furious, raging, violent, spirited, fiery, wild’;

(n.) *ʔekº-a ‘rapid or violent movement, fury, rage’

653. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔek’-: (vb.) *ʔek’- ‘to diminish, to decrease, to reduce; to be insufficient, lacking,

wanting; to be small, weak, lowly, ignoble, common, ordinary, plain, simple’;

(n.) *ʔek’-a ‘diminishment, reduction, decrease, loss; deficiency, want, need, lack’

654. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔel-:

(vb.) *ʔel- ‘to shine, to radiate, to glitter, to glisten’; (n.) *ʔel-a ‘luster, splendor, light’

108 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX 655. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *ʔema ‘older female relative; mother;

(older) woman’ (nursery word) Note also: (n.) *ʔam(m)a ‘mother’

656. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʔen¨a ‘mother, elder sister’ (nursery word)

Note also: (n.) *ʔan¨a ‘mother, aunt’

657. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔepº-:

(vb.) *ʔepº- ‘to burn, to be hot; to cook, to boil, to bake’; (n.) *ʔepº-a ‘the act of cooking, baking; oven’

658. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʔer-a ‘earth, ground’

659. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔib- (~ *ʔeb-):

(vb.) *ʔib- ‘to well up, to overflow, to spill over; to pour out or over’; (n.) *ʔib-a ‘spill, overflow, flood, deluge’

660. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔil- (~ *ʔel-):

(vb.) *ʔil- ‘to live, to be alive; to be, to exist’; (n.) *ʔil-a ‘dwelling, habitation, house’; (adj.) ‘living, alive, existing’

661. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʔil-a (~ *ʔel-a) ‘deer’

662. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔil- (~ *ʔel-):

(vb.) *ʔil- ‘to see, to know’; (n.) *ʔil-a ‘eye’

663. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʔin-a (~ *ʔen-a) ‘place, location’ (> ‘in, within, into’ in

the daughter languages)

664. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʔina or *ʔiŋa ‘younger relative (male or female)’ (nursery word)

665. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔit’- (~ *ʔet’-):

(vb.) *ʔit’- ‘to chew, to bite, to eat, to consume’; (n.) *ʔit’-a ‘the act of eating; that which is eaten: food, nourishment’

666. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔiy- (~ *ʔey-):

(vb.) *ʔiy- ‘to come, to go’; (n.) *ʔiy-a ‘approach, arrival; path, way’ Note also: (vb.) *ʔay- ‘to go, to proceed’; (n.) *ʔay-a ‘journey’


667. Proto-Nostratic 1st person personal pronoun stem *ʔiya: (a) ‘by me’; (b) agent marker of the 1st singular of verbs; (c) postnominal possessive pronoun: ‘my’

668. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʔom-a ‘rounded prominence at the end of a bone forming

a ball and socket joint with the hollow part of another bone, condyle (of the lower jaw, the shoulder, the elbow, the hip, etc.)’

Note: Semantic shifts took place in Semitic, Indo-European, and, in part, Altaic; the original meaning was preserved in Egyptian and Turkic.

669. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔor-:

(vb.) *ʔor- ‘to move rapidly, quickly, hastily; to set in motion’; (n.) *ʔor-a ‘any rapid motion: running, flowing, pouring, etc.’; (adj.) ‘rapid,

quick, hasty’

670. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔor¨-: (vb.) *ʔor¨- ‘to rise (up)’; (n.) *ʔor¨-a ‘rising movement or motion’ Extended form: (vb.) *ʔor¨-V-g- ‘to climb on, to mount, to copulate (with)’; (n.) *ʔor¨-g-a ‘mounting, copulation’

671. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔor¨-:

Extended form: (vb.) *ʔor¨-V-g- ‘to climb on, to mount, to copulate (with)’; (n.) *ʔor¨-g-a ‘mounting, copulation’ Derivative of: (vb.) *ʔor¨- ‘to rise (up)’; (n.) *ʔor¨-a ‘rising movement or motion’

672. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔot’-:

(vb.) *ʔot’- ‘to move to or toward; to move away from; to move out of the way, to step aside’;

(n.) *ʔot’-a ‘movement to or toward; movement away from; step, track’

673. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔow-: Extended form: (vb.) *ʔow-V-ħ- ‘to hatch eggs’; (n.)*ʔow-ħ-a ‘egg’

Dolgopolsky has proposed a very attractive etymology here. However, it must be noted that Arabic "āḥ ‘eggwhite, albumen’ is isolated within Semitic. Moreover, even though the Proto-Indo-European form is traditionally reconstructed as *ōu̯i̯om ‘egg’, no single reconstruction can account for all of the forms found in the Indo-European daughter languages. Accordingly, there


are difficulties with this etymology. If this is a valid etymology, it would imply that the Proto-Indo-European form is to be reconstructed as *™ou̯ši̯om ‘egg’, with short vowel in the first syllable and a laryngeal (*š [= *¸]) between *u̯ and *i̯ (the long vowel found in the first syllable of the forms attested in several of the Indo-European daughter languages would then be due to compensatory lengthening following the loss of this laryngeal). There may have been a non-apophonic *o (original, or inherited, *o) in the first syllable, in which case the Proto-Nostratic form would have been *ʔow-ħ-. Reconstructing a medial laryngeal (*š [= *¸]) would also account for the Germanic developments. *ʔow¸-yo-m (traditional *™ou̯ši̯om) ‘egg’ cannot, as is often assumed, be a derivative of the common Proto-Indo-European word for ‘bird’, which requires an initial a-coloring laryngeal (preserved in Armenian): *Aéw-i-s [*Aáw-i-s], *Aw-éy-s > Armenian hav ‘bird, hen, chicken’; Latin avis ‘a bird’; Umbrian (acc.) avif ‘bird’; Sanskrit (nom. sg.) ví-ḥ, (Rigveda) vé-ḥ ‘a bird’; etc.

674. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔoy-:

(vb.) *ʔoy- ‘to be by oneself, to be alone’; (n.) *ʔoy-a ‘solitude, aloneness’; (adj.) ‘single, alone; one’

675. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʔul-a ‘the bottom or lowest part of anything; the sole of

the foot; soil, earth, ground, land’

Semantics as in Latin sŏlum ‘the bottom or lowest part of anything; the sole of the foot; soil, earth, ground, land’ (cf. Buck 1949:1.212).

676. Proto-Nostratic deictic stem indicating distance farthest away from the speaker

*ʔul- (~ *ʔol-) ‘that over there, that yonder’

677. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔum- (~ *ʔom-): (vb.) *ʔum- ‘to bear, to give birth’; (n.) *ʔum-a ‘offspring, descendant’

678. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔupº- (onomatopoeic):

(vb.) *ʔupº- ‘to blow’; (n.) *ʔupº-a ‘puff of air, breath’

679. Proto-Nostratic root *ʔut’- (~ *ʔot’-):

(vb.) *ʔut’- ‘to stretch, to lengthen’; (n.) *ʔut’-a ‘wide-open space, outdoor area, exterior; length, distance’; (adj.)

‘wide, broad, long’

CHAPTER 34

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *h

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto-Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

h- h- Ø- Ø- h- Ø- Ø- Ø-

-h- -h- -Ø- -Ø- -h- -Ø- -Ø- -Ø- 680. Proto-Nostratic root *hag- (~ *həg-):

(vb.) *hag- ‘to burn, to be on fire, to be aflame, to be ablaze, to shine brightly’;

(n.) *hag-a ‘midday heat, heat of sun, sunlight’

681. Proto-Nostratic root *hakº- (~ *hǝkº-): (vb.) *hakº- ‘to be sluggish, slow; to do or approach something gradually,

slowly, step by step’; (adv.) ‘slowly, gradually’; (n.) *hakº-a ‘slowness, gradualness, sluggishness’

682. Proto-Nostratic root *hak’- (~ *hək’-):

(vb.) *hak’- ‘to press, squeeze, pack, or cram together; to confine, to oppress’; (n.) *hak’-a ‘oppression, affliction, pain’

683. Proto-Nostratic root *hal- (~ *həl-):

(vb.) *hal- ‘to light up, to beam forth, to shine, to brighten up, to radiate’; (n.) *hal-a ‘clearness, brightness, radiance, purity’; (adj.) ‘clear, pure, bright,

shining, radiant’

684. Proto-Nostratic root *hal- (~ *həl-): (adv.) *hal- ‘else, otherwise’; (n.) *hal-a ‘other side’; (adj.) ‘other’

685. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ham-a ‘blackness; black object’; (adj.) ‘black’

686. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ham-a ‘water’ 687. Proto-Nostratic root *ham- (~ *həm-):

(vb.) *ham- ‘to take into the mouth, to eat’; (n.) *ham-a ‘mouth’

688. Proto-Nostratic root *haŋ- (~ *həŋ-):

(vb.) *haŋ- ‘to split apart, to open (tr.); to gape, to open the mouth, to yawn’; (n.) *haŋ-a ‘opening: yawn, gape, mouth; hole; crack, crevice’

112 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX 689. Proto-Nostratic root *hapº- (~ *həpº-):

(vb.) *hapº- ‘to turn, to turn away, to turn back’; (n.) *hapº-a ‘the act of turning away, turning back, overturning’; (adj.) ‘turned

away from, turned back, overturned’

690. Proto-Nostratic root *haw- (~ *həw-): (vb.) *haw- ‘to long for, to desire’; (n.) *haw-a ‘desire’

691. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *hay-a ‘a kind of cereal or grain’

692. Proto-Nostratic exclamation of surprise, astonishment, grief, or misfortune

*hay

693. Proto-Nostratic root *her- and/or *hor-: (vb.) *her- and/or *hor- ‘to escape, to flee, to run away’; (n.) *her-a and/or *hor-a ‘escape, flight’; (adj.) ‘escaped, liberated, freed’

CHAPTER 35

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *ħ

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

ħ- ħ- Ø- x- ¸- Ø- Ø- Ø-

-ħ- -ħ- -Ø- -x- -¸- -Ø- -Ø- -Ø- 694. Proto-Nostratic root *ħac’- (~ *ħəc’-):

(vb.) *ħac’- ‘to pick, to pluck’; (n.) *ħac’-a ‘the act of picking, plucking’; (adj.) ‘picked, plucked’

695. Proto-Nostratic root *ħag- (~ *ħəg-):

(vb.) *ħag- ‘to be pressed or weighed down; to be oppressed; to be vexed, distressed, disheartened, afflicted, troubled’;

(n.) *ħag-a ‘trouble, affliction, oppression, distress, grief, sadness’

696. Proto-Nostratic root *ħag- (~ *ħəg-): (vb.) *ħag- ‘to cover over, to hide, to conceal, to obscure, to overshadow’; (n.) *ħag-a ‘mist, darkness, cloudy weather’; (adj.) ‘misty, dark, cloudy’

697. Proto-Nostratic root *ħakº- (~ *ħəkº-):

(vb.) *ħakº- ‘to be mentally sharp, keen’; (n.) *ħakº-a ‘wisdom, sound judgment, understanding’

698. Proto-Nostratic root *ħak’- (~ *ħək’-): (vb.) *ħak’- ‘to spread, to widen, to extend’; (n.) *ħak’-a ‘expanse, wide-open space, earth, field’

699. Proto-Nostratic root *ħak’- (~ *ħək’-):

(vb.) *ħak’- ‘to direct, to guide, to command’; (n.) *ħak’-a ‘direction, guidance, command, decree; leader, chief, chieftain,

ruler, headman’

700. Proto-Nostratic root *ħal- (~ *ħəl-): (vb.) *ħal- ‘to lay waste, to destroy, to kill, to slaughter’; (n.) *ħal-a ‘destruction, violence, killing, slaughter’ Note also: (vb.) *xal- ‘to wear down, to wear out, to weaken; to be worn out, worn

down, weakened’; (n.) *xal-a ‘weakness, exhaustion, fatigue, weariness’; (adj.) ‘weak, worn out,

tired, exhausted, weary’


701. Proto-Nostratic root *ħal- (~ *ħəl-): (vb.) *ħal- ‘to wash, to rinse, to clean’; (n.) *ħal-a ‘the act of washing, cleaning’; (adj.) ‘washed, clean(ed)’

702. Proto-Nostratic root *ħal- (~ *ħəl-):

(vb.) *ħal- ‘to lower’; (n.) *ħal-a ‘that which is beneath or under; lower part, underpart’; (adj.)

‘lower’

703. Proto-Nostratic root *ħal¨- (~ *ħəl¨-): (vb.) *ħal¨- ‘to grow, to be strong’; (n.) *ħal¨-a ‘health, strength, power’; (adj.) ‘healthy, strong, powerful; grown,

great, large’

704. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ħal¨-a ‘hole, hollow, cavity’

705. Proto-Nostratic root *ħam- (~ *ħəm-): (vb.) *ħam- ‘to be sharp, sour, bitter, acid’; (n.) *ħam-a ‘any sharp-tasting, sour, bitter, or acid foodstuff’; (adj.) ‘sharp,

sour, bitter, acid’

706. Proto-Nostratic root *ħam- (~ *ħəm-): (vb.) *ħam- ‘to become still, quiet, tranquil; to rest, to settle down, to remain,

to abide’; (n.) *ħam-a ‘abode, resting place; stillness, tranquility’; (adj.) ‘seated, settled’

707. Proto-Nostratic root *ħan- (~ *ħən-):

(vb.) *ħan- ‘to show favor; to be gracious, affectionate, tender’; (n.) *ħan-a ‘affection, tenderness, favor, graciousness’


(vb.) *ħan- ‘to bend, to curve, to twist’; (n.) *ħan-a ‘bend, curve, twist’


Extended form: (vb.) *ħan-V-g- ‘to tie tightly, to constrict, to make narrow; to choke, to

strangle’; (n.) *ħan-g-a ‘throat’; (adj.) ‘narrow, constricted’

710. Proto-Nostratic root *ħaŋ- (~ *ħəŋ-):

(vb.) *ħaŋ- ‘to dive into water (bird)’; (n.) *ħaŋ-a ‘an aquatic bird’

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *ħ 115

711. Proto-Nostratic root *ħapº- (~ *ħəpº-): (vb.) *ħapº- ‘to take, gather, or collect (with the hands or arms)’; (n.) *ħapº-a ‘that which has been gathered or collected: plenty, fullness,

abundance, wealth, possessions, property; embrace, armful, handful’

712. Proto-Nostratic root *ħapº- (~ *ħəpº-): (vb.) *ħapº- ‘to move quickly, to run, to flow’; (n.) *ħapº-a ‘(flowing or running) water, river, stream, current’

713. Proto-Nostratic root *ħar- (~ *ħər-):

(vb.) *ħar- ‘to prepare, to make ready, to put together’; (n.) *ħar-a ‘way, manner, method’

714. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ħar-a ‘arm, hand’


(vb.) *ħar- ‘to be superior, to be higher in status or rank, to be above or over’; (n.) *ħar-a ‘nobleman, master, chief, superior’; (adj.) ‘free-born, noble’


(vb.) *ħar- ‘to scratch, to scrape’ (> ‘to plow’ in the daughter languages); (n.) *ħar-a ‘scraping, scratching’

717. Proto-Nostratic *ħar¨-: (1) particle introducing an alternative: ‘or’, (2) conjoining particle: ‘with, and’, (3) inferential particle: ‘then, therefore’

Note: The CVC- patterning shows that this stem could not originally have been a particle, though this is how it is preserved in the daughter languages. The original meaning is unknown.

718. Proto-Nostratic root *ħas- (~ *ħəs-):

(vb.) *ħas- ‘to burn, to be hot’; (n.) *ħas-a ‘cinder, ember, ashes; heat’

719. Proto-Nostratic root *ħas¨- (~ *ħəs¨-) (used to designate various tree names): (n.) *ħas¨-a ‘a tree and its fruit’

720. Proto-Nostratic root *ħat’- (~ *ħət’-):

(vb.) *ħat’- ‘to shake, to tremble; to be shaken, startled, frightened, terrified, afraid’;

(n.) *ħat’-a ‘trembling, shaking’ Note also: (vb.) *ħut’- ‘to shake, to shiver, to tremble’; (n.) *ħut’-a ‘trembling, shaking’; (adj.) ‘shaking, shivering, trembling’


721. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ħaw-a ‘a relative on the mother’s side’ 722. Proto-Nostratic root *ħaw- (~ *ħəw-):

(vb.) *ħaw- ‘to surge up, to overflow, to rain’; (n.) *ħaw-a ‘torrential rain, torrent, deluge’ Probably related to: (vb.) *ħaw- ‘to swell, to increase’; (n.) *ħaw-a ‘swelling, increase, growth; great number or amount’

723. Proto-Nostratic root *ħaw- (~ *ħəw-):

(vb.) *ħaw- ‘to swell, to increase’; (n.) *ħaw-a ‘swelling, increase, growth; great number or amount’ Probably related to: (vb.) *ħaw- ‘to surge up, to overflow, to rain’; (n.) *ħaw-a ‘torrential rain, torrent, deluge’

724. Proto-Nostratic root *ħaw- (~ *ħəw-):

(vb.) *ħaw- ‘to weave, to braid, to plait, to twist, to turn’; (n.) *ħaw-a ‘the act of weaving, braiding, plaiting’

725. Proto-Nostratic root *ħay- (~ *ħəy-):

(vb.) *ħay- ‘to live, to be alive’; (n.) *ħay-a ‘life, age’ Extended form: (vb.) *ħay-V-w- ‘to live, to be alive’; (n.) *ħay-w-a ‘life, age’

726. Proto-Nostratic root *ħay- (~ *ħəy-):

Extended form: (vb.) *ħay-V-t’- ‘to swell, to be fat’; (n.) *ħay-t’-a ‘a swelling, fat’; (adj.) ‘fat, swollen’

727. Proto-Nostratic root *ħaʒ- (~ *ħəʒ-):

(vb.) *ħaʒ- ‘to cut into, to carve, to notch’; (n.) *ħaʒ-a ‘that which is cut: incision, notch, nick; that which cuts: saw,

chisel, axe, hatchet’ 728. Proto-Nostratic root *ħin- (~ *ħen-):

Extended form: (vb.) *ħin-V-kº- ‘to reach, to come to, to arrive at, to gain; to offer, to

present’; (n.) *ħin-kº-a ‘gain, mastery, experience; offering, present’

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *ħ 117

729. Proto-Nostratic root *ħiw- (~ *ħew-), *ħiy- (~ *ħey-): (vb.) *ħiw-, *ħiy- ‘to lack, to stand in need, to be in want’; (n.) *ħiw-a, *ħiy-a ‘need, want, lack, deficiency’

730. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *ħokº-a ‘sharp point’

731. Proto-Nostratic root *ħok’-:

(vb.) *ħok’- ‘to scrape, to scratch’; (n.) *ħok’-a ‘scraping, scratching’

732. Proto-Nostratic root *ħon-:

(vb.) *ħon- ‘to swell, to grow, to rise’; (n.) *ħon-a ‘height, elevation, swelling’

733. Proto-Nostratic root *ħul- (~ *ħol-):

(vb.) *ħul- ‘to destroy, to lay waste, to cause to perish’; (n.) *ħul-a ‘ruin, destruction; end, death’

734. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ħur-a (and/or *ħer-a ?) ‘hawk-like bird: falcon, hawk,

eagle, kite’

735. Proto-Nostratic root *ħur- (~ *ħor-): (vb.) *ħur- ‘to pound, to grind, to crush, to waste away or wear down by

rubbing’; (n.) *ħur-a ‘pestle, mortar’

736. Proto-Nostratic root *ħut’- (~ *ħot’-):

(vb.) *ħut’- ‘to shake, to shiver, to tremble’; (n.) *ħut’-a ‘trembling, shaking’; (adj.) ‘shaking, shivering, trembling’

Note also: (vb.) *ħat’- ‘to shake, to tremble; to be shaken, startled, frightened, terrified,

afraid’; (n.) *ħat’-a ‘trembling, shaking’

CHAPTER 36

PROTO-NOSTRATIC * ʕ

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto-Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

ʕ- ʕ- Ø- Ø- °- Ø- Ø- Ø-

-ʕ- -ʕ- -Ø- -Ø- -°- -Ø- -Ø- -Ø- 737. Proto-Nostratic root *ʕag- (~ *ʕəg-):

(vb.) *ʕag- ‘to bud, to sprout, to grow’; (n.) *ʕag-a ‘outgrowth, bud, sprout, protuberance’

738. Proto-Nostratic root *ʕakº- (~ *ʕəkº-):

(vb.) *ʕakº- ‘to beat, to strike, to break’; (n.) *ʕakº-a ‘the act of beating, striking, breaking’

739. Proto-Nostratic root *ʕal- (~ *ʕəl-):

(vb.) *ʕal- ‘to be high, tall, elevated, exalted; to rise high; to ascend’; (n.) *ʕal-a ‘highest point: peak, summit, mountain’; (particle) *ʕal- ‘on, upon, on top of, over, above, beyond’

740. Proto-Nostratic root *ʕal- (~ *ʕəl-):

(vb.) *ʕal- ‘to make a fire, to light a fire, to ignite, to kindle, to burn’; (n.) *ʕal-a ‘fire, torch’

741. Proto-Nostratic root *ʕam- (~ *ʕəm-):

(vb.) *ʕam- ‘to sink, to dip, to plunge’; (n.) *ʕam-a ‘deep place, valley’; (adj.) ‘sunken, deep’


(vb.) *ʕam- ‘to lift, to raise, to make high’; (n.) *ʕam-a ‘highest point, tip, top’ Extended form (Semitic and Indo-European): (vb.) *ʕam-V-d- ‘to lift, to raise, to make high’; (n.) ʕam-d-a ‘highest point, tip, top’


(vb.) *ʕam- ‘to shoot, to hurl, to throw’; (n.) *ʕam-a ‘arrow’

744. Proto-Nostratic root *ʕan- (~ *ʕən-):

(vb.) *ʕan- ‘to breathe, to respire, to live’;


(n.) *ʕan-a ‘life, breath’

745. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʕaŋ-a ‘upper part’; (particle) *ʕaŋ- ‘up, above’ 746. Proto-Nostratic root *ʕap’- (~ *ʕəp’-):

(vb.) *ʕap’- ‘to grasp, to seize, to take hold of, to take by force’; (n.) *ʕap’-a ‘grasp, hold, seizure’

747. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʕar-a ‘back, rear; hindquarters, behind’

748. Proto-Nostratic root *ʕar- (~ *ʕər-):

Extended form: (vb.) *ʕar-V-g- ‘to climb on, to mount; to rise, to ascend; to lift up, to raise’; (n.) *ʕar-g-a ‘climbing, mounting’

749. Proto-Nostratic root *ʕatº- (~ *ʕətº-):

(vb.) *ʕatº- ‘to move, to proceed, to advance (in years)’; (n.) *ʕatº-a ‘maturity, old age; advance’; (adj.) ‘mature, old; advanced’

750. Proto-Nostratic root *ʕen-:

(vb.) *ʕen- ‘to see, to notice, to pay attention’; (n.) *ʕen-a ‘sight, view, attention’

751. Proto-Nostratic root *ʕeŋ-:

(vb.) *ʕeŋ- ‘to think, to consider’; (n.) *ʕeŋ-a ‘thought, idea, notion, concept, intention, deliberation’

752. Proto-Nostratic root *ʕey-:

(vb.) *ʕey- ‘to know, to recognize’; (n.) *ʕey-a ‘sight, recognition’; (adj.) ‘known, seen, recognized’

753. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʕig-a ‘young of an animal, calf’

754. Proto-Nostratic root *ʕim- (~ *ʕem-):

(vb.) *ʕim- ‘to suck, to swallow’; (n.) *ʕim-a ‘the act of sucking, swallowing; breast, nipple, teat’

755. Proto-Nostratic root *ʕor¨-:

(vb.) *ʕor¨- ‘to turn or twist round’; (n.) *ʕor¨-a ‘turning, twisting; binding, tying; sewing, weaving’

756. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʕub-a ‘bosom, breast’

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *¬ 121

757. Proto-Nostratic root *ʕun¨- (~ *ʕon¨-):

(vb.) *ʕun¨- ‘to eat, to drink, to swallow; to feed (on), to suck (milk from a breast)’;

(n.) *ʕun¨-a ‘food, meal’

758. Proto-Nostratic root *ʕur- (~ *ʕor-): (vb.) *ʕur- ‘to be firm, hard, strong’; (n.) *ʕur-a ‘firmness, hardness, strength’; (adj.) ‘firm, hard, strong’

759. Proto-Nostratic root *ʕut’- (~ *ʕot’-):

(vb.) *ʕut’- ‘to smell’; (n.) *ʕut’-a ‘smell, odor, fragrance’

760. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ʕuw-a (~ *ʕow-a) ‘herd of small animals, sheep and

goats’

CHAPTER 37

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *x

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

x- x- Ø- x- ¸- Ø- Ø- Ø-

-x- -x- -Ø- -x- -¸- -x- -Ø- -Ø- 761. Proto-Nostratic root *xal- (~ *xəl-):

(vb.) *xal- ‘to wear down, to wear out, to weaken; to be worn out, worn down, weakened’;

(n.) *xal-a ‘weakness, exhaustion, fatigue, weariness’; (adj.) ‘weak, worn out, tired, exhausted, weary’

Note also: (vb.) *ħal- ‘to lay waste, to destroy, to kill, to slaughter’; (n.) *ħal-a ‘destruction, violence, killing, slaughter’

762. Proto-Nostratic root *xal- (~ *xəl-):

(vb.) *xal- ‘to divide, to allot, to apportion, to enumerate, to count’; (n.) *xal-a ‘division, allotment, portion, share; measurement, calculation,

number’

763. Proto-Nostratic root *xaŋ- (~ *xəŋ-): (vb.) *xaŋ- ‘to lift, to raise; to rise, to go upward, to ascend’; (n.) *xaŋ-a ‘that which is most prominent, foremost, visible, or noticeable’; (particle) *xaŋ- ‘on top of, over, above’ Extended form: (n.) *xaŋ-tº-a ‘the most prominent or foremost (person or thing), front, front

part’

764. Proto-Nostratic root *xaŋ- (~ *xəŋ-): Extended form: (n.) *xaŋ-tº-a ‘the most prominent or foremost (person or thing), front, front

part’ Derivative of: (vb.) *xaŋ- ‘to lift, to raise; to rise, to go upward, to ascend’; (n.) *xaŋ-a ‘that which is most prominent, foremost, visible, or noticeable’; (particle) *xaŋ- ‘on top of, over, above’

765. Proto-Nostratic root *xat’- (~ *xət’-):

(vb.) *xat’- ‘to cut into, to hollow out, to engrave, to prick, to pierce’; (n.) *xat’-a ‘slice, carving, engraving, engraved line, incision’


766. Proto-Nostratic root *xol-: (vb.) *xol- ‘to be separated or apart from, by oneself, alone; to set apart’; (n.) *xol-a ‘solitude, seclusion, loneliness’; (adj.) ‘alone, lonely’

CHAPTER 38

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *x¦

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

x¦- x¦- v-/Ø- xw/u- ¸¦- w- v-

-x¦- -x¦- -v- -xw/u- -¸¦- -x- -v- 767. Proto-Nostratic root *x¦al- (~ *x¦əl-):

(vb.) *x¦al- ‘to pull (off, out), to tear (off, out)’; (n.) *x¦al-a ‘the act of pulling or tearing (off, out)’

768. Proto-Nostratic root *x¦at’- (~ *x¦ət’-):

(vb.) *x¦at’- ‘to scratch, to scrape’; (n.) *x¦at’-a ‘the act of scratching, scraping’

769. Proto-Nostratic root *x¦at’- (~ *x¦ət’-):

(vb.) *x¦at’- ‘to chatter, to speak’; (n.) *x¦at’-a ‘chatter, talk’

770. Proto-Nostratic root *x¦el¨-:

(vb.) *x¦el¨- ‘to gulp down’; (n.) *x¦el¨-a ‘neck, throat’

771. Proto-Nostratic root *x¦ir- (~ *x¦er-):

(vb.) *x¦ir- ‘to make a loud noise, to make a shrill sound’; (n.) *x¦ir-a ‘loud noise’

CHAPTER 39

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *¦

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto-Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

¦- ¦- Ø- ¦- °- Ø- Ø- Ø-

-¦- -¦- -Ø- -¦- -°- -Ø- -Ø- -Ø- 772. Proto-Nostratic root *¦am- (~ *¦ǝm-):

(vb.) *¦am- ‘to be or become dark; to cover, to hide’; (n.) *¦am-a ‘darkness; sunset, evening’

773. Proto-Nostratic root *¦il- (~ *¦el-):

(vb.) *¦il- ‘to bear, to give birth, to beget (of humans)’; (n.) *¦il-a ‘child, youth, young person’; (adj.) ‘young, immature’

CHAPTER 40

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *y

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto-Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

y- y- y-/Ø- y-/Ø- y- y- y-

-y- -y- -y- -y- -y- -y- -y- 774. Proto-Nostratic root *yaʔ- (~ *yəʔ-):

(vb.) *yaʔ- ‘to tie, to bind, to gird’; (n.) *yaʔ-a ‘binding, bond, bandage; belt, girdle’

775. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *yam-a ‘water, sea’

776. Proto-Nostratic root *yan- (~ *yən-):

(vb.) *yan- ‘to say, to speak’; (n.) *yan-a ‘saying, word, expression’

777. Proto-Nostratic root *yaw- (~ *yəw-):

(vb.) *yaw- ‘to produce young’; (n.) *yaw-a ‘youth, young person, child’; (adj.) ‘young’

778. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *yiw-a (~ *yew-a) ‘grain’

779. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *yor-a ‘set of two, group of two; a pair of …’ (> ‘two’)

CHAPTER 41

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *w

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto-Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

w- w- v-/Ø- w- w- w- v-

-w- -w- -v- -w- -w- -w- -v- 780. Proto-Nostratic 1st person personal pronoun stem *wa- (~ *wə-) ‘I, me; we us’

781. Proto-Nostratic sentence particle *wa- (~ *wə-) ‘and, also, but; like, as’

782. Proto-Nostratic root *waʕ- (~ *wǝʕ-):

(vb.) *waʕ- ‘to call, to cry out, to shout’; (n.) *waʕ-a ‘cry, howl, clamor, shout, noise’

783. Proto-Nostratic root *wad- (~ *wəd-):

(vb.) *wad- ‘to take, to lead, to carry, to bring’; (n.) *wad-a ‘the act of taking, leading, carrying, bringing’

784. Proto-Nostratic root *waħ- (~ *wəħ-):

(vb.) *waħ- ‘to strike, to stab, to wound’; (n.) *waħ-a ‘wound, scar; knife, sword, blade, spear(head)’

785. Proto-Nostratic root *wak’- (~ *wək’-):

(vb.) *wak’- ‘to rouse, to stir up, to excite’; (n.) *wak’-a ‘energy, vigor, strength, power, might’

786. Proto-Nostratic root *wal- (~ *wəl-):

(vb.) *wal- ‘to be or become strong’; (n.) *wal-a ‘strength, power’


(vb.) *wal- ‘to pull (out)’; (n.) *wal-a ‘pulling, dragging’


(vb.) *wal- ‘to cry out, to call out, to shout’; (n.) *wal-a ‘sound, noise, cry, wail, lamentation, howl, hubbub’


(vb.) *wal- ‘to go, to go away, to depart’; (n.) *wal-a ‘departure, flight, escape’

132 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX 790. Proto-Nostratic root *wal- (~ *wəl-):

(vb.) *wal- ‘to flow, to wet, to moisten’; (n.) *wal-a ‘flow, trickle; wetness, moisture, dampness’; (adj.) ‘wet, damp’


(vb.) *wal- ‘to set fire to, to burn, to heat up, to warm’; (n.) *wal-a ‘heat, warmth, boiling’


(vb.) *wal- ‘to crush, to grind, to wear out; to rub, to press; to be worn out, weak; to fade, to wither, to waste away’;

(n.) *wal-a ‘distress, pain, difficulty; weakness, hunger, starvation’

793. Proto-Nostratic root *wal¨- (~ *wəl¨-): (vb.) *wal¨- ‘to turn, to roll, to revolve’; (n.) *wal¨-a ‘circle, circumference; turn, rotation’; (adj.) ‘round’

794. Proto-Nostratic root *wal¨- (~ *wəl¨-):

(vb.) *wal¨- ‘to blaze, to shine, to be bright’; (n.) *wal¨-a ‘whiteness, glitter, luster, brightness, light’; (adj.) ‘shining, bright,

white’

795. Proto-Nostratic root *wam- (~ *wəm-): (vb.) *wam- ‘to eject, to spit out, to spit up’; (n.) *wam-a ‘spittle, vomit’

796. Proto-Nostratic root *wan- (~ *wən-):

(vb.) *wan- ‘to stay, to remain’; (n.) *wan-a ‘abode, dwelling’

797. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *wan-a ‘share, portion, period (of time)’

798. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *wan-a ‘first, first-born, eldest’

799. Proto-Nostratic root *wan- (~ *wən-):

(vb.) *wan- ‘to bend’; (n.) *wan-a ‘bend, curve’; (adj.) ‘crooked, bent, curved’

800. Proto-Nostratic root *waŋ- (~ *wəŋ-):

(vb.) *waŋ- ‘to strike, to stab, to wound, to cut’; (n.) *waŋ-a ‘cut, slash, gash, wound; harm, injury; dagger, knife’

801. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *war-a ‘man, male, male animal’

802. Proto-Nostratic root *war- (~ *wər-): (vb.) *war- ‘to look, to watch out for, to observe, to care for’;

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *w 133

(n.) *war-a ‘watch, vigil, guardianship, care; watchman, guard, keeper, warder’

803. Proto-Nostratic root *war- (~ *wər-):

(vb.) *war- ‘to comb’; (n.) *war-a ‘comb’


(vb.) *war- ‘to stretch, to extend, to expand’; (n.) *war-a ‘width, breadth, length’; (adj.) ‘wide, broad’ Probably identical to: (vb.) *war- ‘to raise, to elevate, to grow, to increase’; (n.) *war-a ‘uppermost, highest, or topmost part’


(vb.) *war- ‘to raise, to elevate, to grow, to increase’; (n.) *war-a ‘uppermost, highest, or topmost part’ Probably identical to: (vb.) *war- ‘to stretch, to extend, to expand’; (n.) *war-a ‘width, breadth, length’; (adj.) ‘wide, broad’


(vb.) *war- ‘to burn, to blaze’; (n.) *war-a ‘blaze, flame, heat, warmth’

807. Proto-Nostratic root *war- (~ *wər-) and/or *wir- (~ *wer-):

(vb.) *war- and/or *wir- ‘to say, to speak, to tell, to point out, to make known’;

(n.) *war-a and/or *wir-a ‘news, report, gossip, speech’

808. Proto-Nostratic root *was¨- (~ *wəs¨-): (vb.) *was¨- ‘to be or become worn out, tired, weary, fatigued, exhausted’; (n.) *was¨-a ‘weariness, fatigue, exhaustion’ Identical to: (vb.) *was¨- ‘to crush, to grind, to pound, to wear out; to wither, to fade, to rot

away, to waste away, to dry up, to decay’; (n.) *was¨-a ‘the act of crushing, grinding, pounding; wasting away, decay,

decomposition’

809. Proto-Nostratic root *was¨- (~ *wəs¨-): (vb.) *was¨- ‘to crush, to grind, to pound, to wear out; to wither, to fade, to rot

away, to waste away, to dry up, to decay’; (n.) *was¨-a ‘the act of crushing, grinding, pounding; wasting away, decay,

decomposition’


Identical to: (vb.) *was¨- ‘to be or become worn out, tired, weary, fatigued, exhausted’; (n.) *was¨-a ‘weariness, fatigue, exhaustion’

810. Proto-Nostratic root *waš- (~ *wəš-):

(vb.) *waš- ‘to add (to), to augment, to increase, to heap up’; (n.) *waš-a ‘augmentation, increase, addition, increment’; (adj.) ‘increased,

augmented, heaped up, filled, full’

811. Proto-Nostratic root *watº- (~ *wətº-): (vb.) *watº- ‘to pass (of time); to grow old, to age’; (n.) *watº-a ‘year, age’; (adj.) ‘old’

812. Proto-Nostratic root *watº- (~ *wətº-):

(vb.) *watº- ‘to say, to speak, to be talkative’; (n.) *watº-a ‘sound, cry, chatter, babble, report’

813. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *wat’¨-a ‘the belly, stomach, bowels; womb; the interior

or inside of anything’

814. Proto-Nostratic exclamation *way ‘woe!’

815. Proto-Nostratic root *waǯ- (~ *wəǯ-): (vb.) *waǯ- ‘to flow’; (n.) *waǯ-a ‘running water’

816. Proto-Nostratic root *wed-:

(vb.) *wed- ‘to strike (with a weapon)’; (n.) *wed-a ‘death, ruin, murder; strike, cut, wound, scar; weapon, axe’

817. Proto-Nostratic root *wel-:

(vb.) *wel- ‘to slay, to fight’; (n.) *wel-a ‘conquest, victory, defeat, slaughter, massacre; fight, battle, attack’

818. Proto-Nostratic root *wel¨-:

(vb.) *wel¨- ‘to be open, to be vacant’; (n.) *wel¨-a ‘open space, open land, field, meadow’

819. Proto-Nostratic root *wel¨-:

(vb.) *wel¨- ‘to well up, to surge, to flow forth, to flood’; (n.) *wel¨-a ‘deluge, flood, inundation; surge, wave’

820. Proto-Nostratic root *wet’-:

(vb.) *wet’- ‘to wet, to moisten’; (n.) *wet’-a ‘water’

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *w 135

821. Proto-Nostratic root *wig- (~ *weg-): (vb.) *wig- ‘to carry, to convey’; (n.) *wig-a ‘burden, load; conveyance, cart, vehicle’

822. Proto-Nostratic root *wil¨- (~ *wel¨-):

(vb.) *wil¨- ‘to become bright, to manifest, to appear, to come into view’; (n.) *wil¨-a ‘appearance, manifestation; light, brightness, radiance, splendor’;

(adj.) ‘bright, manifest, clear’

823. Proto-Nostratic root *win- (~ *wen-) or *wiŋ- (~ *weŋ-): (vb.) *win- or *wiŋ- ‘to strive for, to wish for, to desire’; (n.) *win-a or *wiŋ-a ‘wish, desire’

824. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *wir-a ‘poplar’ 825. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) *wos-:

(vb.) *wos- ‘to trade, to deal’; (n.) *wos-a ‘trade, commerce’

826. Proto-Nostratic root *wotº-:

(vb.) *wotº- ‘to take hold of, to seize, to grasp, to collect, to take away’; (n.) *wotº-a ‘the act of taking, seizing, grasping’

827. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) *woy-:

(vb.) *woy- ‘to make an effort, to act with energy’; (n.) *woy-a ‘strength, power’

828. Proto-Nostratic root (vb.) *woy-: Extended form: (vb.) *woy-V-kº- ‘to arrange or put in order’; (n.) *woy-kº-a ‘arrangement, order; straightness, correctness, rectitude’; (adj.)

‘straight, right, correct, true’

829. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *wun-d-a (~ *won-d-a) ‘(young, fine, or soft) hair’

830. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *wur-a (~ *wor-a) ‘squirrel’ 831. Proto-Nostratic root *wur¨- (~ *wor¨-):

(vb.) *wur¨- ‘to scratch, to incise, to dig up’; (n.) *wur¨-a ‘pit, ditch’

832. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) *wuy- (~ *woy-) or *Huy- (~ *Hoy-):

(vb.) *wuy- or *Huy- ‘to swim, to float’; (n.) *wuy-a or *Huy-a ‘swim, swimming, floating’

CHAPTER 42

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *m

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto-Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

m- m- m- m- m- m- m- m-

-m- -m- -m- -m- -m- -m- -m- -m- 833. Proto-Nostratic indefinite pronoun stem *ma- (~ *mə-), *mi- (~ *me-), *mu-

(~ *mo-) ‘one, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody; other, another’:

Note: This may originally have been a demonstrative stem (as suggested by Illič-Svityč), with three degrees of distance: Proximate: *ma- (~ *mǝ-) ‘this’; Intermediate: *mi- (~ *me-) ‘that’; Distant: *mu- (~ *mo-) ‘that yonder’ As in the stems: Proximate: *kºa- (~ *kºǝ-) ‘this’; *tºa- (~ *tºǝ-) ‘this’; Intermediate: *kºi- (~ *kºe-) ‘that’; *tºi- (~ *tºe-) ‘that’; Distant: *kºu- (~ *kºo-) ‘that yonder’ *tºu- (~ *tºo-) ‘that yonder’

834. Proto-Nostratic (nursery word) (n.) *ma(a) ‘mother, mommy’, (reduplicated) *mam(m)a, *mema ‘mother; (mother’s) breast, milk’; used as a verb, the meaning was probably ‘to suckle, to nurse; to suck (the breast)’

835. Proto-Nostratic negative/prohibitive particle *ma(ʔ)- (~ *mə(ʔ)-) ‘no, not’

836. Proto-Nostratic root *maʔ- (~ *məʔ-):

(vb.) *maʔ- ‘to increase (in number), to be abundant, to be many’; (n.) *maʔ-a ‘large quantity, plenty, abundance’; (adj.) ‘great, big, large, many,

abundant’ 837. Proto-Nostratic root *mad- (~ *məd-):

(vb.) *mad- ‘to stretch, to expand, to lengthen, to draw out, to measure out’; (n.) *mad-a ‘measure, measurement, amount; extent, limit’ Note also: (vb.) *mat’- ‘to stretch, to expand, to lengthen, to draw out, to measure out’; (n.) *mat’-a ‘measure, measurement, amount; extent, limit’

838. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *mad-w-a ‘honey, mead’

138 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX 839. Proto-Nostratic root *mag- (~ *məg-):

(vb.) *mag- ‘to be of great influence, importance, or power; to be eminent, exalted, highly esteemed, glorious, illustrious’;

(n.) *mag-a ‘strength, power, might; glory, splendor, magnificence, grandeur, nobility, honor, distinction, excellence’; (adj.) ‘strong, powerful, eminent, exalted, highly esteemed, glorious, illustrious’

840. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *mag-a ‘earth, land’

841. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *mag-a ‘young person, child’; (adj.) ‘young’

842. Proto-Nostratic root *maħ- (~ *məħ-):

(vb.) *maħ- ‘to increase, to swell, to exceed, to surpass, to be great’; (n.) *maħ-a ‘bigness, greatness, fullness, excellence’; (adj.) ‘big, great, full’

843. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *makº-a ‘neck’

844. Proto-Nostratic root *makº- (~ *məkº-):

(vb.) *makº- ‘to deceive, to trick, to cheat; to be deceived, troubled, confused, perplexed’;

(n.) *makº-a ‘deception, trickery, confusion’

845. Proto-Nostratic root *mak’- (~ *mək’-): (vb.) *mak’- ‘to be great, strong, mighty, powerful’; (n.) *mak’-a ‘strength, power’; (adj.) ‘great, strong, powerful; much, many’ Note also: (vb.) *mik’- ‘to exceed, to surpass, to be in excess, to grow, to increase, to

swell, to expand’; (n.) *mik’-a ‘growth, excess, increase, abundance, fullness’; (adj.) ‘large, big,

great, much’

846. Proto-Nostratic root *mak’- (~ *mək’-): (vb.) *mak’- ‘to be happy, cheerful; to be pleasant, agreeable’; (n.) *mak’-a ‘happiness, joy, pleasure’

847. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *mal-a ‘hill, mountain’ 848. Proto-Nostratic root *mal- (~ *məl-):

(vb.) *mal- ‘to fill, to be or become full, to increase’; (n.) *mal-a ‘fullness, abundance’; (adj.) ‘full, filled, abundant, numerous,

many’

849. Proto-Nostratic root *mal- (~ *məl-): (vb.) *mal- ‘to be favorably disposed towards, to care about, to be devoted to,

to like’;

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *m 139

(n.) *mal-a ‘goodness, pleasantness’; (adj.) ‘good, pleasant, pleasing’

850. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *mal-a ‘honey’

851. Proto-Nostratic root *mal- (~ *məl-): (vb.) *mal- ‘to draw (out), to squeeze (out), to suck (out); to give suck, to

suckle, to nurse’; (n.) *mal-a ‘milk; breast’

852. Proto-Nostratic root (Eurasiatic only) *mal- (~ *məl-):

(vb.) *mal- ‘to rub, to wipe, to stroke’; (n.) *mal-a ‘the act of rubbing, wiping, stroking’

853. Proto-Nostratic (adj.) *mal-a ‘other, next, second’ 854. Proto-Nostratic root *mal- (~ *mǝl-):

(vb.) *mal- ‘to bend, to twist, to turn’; (n.) *mal-a ‘bend, turn’ Derivative: (vb.) *mal- ‘to be confused, perplexed, disturbed, bewildered, mistaken’; (n.) *mal-a ‘confusion, perplexity, bewilderment’

855. Proto-Nostratic root *mal- (~ *mǝl-):

(vb.) *mal- ‘to be confused, perplexed, disturbed, bewildered, mistaken’; (n.) *mal-a ‘confusion, perplexity, bewilderment’ Derivative of: (vb.) *mal- ‘to bend, to twist, to turn’; (n.) *mal-a ‘bend, turn’

856. Proto-Nostratic root *man- (~ *mən-):

(vb.) *man- ‘to suckle, to nurse (a child), to breastfeed’; (n.) *man-a ‘suckling, young (of humans and animals); breast’


(vb.) *man- ‘to count, to reckon’ (> ‘to consider, to think’ > ‘to recount’ > ‘to say, to speak’);

(n.) *man-a ‘counting, reckoning’ Note: There may be more than one Proto-Nostratic root involved here: (1) *man- ‘to count, to reckon’ and (2) *man- ‘to say, to speak’.


(vb.) *man- ‘to stay, to remain, to abide, to dwell; to be firm, steadfast, established, enduring’;

(n.) *man-a ‘dwelling, house, home’

140 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX 859. Proto-Nostratic root *man- (~ *mən-):

(vb.) *man- ‘to protect, to watch over, to stand guard over, to care for, to take care of, to tend’;

(n.) *man-a ‘protection, care, guardianship; watchman, herdsman, guardian, protector’


(vb.) *man- ‘to swell, to expand, to grow, to increase’; (n.) *man-a ‘multitude, crowd, herd, flock’ Related to (extended form): (vb.) *man-V-g- ‘to swell, to expand, to grow, to increase’; (n.) *man-g-a ‘great number, large amount; abundance; multitude, crowd’;

(adj.) ‘many, numerous, copious, abundant; swollen, big, fat, strong’

861. Proto-Nostratic root *man- (~ *mən-): Extended form: (vb.) *man-V-g- ‘to swell, to expand, to grow, to increase’; (n.) *man-g-a ‘great number, large amount; abundance; multitude, crowd’;

(adj.) ‘many, numerous, copious, abundant; swollen, big, fat, strong’ Related to: (vb.) *man- ‘to swell, to expand, to grow, to increase’; (n.) *man-a ‘multitude, crowd, herd, flock’

862. Proto-Nostratic root *man¨- (~ *mən¨-): (vb.) *man¨- ‘to lust after, to desire passionately, to copulate with, to have

sexual intercourse, to beget’; (n.) *man¨-a ‘ardent desire, passion, lust’ Derivative: (n.) *man¨-a ‘progenitor, begetter, man, male; penis’

863. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *man¨-a ‘progenitor, begetter, man, male; penis’ Derivative of: (vb.) *man¨- ‘to lust after, to desire passionately, to copulate with, to have

sexual intercourse, to beget’; (n.) *man¨-a ‘ardent desire, passion, lust’

864. Proto-Nostratic root *man¨- (~ *mən¨-):

(vb.) *man¨- ‘to hold, to take’; (n.) *man¨-a ‘hand, paw’

865. Proto-Nostratic root *maq¦º- (~ *məq¦º-): (vb.) *maq¦º- ‘to twist, to turn; to overturn, to turn upside down, to turn

round’; (n.) *maq¦º-a ‘twist, turn; overturning’


866. Proto-Nostratic root *mar- (~ *mər-): (vb.) *mar- ‘to strive against, to oppose, to fight with or against; to argue, to

quarrel, to contend, to dispute, to disagree’; (n.) *mar-a ‘quarrel, argument, dispute, fight’

867. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *mar-a ‘(young) man, male (human or animal)’

868. Proto-Nostratic root *mar- (~ *mər-):

(vb.) *mar- ‘to turn: to overturn, to turn round, to turn over, etc.; to twist, to whirl, to roll; to bend’;

(n.) *mar-a ‘the act of turning, turning over, turning round, etc.; rope, coil, string, cord’

Derivative: (vb.) *mar- ‘to go (round), to walk, to run; to go after, to run or chase after’ (>

‘to seek, to pursue’); (n.) *mar-a ‘walk, walking, passage; road, track, way’ Note also: (vb.) *mur- ‘to turn, to twist, to bend’; (n.) *mur-a ‘bend, curve’

869. Proto-Nostratic root *mar- (~ *mər-): (vb.) *mar- ‘to go (round), to walk, to run; to go after, to run or chase after’ (>

‘to seek, to pursue’); (n.) *mar-a ‘walk, walking, passage; road, track, way’ Derivative of: (vb.) *mar- ‘to turn: to overturn, to turn round, to turn over, etc.; to twist, to

whirl, to roll; to bend’; (n.) *mar-a ‘the act of turning, turning over, turning round, etc.; rope, coil,

string, cord’

870. Proto-Nostratic root *mar- (~ *mər-): (vb.) *mar- ‘to smear, to anoint, to rub (with grease, oil, fat, ointment)’; (n.) *mar-a ‘grease, oil, fat, ointment, unguent’

871. Proto-Nostratic root *mar- (~ *mər-):

(vb.) *mar- ‘to soil, to stain’; (n.) *mar-a ‘spot, stain, dirt’; (adj.) ‘dark, dirty, soiled’

872. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *mar-a ‘marsh, swamp’ 873. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *mar-a ‘tree, wood’

874. Proto-Nostratic root *mar¨- (~ *mər¨-):

(vb.) *mar¨- ‘to be weakened, to wither away, to decay; to be or become sick, to fall ill; to die (from a fatal disease), to perish’;


(n.) *mar¨-a ‘sickness, illness, fatal disease, malady, ailment; death’

875. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *matº-a or *metº-a ‘middle’; (particle) *matº- or *metº- ‘in the middle of, with, among’

876. Proto-Nostratic root *mat’- (~ *mət’-):

(vb.) *mat’- ‘to stretch, to expand, to lengthen, to draw out, to measure out’; (n.) *mat’-a ‘measure, measurement, amount; extent, limit’ Note also: (vb.) *mad- ‘to stretch, to expand, to lengthen, to draw out, to measure out’; (n.) *mad-a ‘measure, measurement, amount; extent, limit’

877. Proto-Nostratic root *mat’- (~ *mət’-):

(vb.) *mat’- ‘to be or become wet, moist’; (n.) *mat’-a ‘moisture, wetness; dew, rain’; (adj.) ‘wet, moist’

878. Proto-Nostratic root *maw- (~ *məw-):

(vb.) *maw- ‘to be wet’; (n.) *maw-a ‘water, liquid, fluid’

879. Proto-Nostratic root *mel-:

(vb.) *mel- ‘to rub’ (> ‘to rub into, to crush, to grind down; to rub smooth, to polish, to wipe; to wear out, to soften; to become worn out, weak, tired, weary’);

(n.) *mel-a ‘smoothness, softness; weakness’; (adj.) ‘smooth, soft, tender, weak, worn out, tired, weary’

Note also: (vb.) *mol- ‘to rub’ (> ‘to rub into, to crush, to grind down; to rub smooth, to

polish, to wipe; to wear out, to soften; to become worn out, weak, tired, weary’);

(n.) *mol-a ‘crumb, piece, morsel; mortar’; (adj.) ‘crushed, ground, worn out or down’

880. Proto-Nostratic interrogative pronoun stem *mi- (~ *me-) ‘who?, which?,

what?’, relative pronoun stem *ma- (~ *mə-) ‘who, which, what’

881. Proto-Nostratic first person singular *mi (~ *me) ‘I, me’, first person plural (inclusive) *ma (~ *mə) ‘we, us’

Note: in Afrasian and Dravidian, first person singular *mi and first person plural (inclusive) *ma have been mostly lost.

882. Proto-Nostratic root *miʔ- (~ *meʔ-):

(vb.) *miʔ- ‘to cut’; (n.) *miʔ-a ‘cutting instrument: knife’ (later also ‘sickle, scythe’)


883. Proto-Nostratic root *mig- (~ *meg-): (vb.) *mig- ‘to give’; (n.) *mig-a ‘gift’

884. Proto-Nostratic root *miħ- (~ *meħ-):

(vb.) *miħ- ‘to measure, to mark off’; (n.) *miħ-a ‘measure, measurement’

885. Proto-Nostratic root *mik’- (~ *mek’-):

(vb.) *mik’- ‘to exceed, to surpass, to be in excess, to grow, to increase, to swell, to expand’;

(n.) *mik’-a ‘growth, excess, increase, abundance, fullness’; (adj.) ‘large, big, great, much’

Note also: (vb.) *mak’- ‘to be great, strong, mighty, powerful’; (n.) *mak’-a ‘strength, power’; (adj.) ‘great, strong, powerful; much, many’

886. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *min-a ‘(a kind of) fish’

887. Proto-Nostratic root *mir- (~ *mer-): (vb.) *mir- ‘to stab, to pierce, to wound, to cause pain’; (n.) *mir-a ‘wound, pain’

888. Proto-Nostratic root *mol-:

(vb.) *mol- ‘to rub’ (> ‘to rub into, to crush, to grind down; to rub smooth, to polish, to wipe; to wear out, to soften; to become worn out, weak, tired, weary’);

(n.) *mol-a ‘crumb, piece, morsel; mortar’; (adj.) ‘crushed, ground, worn out or down’

Note also: (vb.) *mel- ‘to rub’ (> ‘to rub into, to crush, to grind down; to rub smooth, to

polish, to wipe; to wear out, to soften; to become worn out, weak, tired, weary’);

(n.) *mel-a ‘smoothness, softness; weakness’; (adj.) ‘smooth, soft, tender, weak, worn out, tired, weary’

889. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *mor-a ‘any body of water: sea, lake, flood, stream, pool, cistern, reservoir, basin, canal, channel’

890. Proto-Nostratic *muk’- (~ *mok’-):

(vb.) *muk’- ‘to strain, to make great efforts’; (n.) *muk’-a ‘straining (as a woman in labor or as when defecating), effort;

fatigue, suffering’

144 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX 891. Proto-Nostratic root *mun- (~ *mon-):

(vb.) *mun- ‘to protrude, to stand out; to jut out; to be first, foremost, in front of’;

(n.) *mun-a ‘topmost or most prominent part, highest or farthest point’

892. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *mun-a ‘egg, testicle’ Extended form (Dravidian and Slavic): (n.) *mun-d-a (~ *mon-d-a) ‘egg, testicle’

893. Proto-Nostratic root *muŋ- (~ *moŋ-):

(vb.) *muŋ- ‘to torment, to torture, to afflict; to cause pain, trouble, distress, suffering, difficulty; to suffer; to be in pain, trouble, distress, suffering, difficulty’;

(n.) *muŋ-a ‘suffering, pain, malady, difficulty, distress, affliction, calamity, misery’

894. Proto-Nostratic root *mur- (~ *mor-):

(vb.) *mur- ‘to crush, to break, to destroy’; (n.) *mur-a ‘break, breach, rupture, fracture’; (adj.) ‘crushed, broken,

destroyed, ruptured, mutilated; weakened’

895. Proto-Nostratic root *mur- (~ *mor-): (vb.) *mur- ‘to turn, to twist, to bend’; (n.) *mur-a ‘bend, curve’ Note also: (vb.) *mar- ‘to turn: to overturn, to turn round, to turn over, etc.; to twist, to

whirl, to roll; to bend’; (n.) *mar-a ‘the act of turning, turning over, turning round, etc.; rope, coil,

string, cord’

896. Proto-Nostratic (Eurasiatic only) (n.) *mur-a ‘mulberry, blackberry’

897. Proto-Nostratic root *mur- (~ *mor-): (vb.) *mur- ‘to make noise, to make sound, to murmur’; (n.) *mur-a ‘noise, sound, murmur’ Reduplicated: (vb.) *mur-mur- ‘to make noise, to make sound, to murmur’; (n.) *mur-mur-a ‘noise, sound, murmur’

898. Proto-Nostratic root *mus¨- (~ *mos¨-): (vb.) *mus¨- ‘to immerse, dip, or plunge in water, to bathe’; (n.) *mus¨-a ‘immersion, dip, plunge, bath’ Extended form (Indo-European and Uralic): (vb.) *mus¨-V-k’- ‘to immerse, dip, or plunge in water, to bathe’; (n.) *mus¨-k’-a ‘immersion, dip, plunge, bath’


899. Proto-Nostratic root *muy- (~ *moy-): (vb.) *muy- ‘to return, to give back’; (n.) *muy-a ‘that which is returned or given back: return, recompense,

requital, repayment, etc.’

CHAPTER 43

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *n

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

n- n- n- n- n- n- n- n-

-n- -n- -n-/-n- -n- -n- -n- -n- -n- 900. Proto-Nostratic first person singular personal pronoun *na (~ *nə) ‘I, me’

Note: On the basis of Dravidian (and possibly Altaic), the original form of this stem may have been *ŋa (~ *ŋə), but this is not certain. Sumerian [Emegir] g͂á.e [= /ŋa-/] ‘I’ supports such a reconstruction as well.

901. Proto-Nostratic first person plural exclusive personal pronoun *na (~ *nə)

‘we, us’

902. Proto-Nostratic deictic particle *na (~ *nə), *ni (~ *ne) ‘this, that’

903. Proto-Nostratic interrogative-relative particle *na- (~ *nə-)

904. Proto-Nostratic negative/prohibitive particle *na (~ *nə), *ni (~ *ne), *nu (~ *no) ‘no, not’

905. Proto-Nostratic root *naʕ- (~ *nəʕ-):

(vb.) *naʕ- ‘to come, to go, to journey, to travel’; (n.) *naʕ-a ‘journey’

906. Proto-Nostratic root *nab- (~ *nəb-):

(vb.) *nab- ‘to burst forth, to gush forth’; (n.) *nab-a ‘a bursting or gushing forth’ Derivative: (n.) *nab-a ‘heavy rain, storm cloud, cloudy sky’

907. Proto-Nostratic (n.) (Eurasiatic only) *nab-a ‘heavy rain, storm cloud, cloudy

sky’ Derivative of: (vb.) *nab- ‘to burst forth, to gush forth’; (n.) *nab-a ‘a bursting or gushing forth’

908. Proto-Nostratic root *nad¨- (~ *nəd¨-):

(vb.) *nad¨- ‘to press, to crush, to mash’; (n.) *nad¨-a ‘anything crushed or mashed’

148 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX 909. Proto-Nostratic root *nad¨- (~ *nəd¨-):

(vb.) *nad¨- ‘to vex, to disturb, to annoy, to irritate, to agitate; to be annoying, irritating, malicious, rude, bad, mean, base’;

(n.) *nad¨-a ‘vexation, disturbance, annoyance, irritation, trouble’; (adj.) ‘annoying, irritating, malicious, rude, bad, mean, base’

910. Proto-Nostratic root *nag- (~ *nəg-):

(vb.) *nag- ‘to strike, to split, to pierce, to stab’; (n.) *nag-a ‘stroke, blow, wound’

911. Proto-Nostratic root *naħ- (~ *nəħ-):

(vb.) *naħ- ‘to tremble, to shake; to fear, to be afraid’; (n.) *naħ-a ‘fear’

912. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *nakº-a ‘(animal) skin, pelt, hide’

913. Proto-Nostratic root *nak¦º- (~ *nək¦º-):

(vb.) *nak¦º- ‘to lie down, to go to sleep, to go to bed’; (n.) *nak¦º-a ‘bedtime, evening, nighttime’

914. Proto-Nostratic root *napº- (~ *nəpº-), *nipº- (~ *nepº-), *nupº- (~ *nopº-):

(vb.) *napº-, *nipº-, *nupº- ‘to breathe, to blow’; (n.) *napº-a, *nipº-a, *nupº-a ‘breath, life’

915. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *nat’-a ‘woman, female relative’

916. Proto-Nostratic root *nat’- (~ *nət’-):

(vb.) *nat’- ‘to moisten, to wet’; (n.) *nat’-a ‘wetness, dampness, moistness’; (adj.) ‘wet, damp, moist’

917. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *ner-a ‘the highest, foremost, or most prominent person or thing’

918. Proto-Nostratic root *net’¨-:

(vb.) *net’¨- ‘to turn, to twist together, to tie, to bind, to weave, to entwine’; (n.) *net’¨-a ‘anything twisted together, woven, entwined: mat, net, web, etc.;

weaving, entwining, braiding’ 919. Proto-Nostratic second person personal pronoun stem *ni (~ *ne) and/or *na

(~ *nə) ‘you’

920. Proto-Nostratic root *nikº- (~ *nekº-): (vb.) *nikº- ‘to strike, to hit’; (n.) *nikº-a ‘injury, harm, damage, wound, murder, destruction; suffering,

pain’

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *n 149

921. Proto-Nostratic root *ni˜º- (~ *ne˜º-): (vb.) *ni˜º- ‘to lift (up), to raise; to carry, to take; to rise, to arise’; (n.) *ni˜º-a ‘the act of lifting, raising, carrying’

922. Proto-Nostratic (particle) *nu ‘now, at present, currently’

923. Proto-Nostratic root *nus¨- (~ *nos¨-):

(vb.) *nus¨- ‘to be small, minute, soft, weak, delicate’; (n.) *nus¨-a ‘smallness, insufficiency, decrease, diminishment’; (adj.) ‘small,

minute, soft, weak, delicate’ Derivatives: (n.) *nus¨-a ‘woman, female; any female connected by marriage: wife, bride,

sister-in-law, daughter-in-law’ (vb.) *nus¨- ‘to be weakened, debilitated, sick; to ache, to suffer, to be in

pain’; (n.) *nus¨-a ‘weakness, sickness, disease, malady, ache, pain, affliction’

924. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *nus¨-a ‘woman, female; any female connected by

marriage: wife, bride, sister-in-law, daughter-in-law’ Derivative of: (vb.) *nus¨- ‘to be small, minute, soft, weak, delicate’; (n.) *nus¨-a ‘smallness, insufficiency, decrease, diminishment’; (adj.) ‘small,

minute, soft, weak, delicate’ Semantic development as in Naikṛi koraḷ ‘daughter-in-law, bride’ and Telugu kōḍalu ‘daughter-in-law’, both from the same stem found in Tamil kur̤a ‘young, tender’, Kannaḍa koḍa ‘tenderness, tender age, youth’, Tuḷu korè ‘weak, small’, etc.

925. Proto-Nostratic root *nus¨- (~ *nos¨-): (vb.) *nus¨- ‘to be weakened, debilitated, sick; to ache, to suffer, to be in

pain’; (n.) *nus¨-a ‘weakness, sickness, disease, malady, ache, pain, affliction’ Derivative of: (vb.) *nus¨- ‘to be small, minute, soft, weak, delicate’; (n.) *nus¨-a ‘smallness, insufficiency, decrease, diminishment’; (adj.) ‘small,

minute, soft, weak, delicate’

CHAPTER 44

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *n¨

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

n¨- n- ñ- n- n¨- n¨-

-n¨- -n- -ṇ- -n- -n¨- -n¨- 926. Proto-Nostratic root *näʕ- (~ *n¨əʕ-):

Extended form: (vb.) *näʕ-V-r- ‘to appear, to arise, to sprout, to come into being; to grow

(up), to mature’; (n.) *näʕ-r-a ‘shoot, sprout, seedling’ Derivative: (n.) *näʕ-r-a ‘young man, boy, youth’

927. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *näʕ-r-a ‘young man, boy, youth’

Derivative of: (vb.) *näʕ-V-r- ‘to appear, to arise, to sprout, to come into being; to grow

(up), to mature’; (n.) *näʕ-r-a ‘shoot, sprout, seedling’

928. Proto-Nostratic root *näm- (~ *n¨əm-):

(vb.) *näm- ‘to press, to squeeze’; (n.) *näm-a ‘pressing, squeezing’

929. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *näpº-a ‘offspring, descendant, young one’

930. Proto-Nostratic root *nükº- (~ *nökº-):

(vb.) *nükº- ‘to shake, to tremble’; (n.) *nükº-a ‘shaking, trembling’

CHAPTER 45

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *l

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

l- l- l- l- l- l- l-

-l- -l- -l- -l- -l- -l- -l- -l- 931. Proto-Nostratic root *lab- (~ *ləb-):

(vb.) *lab- ‘to take hold of, to grasp’; (n.) *lab-a ‘taking, grasping’ Possible derivative: (vb.) *lab- ‘to eat greedily, to lap (up), to suck milk’; (n.) *lab-a ‘eating, sucking’

932. Proto-Nostratic root *lab- (~ *ləb-):

(vb.) *lab- ‘to eat greedily, to lap (up), to suck milk’; (n.) *lab-a ‘eating, sucking’ Possibly related to or derived from: (vb.) *lab- ‘to take hold of, to grasp’; (n.) *lab-a ‘taking, grasping’ Assuming semantic development from ‘to grasp with the teeth’ > ‘to eat greedily’ as in Proto-Tungus *laba-da- ‘to eat greedily’.

933. Proto-Nostratic root *lag- (~ *ləg-):

(vb.) *lag- ‘to put, place, lay, or set down’; (n.) *lag-a ‘the act of putting, placing, laying, or setting down’

934. Proto-Nostratic root *lah- (~ *lǝh-):

(vb.) *lah- ‘to shine, to blaze, to burn’; (n.) *lah-a ‘shining, blazing, burning’

935. Proto-Nostratic root *laħ- (~ *ləħ-):

(vb.) *laħ- ‘to make flow, to pour, to moisten, to wet’; (n.) *laħ-a ‘flowing, pouring; moistness, wetness’

936. Proto-Nostratic root *laħ- (~ *ləħ-):

(vb.) *laħ- ‘to strike, to fight’; (n.) *laħ-a ‘fight, battle, slaughter’

154 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX 937. Proto-Nostratic root *lakº- (onomatopoetic):

(vb.) *lakº- ‘to lick, to lap up’; (n.) *lakº-a ‘licking’

938. Proto-Nostratic *lakº- (~ *lǝkº-):

(vb.) *lakº- ‘to go on foot, to travel on foot’; (n.) *lakº-a ‘leg, foot’

939. Proto-Nostratic root *lak’- (~ *lək’-):

(vb.) *lak’- ‘to gather, to collect’; (n.) *lak’-a ‘collection’; (adj.) ‘gathered, collected, picked, chosen’

940. Proto-Nostratic root *lak’- (~ *lək’-), *lik’- (~ *lek’-), *luk’- (~ *lok’-)

(onomatopoetic): (vb.) *lak’-, *lik’-, *luk’- ‘to lick’; (n.) *lak’-a, *lik’-a, *luk’-a ‘licking’

941. Proto-Nostratic root *lam- (~ *lǝm-):

(vb.) *lam- ‘to bend down, to stoop down, to sink down, to lie down, to duck down; to be or become bent down, curved down; to be low’;

(n.) *lam-a ‘lowland, low-lying ground, any piece of land’; (adj.) ‘low’ Extended form: (vb.) *lam-V-d- ‘to bend down, to stoop down, to sink down, to lie down, to

duck down; to be or become bent down, curved down; to be low’; (n.) *lam-d-a ‘lowland, low-lying ground, any piece of land’; (adj.) ‘low’

942. Proto-Nostratic root *las¨- (~ *ləs¨-), *lis¨- (~ *les¨-), *lus¨- (~ *los¨-) (?)

(onomatopoetic): (vb.) *las¨-, *lis¨-, *lus¨- ‘to lick, to lap (up)’; (n.) *las¨-a, *lis¨-a, *lus¨-a ‘tongue; lip’

943. Proto-Nostratic (n.) *latº-a ‘skin’ 944. Proto-Nostratic root *law- (~ *ləw-):

(vb.) *law- ‘to bend, to twist, to turn’; (n.) *law- ‘bend, twist, turn’

945. Proto-Nostratic root *law- (~ *ləw-):

(vb.) *law- ‘to shine’; (n.) *law-a ‘light, glow’; (adj.) ‘shining, gleaming, glowing, bright’

946. Proto-Nostratic root *law- (~ *lǝw-):

(vb.) *law- ‘to separate, to divide, to part, to sever, to detach’; (n.) *law-a ‘part cut off, separation, division’

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *l 155

947. Proto-Nostratic root *law- (~ *ləw-): Extended form: (vb.) *law-V-ħ- ‘to moisten, to water; to wash, to clean’; (n.) *law-ħ-a ‘the act of bathing, washing’

948. Proto-Nostratic root *lax¦- (~ *ləx¦-):

(vb.) *lax¦- ‘to strike, to hit, to beat’; (n.) *lax¦-a ‘the act of striking, hitting, beating; stroke, hit, blow’

949. Proto-Nostratic root *liʔ- (~ *leʔ-): (vb.) *liʔ- ‘to come into being, to arise, to grow, to become’; (n.) *liʔ-a ‘being, becoming’

950. Proto-Nostratic root *lip’- (~ *lep’-):

(vb.) *lip’- ‘to form, to fashion, to mold’; (n.) *lip’-a ‘form, mold’

CHAPTER 46

PROTO-NOSTRATIC *r

Eurasiatic

Proto- Nostratic

Proto- Afrasian

Proto- Dravid.

Proto- Kartvel.

Proto- IE

Proto- Uralic

Proto- Altaic

Proto- Eskimo

r- r- r- r- r-

-r- -r- -r-/-r- -r- -r- -r- -r- -ʀ- 951. Proto-Nostratic root *raʔ- (~ *rəʔ-):

(vb.) *raʔ- ‘to see, to perceive’; (n.) *raʔ-a ‘sight, observation, perception’; (adj.) ‘seeing, perceiving’ Extended form: (vb.) *raʔ-V-y- ‘to see, to perceive’; (n.) *raʔ-y-a ‘sight, observation, perception’; (adj.) ‘seeing, perceiving’

952. Proto-Nostratic root *rag- (~ *rəg-):

(vb.) *rag- ‘to stir, to move, to shake’; (n.) *rag-a ‘trembling, quaking, shaking, rocking; movement; collapse (from

shaking)’

953. Proto-Nostratic root *rakº- (~ *rəkº-): (vb.) *rakº- ‘to twist, to turn, to bend; to tie, to bind, to fasten’; (n.) *rakº-a ‘twist, turn, bend; tie, bond, cord’ Derivative: (vb.) *rakº- ‘to put, join, fit, or fasten (together); to assemble, to prepare, to

construct’; (n.) *rakº-a ‘the act of putting, joining, fitting, or fastening (together); the act

of assembling, preparing, constructing’

954. Proto-Nostratic root *rakº- (~ *rəkº-): (vb.) *rakº- ‘to put, join, fit, or fasten (together); to assemble, to prepare, to

construct’; (n.) *rakº-a ‘the act of putting, joining, fitting, or fastening (together); the act

of assembling, preparing, constructing’ Derivative of: (vb.) *rakº- ‘to twist, to turn, to bend; to tie, to bind, to fasten’; (n.) *rakº-a ‘twist, turn, bend; tie, bond, cord’

955. Proto-Nostratic root *rak’- (~ *rək’-):

(vb.) *rak’- ‘to stretch, to extend, to draw out’; (n.) *rak’-a ‘the act of stretching, extending, drawing out; stretch, extension’;

(adj.) ‘stretched, extended, drawn out’

158 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX 956. Proto-Nostratic root *rak’- (~ *rək’-):

(vb.) *rak’- ‘to observe, to watch, to regard attentively; to supervise, to control’;

(n.) *rak’-a ‘observation, watchfulness, care, protection’

957. Proto-Nostratic root *raq’- (~ *rəq’-): (vb.) *raq’- ‘to move quickly, to move back and forth’; (n.) *raq’-a ‘any rapid motion: shaking, trembling, jumping, dancing, etc.’

958. Proto-Nostratic root *ratº- (~ *rətº-):

(vb.) *ratº- ‘to turn, to roll; to run’; (n.) *ratº-a ‘turning, rolling; running’

959. Proto-Nostratic root *raw- (~ *rəw-):

Extended form: (vb.) *raw-V-ħ- ‘to be spacious, wide’; (n.) *raw-ħ-a ‘space, room’; (adj.) ‘spacious, wide’

960. Proto-Nostratic root *rek’-:

(vb.) *rek’- ‘to sprinkle, to spray, to wet, to moisten’; (n.) *rek’-a ‘sprinkling, spray, rain’

961. Proto-Nostratic root *riy- (~ *rey-):

(vb.) *riy- ‘to prosper, to thrive, to flourish, to increase, to grow’; (n.) *riy-a ‘increase, growth, prosperity, wealth’

962. Proto-Nostratic root *rom-:

(vb.) *rom- ‘to stop, to rest, to relax’; (n.) *rom-a ‘rest, quietude, calmness, tranquility, relaxation’; (adj.) ‘quiet,

tranquil, still, gentle, silent, relaxed’

963. Proto-Nostratic root *row-: (vb.) *row- ‘to cut, tear, or break apart’; (n.) *row-a ‘cut, tear’

964. Proto-Nostratic root *rum- (~ *rom-):

(vb.) *rum- ‘to grow or become dark; to darken’; (n.) *rum-a ‘darkness, night; twilight, dusk’; (adj.) ‘dark’

CHAPTER 47

ENGLISH-NOSTRATIC INDEX

English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number abandon, to *čºal- 331 *gaʔ- 346 abandoned *čºal-a 331 *gaʔ-a 346 abandonment *gaʔ-a 346 abide, to *q’¦ad- 581 *ħam- 706 *man- 858 ability *gal-a 360 ablaze, to be *hag- 680 able, to be *gal- 360 add (to), to *waš- 810 abode *buw-a 79 *kºay-a 434 *q’¦ad-a 581 *ħam-a 706 *wan-a 796 abound, to *g¦an- 505 above *ʕal- 739 *ʕaŋ- 745 *xaŋ- 763 above, that which is *ʔapº-a 634 above, to be *ʔapº- 634 *ħar- 715 abraded *tºar-a 196 abscess *pºul¨-a 125 abundance *baǯ-a 42 *tºir-a 207 *tºir-pº-a 208 *c’al-a or *č’al-a 304 *gam-a 362 *gar¨-a 369 *k’an-a 467 *g¦an-a 505 *ħapº-a 711 *maʔ-a 836 *mal-a 848 *man-g-a 861 *mik’-a 885 abundant *baǯ-a 42

160 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *tºir-a 207 *k’an-a 467 *maʔ-a 836 *mal-a 848 *man-g-a 861 abundant, to be *baǯ- 42 *maʔ- 836 accumulate, to *kºum- 446 accumulation *kºaw-a 432 *kºum-a 446 ache *gal-a 358 *nus¨-a 925 ache, to *gal- 358 *nus¨- 925 achieve, to *sag- or *šag- 313 achieve an end or a goal, to *t¨ºar- 256 acid (= bitter; sour) *ħam-a 705 acid, to be *ħam- 705 acid foodstuff, any *ħam-a 705 acquainted with, to be or become *baw- 39 acquire, to *k’an- 465 acquisition *sag-a or *šag-a 313 acrid *kºar-a 424 act *daw-a 156 *day-a 158 *k¦ºey-a 523 *k¦ºir-a 525 act with energy, to *woy- 827 action *tºikº-a 205 *k¦ºir-a 525 activate, to *bad- 10 add together, to *k’atº- 479 addition *waš-a 810 additional *ʔapº-a 634 advance *t¨ºar-a 256 *ʕatº-a 749 advance (in years), to *ʕatº- 749 advance to or toward an end or a goal, to *t¨ºar- 256 advanced *ʕatº-a 749 adze *tºikº-a 205 *č’ir-a 337 affection *pºar-a 97 *ħan-a 707

ENGLISH-NOSTRATIC INDEX 161

English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number affectionate, to be *ħan- 707 afflict, to *muŋ- 893 afflicted, to be *ħag- 695 affliction *hak’-a 682 *ħag-a 695 *muŋ-a 893 *nus¨-a 925 aflame, to be *hag- 680 afraid, to be *pºel- 114 *pºir- 120 *ħat’- 720 *naħ- 911 against *ʔan¨- 629 age *ħay-a 725 *ħay-w-a 725 *watº-a 811 age, to *watº- 811 aged *s¨en¨-a 278 agitate, to *dal- 148 *dul- 172 *k’al- 461 *ɢal- 553 *nad¨- 909 agitated, to be *dal- 148 *dul- 172 *dul- 172 *ɢal- 553 agitated, to be greatly *pºar- 101 *pºir- 118 agitation *dal-a 148 *dul-a 172 *dul¨-a 173 *k’al-a 461 *ɢal-a 553 agreeable, to be *mak’- 846 ailment *mar¨-a 874 aim *t¨ºar-a 256 alike *sam-a 318 alive *ʔil-a 660 alive, to be *ʔil- 660 *ħay- 725 *ħay-V-w- 725 allot, to *bay- 40

162 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *xal- 762 allotment *xal-a 762 alone *kºay-a 433 *kºay-w-a 433 *ʔoy-a 674 *xol-a 766 alone, to be *ʔoy- 674 *xol- 766 aloneness *ʔoy-a 674 along with *da- (~ *dǝ-) 142 *kºam- 411 also *k¦ºay- 521 *ʔapº- 634 *wa- (~ *wə-) 781 among *matº- or *metº- 875 amount *mad-a 837 *mat’-a 876 and *ħar¨- 717 *wa- (~ *wə-) 781 anger *qºatº-a 569 angle *k’un-a 500 animal, wild *guw-a 396 *guw-r-a 396 animals, to hunt wild *guw- 396 *guw-V-r- 396 ankle *gam-a 361 announce, to *bakº- 16 announcement *bakº-a 16 annoy, to *nad¨- 909 annoyance *nad¨-a 909 annoying *nad¨-a 909 annoying, to be *nad¨- 909 anoint (with greast, oil, fat, ointment), to *mar- 870 another [indefinite pronoun stem] *ma- (~ *mǝ-), *mi- (~ *me-), *mu- (~ *mo-) 833 anus *k’uŋ-a 501 anybody [indefinite pronoun stem] *ma- (~ *mǝ-), *mi- (~ *me-), *mu- (~ *mo-) 833 anyone [indefinite pronoun stem] *ma- (~ *mǝ-), *mi- (~ *me-), *mu- (~ *mo-) 833


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number apart from, to be *xol- 766 appear, to *wil¨- 822 *näʕ-V-r- 926 appearance *sam-a 318 *k’al-a 462 *wil¨-a 822 apportion, to *bay- 40 *xal- 762 approach *t¨ºar-a 256 *ʔiy-a 666 approach, to *ʔan¨- 628 approach something slowly, to *hakº- 681 appropriate *t’akº-a 219 *süw-a 287 appropriate, to be *t’akº- 219 *süw- 287 appropriateness *t’akº-a 219 *süw-a 287 aquatic bird *gaŋ-a 363 *ħaŋ-a 710 ardent desire *man¨-a 862 argue, to *mar- 866 argument *mar-a 866 arid *tºar-a 197 *säw-a 274 arid, to be *säw- 274 arise, to *buw- 80 *ni˜º- 921 *näʕ-V-r- 926 *liʔ- 949 arm *där-a 248 *gab-a 349 *ħar-a 714 armful *ħapº-a 711 armpit *ɢit’-a 563 arrange in order, to *woy-V-kº- 828 arrangement *woy-kº-a 828 arrival *dïʔ-a 251 *t¨ºar-a 256 *ʔiy-a 666 arrive at, to *dïʔ- 251 *t¨ºar- 256 *sag- or *šag- 313

164 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *ħin-V-kº- 728 arrow *ʕam-a 743 as *k¦ºay- 521 *wa- (~ *wə-) 781 ascend, to *kºil¨- 438 *k’ul- 494 *ʕal- 739 *ʕar-V-g- 748 *xaŋ- 763 ascent *sal-a 317 ash(es) *tºukº-a 211 *˜ºer-a 597 ashes *k’¦am-a 533 *ħas-a 718 ashes, (hot or smoldering) *kºum-a 448 ask, to *pºir- 134 ask for, to *t’el- 235 assemblage *kºam-a 411 assemble, to *rakº- 954 assembling, the act of *rakº-a 954 assert, to *bakº- 16 assertion *bakº-a 16 associate *ʔar-a 637 associated *ʔar-a 637 associated or related person or thing *ʔar-a 637 astonishment, exclamation of *hay 692 asunder, to part *ʔar- 635 at a distance *t’aw-a 230 at present *nu 922 at rest *k’¦ar-a 537 attach, to *baʕ- 2 attached, to be firmly or strongly *t’¨ar- 265 attack *wel-a 817 attain, to *sag- or *šag- 313 attain an end or a goal, to *t¨ºar- 256 attainment *d¨iʔ-a 251 *t¨ºar-a 256 *sag-a or *šag-a 313 attention *guw-a 395 *ʕen-a 750 attention, to pay *guw- 395 *ʕen- 750 auger *bur-a 73


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number augment, to *waš- 810 augmentation *waš-a 810 augmented *waš-a 810 aunt *ʔanä 630 aware of, to be or become *baw- 39 *guw- 395 awareness *baw-a 39 *guw-a 395 axe *tºikº-a 205 *sakº-a 315 *č’ir-a 337 *˜ºar-a 594 *ħaʒ-a 727 *wed-a 816 babe *baaba 4 babble *watº-a 812 back (= hind part; hindquarters) *dub-a 169 *ʕar-a 747 back of the head *k’apº-a 473 bad *t’äw-a 269 *nad¨-a 909 (bad) *dar-a 152 bad, to be *ʔakº- 616 *nad¨- 909 bad thing *t’äw-a 269 baffle, to *dul- 172 baffled, to be *dul- 172 bake, to *ʔepº- 657 (bake, to) *pºek¦º- 113 baked *t’ab-a 216 (baked) *pºek¦º-a 113 baking *k’al-a 460 baking, the act of *ʔepº-a 657 bald *k’al¨-a 464 bald spot *k’al¨-a 464 ball *ɢ¦al-a 579 band (= cord) *sïr-a 281 *kºad-a 402 *k’ačº-a 453 *k’ad-a 454 *k’aŋ-a 469 bandage *baʕ-a 2 *yaʔ-a 774

166 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number bank (= shore) *kºar-a 421 barb *˜ºak¦º-a 591 bare *k’al¨-a 464 bark (= outside covering of trees) *kºar-a 419 *k’¦oy-a 548 barren *bar-a 38 barren, to be or become *bar- 38 barren land *bar-a 38 base (= vile) *pºul-a 124 *nad¨-a 909 base (= vile), to be *nad¨- 909 basin *mor-a 889 bath *mus¨-a 898 *mus¨-k’-a 898 bathe, to *mus¨- 898 *mus¨-V-k’- 898 bathing, the act of *law-a 947 battle *bur-a 72 *ɢal-a 553 *qºatº-a 569 *wel-a 817 *laħ-a 936 be (= exist), to *ʔil- 660 beam forth, to *hal- 683 bear (= endure), to *tºal¨- 188 bear (= give birth), to *ʔum- 677 *¦il- 773 bear children, to *bar- 30 bear fruit, to *pºir- 117 beast, wild *guw-a 396 *guw-r-a 396 beat, to *tºapº- 192 *t’apº- 226 *t’uk’- 241 *d¨ab- 245 *t¨ºum- 260 *t’¨ad- 261 *cºaħ- 300 *k’an- 468 *k’¦ad- 528 *k’¦aħ- 530 *qºatº- 569 *ʕakº- 738


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *lax¦- 948 beaten *k’¦aħ-a 530 beating *cºaħ-a 300 beating, the act of *cºaħ-a 300 *ʕakº-a 738 *lax¦-a 948 beautiful, to be *s¨uw- 287 beauty *bah-a 13 become, to *buw- 80 *liʔ- 949 becoming (= coming into being) *liʔ-a 949 bed *kºay-a 434 bed, to go to *nak¦º- 913 bedtime *nak¦º-a 913 bee *bay-a 41 *kºan¨-a ~ *kºin¨-a ~ *kºun¨-a 413 beg, to *t’el- 235 beget, to *k’an- 465 *man¨- 862 beget (of humans), to *¦il- 773 begetter *man¨-a 863 begotten *k’an-a 465 behind (= hindquarters) *ʕar-a 747 being *liʔ-a 949 being, to come into *buw- 80 *k’al- 462 *n¨aʕ-V-r- 926 *liʔ- 949 belly *k¦ºur-a 526 *wat’¨-a 813 belt *yaʔ-a 774 beneath, that which is *ħal-a 702 bend *dar-a 151 *k’um-a 498 *k’un-a 500 *ħan-a 708 *wan-a 799 *mal-a 854 *mur-a 895 *law-a 944 *rakº-a 953 bend, to *dar- 151 *tºakº- 185

168 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *čºokº- 334 *gam- 361 *gaŋ- 364 *k’ar- 477 *k’um- 498 *k’un- 500 *ɢub- 564 *ɢ¦al- 579 *ħan- 708 *wan- 799 *mal- 854 *mar- 868 *mur- 895 *law- 944 *rakº- 953 bend back, to *gaŋ- 364 bend down, to *c’ar- 305 *lam- 941 *lam-V-d- 941 bend forward, to *gaŋ- 364 bend round, to *k’aw- 480 bend the body, to *k’um- 498 bend the head, to *k’um- 498 bend to the side, to *gaŋ- 364 bend together, to *tºakº- 185 *k’aŋ- 469 *k’un- 500 bending, the act of *čºokº-a 334 *k’um-a 498 bends, that which *dar-a 151 beneficent *bar-a 34 beneficent, to be *bar- 34 bent *dar-a 151 *kºon-k’-a, *kºok’-a 443 *k’ar-a 477 *k’aw-a 480 *g¦ar-a 506 *˜’il-a 604 *wan-a 799 bent, that which is *k’un-a 500 *ɢub-a 564 bent, to be *tºakº- 185 *gam- 361


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *kºon-V-k’-, *kºok’- 443 *˜’il- 604 bent down, to be or become *lam- 941 *lam-V-d- 941 bent object *gam-a 361 *k’um-a 499 bent thing or object *˜’il-a 604 beseech, to *pºir- 134 *t’el- 235 besides *ʔapº- 634 bestow upon, to *gib- 376 bewilder, to *dul- 172 bewildered, to be *dul- 172 *mal- 855 bewilderment *mal-a 855 beyond *ʕal- 739 big *bir-a 49 *gad-a 350 *maʔ-a 836 *maħ-a 842 *man-g-a 861 *mik’-a 885 big, to be or become *gad- 350 big toe *pºal-a 92 bigness *gad-a 350 *maħ-a 842 billy-goat *daqº-a 150 bind, to *baʕ- 2 *t’an- 225 *sak’¦- 316 *kºad- 402 *k’ar- 477 *k¦ºir- 525 *yaʔ- 774 *net’¨- 918 *rakº- 953 bind (together), to *ban-V-d- 25 *bin- 47 bind together, to *s¨ir- 281 *c’ur- 310 *k’un- 500 *˜’im- 605 bind two things together, to *kºol¨- 442

170 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number binding *c’ur-a 310 *ʕor¨-a 755 *yaʔ-a 774 bird, a kind of *c’ir¨-a 309 birth *pºir-a 117 *pºit’¨-a 122 *čºan-a 332 *k’al-a 462 *k’an-a 465 birth, to give *bar- 30 *säw- or *sëw- 275 *ʔum- 677 *¦il- 773 birth to, to give *pºit’¨- 122 bit (= piece; fragment) *dum-a 174 *dun¨-a 179 *gad-a 351 *kºas-a 427 bite *bal-a 20 *k’ab-a 451 *ɢat’¨-a 560 *q’am-a 573 *˜’ar-a 603 bite, to *bal- 20 *bur- 75 *k’ab- 451 *ɢat’¨- 560 *q’am- 573 *˜’ar- 603 *˜’ar-V-s- 603 *ʔit’- 665 biting *ɢat’¨-a 560 bitter *ǯem-a 330 *kºar-a 424 *ɢat’¨-a 560 *ħam-a 705 bitter, anything that is *ǯem-a 330 bitter, that which is *t’äm-a 264 bitter, to turn *t’äm- 264 bitter foodstuff, any *ħam-a 705 bitterness *kºar-a 424 black *dar-a 153 *kºar-a 425


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *kºum-a 448 *ham-a 685 blackberry *mur-a 896 blacken, to *kºum- 448 blackness *kºar-a 425 *k’ar-a 476 *ham-a 685 black object *ham-a 685 blade (= knife-edge) *waħ-a 784 blade of grass *kºal¨-a 407 blaze *bud-a 56 *war-a 806 blaze, to *tºukº- 211 *d¨ak¦º- 246 *wal¨- 794 *war- 806 *lah- 934 blazing *lah-a 934 blemish *dar¨-a 154 *gal-a 359 blend *k’atº-a 479 blighted *c’aw-a 307 *c’aw-l¨-a 307 blighted, that which is *c’aw-a 307 *c’aw-l¨-a 307 blind *bal-a 18 blind, to be or become *bal- 18 blindness *bal-a 18 blister *bug-a 59 *pºul¨-a 125 *dar¨-a 154 blister, to *bug- 59 blood *kºur-a 449 bloom *buw-a 80 bloom, to *bul-V-¦- 64 blossom *buw-a 80 blossom, to *bul-V-¦- 64 blossoming *bul-¦-a 64 blotch *dar¨-a 154 blow (= hit; stroke) *baħ-a 15 *tºapº-a 192 *t’apº-a 226 *t’aw-a 231

172 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *t’uk’-a 241 *d¨ab-a 245 *t¨ºal-a 254 *cºal-a 301 *k’ud-a 491 *qºal-a 566 *nag-a 910 *lax¦-a 948 blow (= blast of air) *bul-a 62 blow, to *bar- 28 *bur- 74 *pºas¨- 107 *pºuš- 128 *pºuw- 137 *ʒim- or *ǯim- 296 *ʔupº- 678 *napº-, *nipº-, *nupº- 914 blow about, to *bur- 74 *p’ul¨- 140 *duw- 182 blowing *ʒim-a or *ǯim-a 296 blowing, the act of *pºuw-a 137 blown about *duw-a 182 blown about, anything *duw-a 182 blown about, to be *duw- 182 (blubber) *pºul¨-a 126 blur *bul-a 66 boar, wild *s¨aw-a 276 board (= plank; panel) *č’ir-a 337 body *k¦ºur-a 526 body of water, any *mor-a 889 boil (= blister) *bug-a 59 boil, to *ʔepº- 657 boiling *wal-a 791 boisterous, to be *gal- 357 bond *baʕ-a 2 *ban-d-a 25 *bin-a 47 *kºam-a or *qºam-a 409 *˜’im-a 605 *yaʔ-a 774 *rakº-a 953 bone *k’os-a 490


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number bore, to *bur- 73 *dur- 180 borer *bur-a 73 born *k’an-a 465 born, to be *säw- or *sëw- 275 *čºan- 332 *k’al- 462 bosom *k’¦an-a 534 *ʕub-a 756 bottom of anything *ʔul-a 675 bound (= tied) *k’ar-a 477 bound together *˜’im-a 605 bound together, that which is *c’ur-a 310 *k’ar-a 477 bound together, to be or become *t’är- 265 bovine, wild *t¨ºom-a 259 bow down, to *k’um- 498 bowels *wat’¨-a 813 bowing, the act of *k’um-a 498 bowl *kºapº-a 416 boy *näʕ-r-a 927 braid, to *ħaw- 724 braiding *net’¨-a 918 braiding, the act of *ħaw-a 724 brain *ʔay-a 647 breach *bad-a 5 *t¨ºal-m-a 255 *mur-a 894 breadth *pºar-a 99 *tºal¨-a 188 *tºan¨-a 190 *war-a 804 break *bak’-a 17 *bi˜º-a 54 *pºačº-a 81 *pºas¨-a 108 *pºin-a 133 *t’aħ-a 218 *gal-a 353 *kºas-a 427 *mur-a 894 break, to *bi˜º- 54 *pºas¨- 108

174 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *pºin- 133 *dar- 152 *tºar- 195 *t’aħ- 218 *ʕakº- 738 *mur- 894 break (apart), to *pºar- 98 break apart, to *pºačº- 81 *p’ut’- 141 *cºal- 301 *row- 963 break into pieces, to *gin- 381 break into small pieces, to *k’ep’- 484 break off, to *bir- 51 *p’ut’- 141 *cºal- 301 *gal- 353 *kºas- 427 break open, to *bak’- 17 *bi˜º- 54 *pºačº- 81 *˜ºal- 592 breaking, the act of *ʕakº-a 738 breaking into small pieces, the act of *k’ep’-a 484 breaking off, the act of *bir-a 51 breast *diy-a 167 *ʒuʒ-a 298 *k’ar-a 478 *k’¦an-a 534 *ʕim-a 754 *ʕub-a 756 *mal-a 851 *man-a 856 breast, (mother’s) *mam(m)a, *mema 834 breastfeed, to *man- 856 breath *pºuš-a 128 *pºuw-a 137 *šaw-a 341 *ʔupº-a 678 *ʕan-a 744 *napº-a, *nipº-a, *nupº-a 914 breathe, to *ʕan- 744 *napº-, *nipº-, *nupº- 914


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number breathe deeply, to *šaw- 341 breathe out, to *pºas¨- 107 *pºuš- 128 bride *nus¨-a 924 bright *bah-a 13 *hal-a 683 *wal¨-a 794 *wil¨-a 822 *law-a 945 bright, shining object, any *q’al-a or *q’el-a 571 bright, to be *bal- 21 *bar- 33 *dil¨- 164 *dul- 171 *t’ay- or *t’iy- 233 *däk¦º- 246 *wal¨- 794 bright, to be or become *q’al- or *q’el- 571 bright, to become *dil¨- 164 *wil¨- 822 bright, to make *q’al- or *q’el- 571 brighten up, to *hal- 683 brightness *bah-a 13 *bal-a 21 *bar-a 33 *t’ay-a or *t’iy-a 233 *hal-a 683 *wal¨-a 794 *wil¨-a 822 brilliance *bah-a 13 *ɢil-a 562 brilliant *ɢil-a 562 bring, to *day- 160 *t’ox¦- 239 *wad- 783 bring forth, to *bad- 10 *pºir- 117 *säw- or *sëw- 275 *čºan- 332 bring into action, to *bad- 10 bring into being, to *bad- 10 bring to an end, to *k¦ºal- 512 bring together, to *k’atº- 479

176 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *ɢam- 554 bringing, the act of *wad-a 783 bringing forth *čºan-a 332 bristle *bar-a 27 bristle (up), to *bar- 27 (broad) *tºal¨-a 188 broad *pºal-a 88 *pºar-a 99 *pºitº-a 121 *tºan¨-a 190 *ʔut’-a 679 *war-a 804 broad, that which is *pºal-a 88 broken *mur-a 894 broken-off piece or part *p’ut’-a 141 brought forth, that which is *čºan-a 332 brow *q’aw-a 576 bruise, to *cºaħ- 300 bubble *bul-bul-a (> *bum-bul-a) 65 bubble up, to *bul-bul- (> *bum-bul-) 65 buck (= male of small, hoofed animals) *buk’-a (~ *bok’-a) 61 *kºab-a 399 bud *ʕag-a 737 bud, to *ʕag- 737 build, to *k’ad- 454 bulbous *p’ul-a 139 bulge *bar-a 26 *pºuš-a 128 *p’ul-a 139 *tºaw-a 201 bulky *k’¦ur¨-a 549 bulky, to be *k’¦ur¨- 549 bullock *k’¦ow-a 547 bunch *bag-a 12 *k’ar-a 477 bundle *bag-a 12 *k’ar-a 477 *k¦ºir-a 525 burden *t’an-a 224 *ʔan-a 626 *wig-a 821 burn *pºal¨-a 94 burn, to *pºal¨- 94


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *pºaħ- 129 *pºaħ-V-w- 129 *daɢ- 146 *dul- 171 *tºepº- 203 *tºukº- 211 *s¨ax¦- 277 *gub- 387 *kºum- 448 *k’al- 460 *k’¦at’- 543 *˜ºer- 597 *ʔak¦º- 620 *ʔepº- 657 *hag- 680 *ħas- 718 *ʕal- 740 *wal- 791 *war- 806 *lah- 934 burn brightly, to *t’ay- or *t’iy- 233 burn slowly, to *k’¦am- 533 burned *˜ºer-a 597 burning *k’¦at’-a 543 *lah-a 934 burning sensation *pºal¨-a 94 burnt wood *˜ºer-a 597 burst forth, to *bi˜º- 54 *nab- 906 burst open, to *pºitº- 121 bursting forth *nab-a 906 bush *ǯag¦-a 326 bush, a kind of *d¨an-w-a 247 bushy *bar-a 29 bushy, to be *bar- 29 but *wa- (~ *wə-) 781 buttocks *k’uŋ-a 501 buy, to *kºap’- 417 by me *ʔiya 667 by oneself, to be *ʔoy- 674 *xol- 766 cackle, to *kºatº- 431 *k’ak’- 455

178 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number cackling *kºatº-a 431 calamity *muŋ-a 893 calculation *xal-a 762 calf *pºar-a 102 *pºur-a 127 *ʕig-a 753 call *ǯaħ-a 327 *k’ar-a 475 *q’¦al-a 582 *q’¦ar-a or *q’¦ur-a 586 *q’¦at¨º-a 588 call, to *q’¦at¨º- 588 *waʕ- 782 call (out), to *ǯaħ- 327 *q’¦al- 582 call (out to), to *k’ar- 475 call out, to *kºal- 404 *q’¦ar- or *q’¦ur- 586 *wal- 788 calm *t’um-a 243 calm, to *t’um- 243 calm, to be or become *q’¦ad- 581 calmness *t’um-a 243 *rom-a 962 canal *ɢar-a 557 *mor-a 889 capture, to *pºid- 115 care *pºin¨-a 116 *kºal-a 405 *war-a 802 *man-a 859 *rak’-a 956 care about, to *mal- 849 care for (= like), to *pºar- 97 *man- 859 care for (= take care of), to *war- 802 carry, to *wad- 783 *wig- 821 *ni˜º- 921 carrying, the act of *wad-a 783 *ni˜º-a 921 cart (= conveyance) *wig-a 821 carve, to *bar- 35


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *ħaʒ- 727 carving *bar-a 35 *xat’-a 765 carving tool *ʔakº-a 617 cast (= throw; toss), to *day- 158 *siħ- 324 cast about *siħ-a 324 cast-out things *gud-a 388 casting about, the act of *siħ-a 324 caustic (= pungent) *kºar-a 424 cave *kºay-w-a 436 cavity *k’um-a 499 *ħal¨-a 704 caw, to *kºatº- 431 cawing *kºatº-a 431 cease to function, to *ǯaw- 329 cereal, a kind of *hay-a 691 cessation *ǯaw-a 329 chaff *pºat’-a 112 chamoix *ʔar-a 638 change, to *s¨en¨- 278 channel *mor-a 889 char, to *kºum- 448 charcoal *kºum-a 448 *˜ºer-a 597 charitable, to be *bar- 34 charred *˜ºer-a 597 chase after, to *mar- 869 chase away, to *gus- 394 chatter *x¦at’-a 769 *watº-a 812 chatter, to *k’ak’- 455 *x¦at’- 769 cheat, to *makº- 844 cheek *gen-a 373 *k’an-a 466 cheep, to *c’ir¨- 309 cheerful, to be *mak’- 846 chew, to *k’ep’- 484 *q’am- 573 *ʔit’- 665 chewing (the cud) *k’ep’-a 484 chief (= principal; main; leading) *pºar-a 100

180 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number chief (= ruler) *˜ºir-a 600 *ħak’-a 699 *ħar-a 715 chieftain *˜ºir-a 600 *ħak’-a 699 child *baaba 4 *bar-a 30 *säw-a or *sëw-a 275 *k’an-a 465 *¦il-a 773 *yaw-a 777 *mag-a 841 children, to bear *bar- 30 chill *k’ul¨-a 495 chin *ɢat’¨-a 561 chip *bar-a 35 *t’äkº-a 262 *cºal-a 302 *k’ir-a or *k’ur-a 487 chip, to *t’äkº- 262 chirp, to *c’ir¨- 309 chisel *tºikº-a 205 *ʔakº-a 617 *ħaʒ-a 727 choke, to *ħan-V-g- 709 chop, to *t’äkº- 262 chop into small pieces, to *k’ep’- 484 chopping into small pieces, the act of *k’ep’-a 484 chosen *lak’-a 939 cinder *ħas-a 718 circle *c’ur-a 310 *kºar-a 420 *k¦ºal-a 510 *ɢ¦al-a 579 *wal¨-a 793 circuit *k¦ºal-a 510 circular object, any *g¦ar-a 506 circumference *wal¨-a 793 cistern *mor-a 889 clamor *gal-a 357 *waʕ-a 782 clamor, to *gal- 357 clap of thunder *ɢad-a 550


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *ɢad-ɢad-a 550 clarification *kºal-a 406 clarify, to *c’ar- or *č’ar- 306 clarity *c’ar-a or *č’ar-a 306 *gal-a 356 clasp *kºon-k’-a, *kºok’-a 443 clatter, loud *ɢad-a 550 *ɢad-ɢad-a 550 claw *t’¨ipº-a 271 clay *diqº-a 166 clean, to *ħal- 701 *law- 947 clean(ed) *ħal-a 701 cleaned, that which is *ʔal-a 621 cleaning, the act of *ʔal-a 621 *ħal-a 701 cleanse, to *ʔal- 621 clear *c’ar-a or *č’ar-a 306 *gal-a 356 *hal-a 683 *wil¨-a 822 clear, to be or become *c’ar- or *č’ar- 306 *gal- 356 clear, to make *c’ar- or *č’ar- 306 *kºal- 406 clearness *hal-a 683 cleave, to *bad- 5 *bak’- 17 *pºal- 86 *pºas¨- 108 *pºil¨- 132 *dun¨- 179 *cºal- 301 climb on, to *ʔor¨-V-g- 671 *ʕar-V-g- 748 climbing *ʕar-g-a 748 cling to, to *pºid- 115 clip, to *k’ir- or *k’ur- 487 clipping *kºas-a 427 close *t’an-a 224 close, to *cºukº- 303 *k’apº- 474 closeness *t’an-a 224

182 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number closure *cºukº-a 303 cloth *kºatº-a 429 clothe, to *kºad- 401 cloud *p’ul¨-a 140 *dum-a 176 (*dum-k’¦-a >) *dun-k’¦-a 177 cloud, (dark) *t’uq’¦-a 244 cloud, storm *nab-a 907 cloud over, to *dum- 176 cloudy *dum-a 176 (*dum-k’¦-a >) *dun-k’¦-a 177 *ħag-a 696 cloudy, to be *t’uq’¦- 244 cloudy sky *nab-a 907 cloudy weather *ħag-a 696 club (= weapon) *k’an-a 468 *k’¦aħ-a 530 *q’¦al-a 584 clump *k’um-a 497 clutch, to *pºid- 115 *kºam- or *qºam- 409 coarse *bar-a 29 *t’är-a 266 *kºar-a 423 coarse, that which is *t’är-a 266 coarse, to be *bar- 29 *t’är- 266 coarseness *bar-a 29 *kºar-a 423 coil (= loop; cord) *c’ur-a 310 *mar-a 868 cold (= chill; chilly) *kºir-a 440 *k’ul¨-a 495 *k’¦ar-a 536 *q’in-a 578 cold, to be *kºir- 440 *k’¦ar- 536 cold, to be or become *k’ul¨- 495 *q’in- 578 coldness *k’ul¨-a 495 *k’¦ar-a 536 collapse *pºul-a 124 collapse (from shaking) *rag-a 952


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number collapse, to *pºul- 124 collect, to *gid- or *ɢid- 377 *kºam- 411 *k’er- 486 *ʔas- 639 *wotº- 826 *lak’- 939 collect (with the hands or arms), to *ħapº- 711 collected *lak’-a 939 collected, that which as been *ħapº-a 711 collecting, the act of *ʔas-a 639 collection *gid-a or *ɢid-a 377 *kºam-a 411 *k’er-a 486 *ɢam-a 554 *lak’-a 939 collection of things bound together *bag-a 12 comb *tºar-a 198 *war-a 803 comb, to *˜ºiʕ-V-r- 598 *war- 803 combination of two things, any *kºol¨-a 442 combine two things together, to *kºol¨- 442 come, to *buw- 79 *ɢal- 551 *ʔiy- 666 *naʕ- 905 come (close to), to *ʔan¨- 628 come into being, to *buw- 80 *k’al- 462 *n¨aʕ-V-r- 926 *liʔ- 949 come into view, to *wil¨- 822 come to, to *d¨iʔ- 251 *t¨ºar- 256 *ħin-V-kº- 728 come to an end, to *k¦ºal- 512 come together, to *k’atº- 479 *ɢam- 554 coming *buw-a 79 coming, the act of *ɢal-a 551 command *ħak’-a 699 command, to *ħak’- 699

184 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number commerce *wos-a 825 common, to be *ʔek’- 653 compact *tºik’-a 206 companion *ʔar-a 637 complete, to *k¦ºal- 512 completion *k¦ºal-a 512 comprehension *k’an¨-a 471 compression *k’um-a 497 compulsion *gid-a or *ɢid-a 377 conceal, to *pºal- 93 *qºam- 567 *ħag- 696 concept *ʕeŋ-a 751 condemnation *sad¨-a 312 condyle (of the lower jaw, the shoulder,

the elbow, the hip, etc.) *ʔom-a 668 confine, to *hak’- 682 confuse, to *bul- 66 *dul- 172 confused, to be *dal- 148 *diɢ- 163 *dul- 172 *makº- 844 *mal- 855 confusion *bul-a 66 *diɢ-a 163 *dul-a 172 *k’al-a 461 *makº-a 844 *mal-a 855 conglomeration *k’atº-a 479 connection *˜’im-a 605 conquest *wel-a 817 consider, to *day- 159 *t’¨iŋ- 270 *saħ- or *šaħ- 314 *ʕeŋ- 751 *man- 857 consideration *day-a 159 *t’¨iŋ-a 270 *saħ-a or *šaħ-a 314 constrict, to *ħan-V-g- 709 constricted *ħan-g-a 709


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number construct, to *k’ad- 454 *rakº- 954 constructing, the act of *rakº-a 954 consume, to *ʔit’- 665 container *kºapº-a 416 contend, to *mar- 866 control, to *rak’- 956 convey, to *day- 160 *wig- 821 conveyance *wig-a 821 (cook, to) *pºek¦º- 113 cook, to *t’ab- 216 *gub- 387 *k’al- 460 *ʔepº- 657 (cooked) *pºek¦º-a 113 cooked *t’ab-a 216 cooking *k’al-a 460 cooking, that which is used for *gub-a 387 cooking, the act of *gub-a 387 *ʔepº-a 657 copious *man-g-a 861 copulate (with), to *ʔor¨-V-g- 671 copulate with, to *man¨- 862 copulation *ʔor¨-g-a 671 cord *pºir-a 119 *s¨ir-a 281 *ǯal-a 328 *gur-a 392 *k’aŋ-a 469 *mar-a 868 *rakº-a 953 cord-like object, any *s¨ir-a 281 core *kºar-a 426 corner *gaŋ-a 364 *gol-a 385 correct *woy-kº-a 828 correctness *woy-kº-a 828 cot *kºay-a 434 count, to *xal- 762 *man- 857 counting *man-a 857 country, (open) *q’an-a 574

186 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number couple *kºol¨-a 442 couple, to *kºol¨- 442 course *gir¨-a or *ɢir¨-a 384 course, winding *dar-a 151 cover *bur-a 76 *cºukº-a 303 cover, to *bur- 76 *pºal- 93 *pºar¨- 105 *t’aq’- 227 *cºukº- 303 *kºad- 401 *k’apº- 474 *qºam- 567 *¦am- 772 cover over, to *dum- 176 *tºum- 213 *t’äl- and/or *t’ïl- 263 *ħag- 696 cover up, to *pºač’- 82 covering *bur-a 76 *pºač’-a 82 *pºal-a 93 *pºar¨-a 105 *t’aq’-a 227 *t’äl-a and/or *t’ïl-a 263 *kºad-a 401 *k’apº-a 474 *qºam-a 567 cow *k’¦ow-a 547 *ʔaħ-a 613 crack (= break; fracture; rift) *bad-a 5 *bak’-a 17 *pºačº-a 81 *pºal-a 86 *pºil¨-a 132 *t¨ºal-m-a 255 *cºal-a 301 *˜ºal-a 592 *haŋ-a 688 crackling sound *k’ak’-a 455 craft (= work; trade) *k¦ºir-a 525 cram, to *tºur- 215


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number cram together, to *hak’- 682 crammed *k’¦aħ-a 530 cramming *ʒag-a 289 crane (= large wading bird) *k’or-a or *k’ar-a 489 (craziness) *dul-a 172 (crazy, to be) *dul- 172 (crazy, to drive someone) *dul- 172 creak, to *qºar¨- 568 create, to *tºikº- 205 *k’an- 465 *k¦ºey- 523 create something, tool used to *tºikº-a 205 creating something, the act of *tºikº-a 205 creation *bad-a 10 *k¦ºey-a 523 crevice *haŋ-a 688 croak, to *qºar¨- 568 crooked *dar-a 151 *kºon-k’-a, *kºok’-a 443 *k’ar-a 477 *wan-a 799 crooked, that which is *k’un-a 500 crooked, to be *kºon-V-k’-, *kºok’- 443 crossing *pºar-a 104 crowd *kºum-a 446 *ɢam-a 554 *man-a 860 *man-g-a 861 crown of head *kºir-a 439 crumb *mol-a 888 crumb(s) *čºečº-a 333 crush, to *bit’¨- 53 *bul- 68 *diqº- 166 *t’aħ- 218 *cºaħ- 300 *čºečº- 333 *k’¦ar- 538 *ɢar- 556 *q’am- 573 *ħur- 735 *wal- 792 *was¨- 809

188 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *mel- 879 *mol- 888 *mur- 894 *nad¨- 908 crush into pieces, to *gin- 381 crushed *ɢar-a 556 *mol-a 888 *mur-a 894 crushed, anything *nad¨-a 908 crushed, that which is *čºečº-a 333 crushing *cºaħ-a 300 crushing, the act of *cºaħ-a 300 *čºečº-a 333 *gin-a 381 *ɢar-a 556 *was¨-a 809 crust *k’¦oy-a 548 cry *ǯaħ-a 327 *k’ar-a 475 *ɢar-a 555 *ɢar-ɢar-a 555 *q’¦al-a 582 *q’¦ar-a or *q’¦ur-a 586 *waʕ-a 782 *wal-a 788 *watº-a 812 cry, to *kºatº- 431 cry (out), to *ǯaħ- 327 *k’ar- 475 *q’¦al- 582 cry out, to *gal- 357 *q’¦ar- or *q’¦ur- 586 *waʕ- 782 *wal- 788 crying *kºatº-a 431 cudgel *k’an-a 468 *k’¦aħ-a 530 cuff (= stroke; blow) *k’an-a 468 *k’ud-a 491 cup *kºapº-a 416 current (= stream) *d¨aw-a 249 *ʒar-a or *ǯar-a 292 *ħapº-a 712


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number curvature *k’un-a 500 curve *dar-a 151 *kºar-a 420 *k’um-a 498 *k’un-a 500 *ħan-a 708 *wan-a 799 *mur-a 895 curve, to *k’um- 498 *ɢ¦al- 579 *ħan- 708 curve round, to *k’aw- 480 curved *dar-a 151 *kºar-a 420 *kºon-k’-a, *kºok’-a 443 *k’ar-a 477 *k’aw-a 480 *˜’il-a 604 *wan-a 799 curved, that which is *k’un-a 500 *ɢub-a 564 curved, to be *kºon-V-k’-, *kºok’- 443 *˜’il- 604 curved down, to be or become *lam- 941 *lam-V-d- 941 curved object *gam-a 361 *k’um-a 499 curved thing or object *˜’il-a 604 custody *kºal-a 405 cut *baħ-a 15 *ban-a 24 *dum-a 174 *tºar-a 195 *t’ar-a 228 *cºal-a 301 *gad-a 351 *gal-a 353 *gar-a 366 *kºar-a 418 *kºas-a 427 *k’ir-a or *k’ur-a 487 *k¦ºar-a 516 *qºal-a 566

190 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *˜ºar-a 594 *˜ºut’-a 602 *waŋ-a 800 *wed-a 816 *row-a 963 cut, that which is *č’ir-a 337 *ħaʒ-a 727 cut, to *baħ- 15 *ban- 24 *dal- 147 *t’ar- 228 *t’är- 267 *t’är-a 267 *cºal- 301 *sakº- 315 *č’ir- 337 *gad- 351 *gar- 366 *kºar- 418 *k’ir- or *k’ur- 487 *k¦ºar- 515 *k’¦at’- 544 *qºal- 566 *q’¦al- 583 *˜ºar- 594 *˜ºut’- 602 *waŋ- 800 *miʔ- 882 cut a groove, to *k¦ºar- 516 cut apart, to *p’ut’- 141 *row- 963 cut in half, to *t’uʔ¦- 240 cut in two, to *k’ir- or *k’ur- 487 cut into, to *bar- 35 *č’ir- 337 *kºar- 418 *k’ir- or *k’ur- 487 *˜ºar- 594 *˜ºar-V-t’- 595 *ħaʒ- 727 *xat’- 765 cut into, that which is *č’ir-a 337 cut into small pieces, to *t’äkº- 262


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *k’ep’- 484 cut (off), to *dum- 174 *gad-a 351 cut (off, apart), to *ʔar- 635 cut off, that which is *č’ir-a 337 cut off, to *baħ- 15 *bir- 51 *p’ut’- 141 *dun¨- 179 *č’ir- 337 *gal- 353 *kºar- 418 *kºas- 427 *k’ir- or *k’ur- 487 cut-off piece or part *p’ut’-a 141 cut open, to *˜ºal- 592 cut short, to *k¦ºar- 517 cut through, to *č’ir- 337 cuts, that which *č’ir-a 337 *gad-a 351 *gar-a 366 *˜ºar-a 594 *ħaʒ-a 727 cutter *ʔakº-a 617 cutting *kºas-a 427 cutting instrument *k’¦at’-a 544 *miʔ-a 882 cutting into small pieces, the act of *k’ep’-a 484 cutting off, the act of *bir-a 51 cuttings *bar-a 35 dagger *sakº-a 315 *waŋ-a 800 damage *t’aw-a 231 *t’¨ar-a 267 *k’¦ed-a 545 *qºal-a 566 *nikº-a 920 damage, to *k’¦ed- 545 damp *wal-a 790 *nat’-a 916 dampness *wal-a 790 *nat’-a 916 dancing *raq’-a 957

192 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number dangle, to *dul¨- 173 *˜ºuŋ-V-kº- 601 dark *bal-a 18 *bor¨-a 55 *dar-a 153 *dum-a 176 (*dum-k’¦-a >) *dun-k’¦-a 177 *tºum-a 213 *kºar-a 425 *k’ar-a 476 *ħag-a 696 *mar-a 871 *rum-a 964 dark, that which is *bul-a 67 dark, to be *t’uq’¦- 244 dark, to be or become *bal- 18 *dar- 153 *¦am- 772 dark, to become *dum- 176 *tºum- 213 *rum- 964 dark, to grow *rum- 964 dark, to make *dum- 176 *t’äl- and/or *t’ïl- 263 dark cloud *k’ar-a 476 dark-colored *bor¨-a 55 *k’ar-a 476 dark-colored, that which is *bul-a 67 dark color *bor¨-a 55 dark spot *dar-a 153 darken, to *dum- 176 *rum- 964 darkness *bal-a 18 *dar-a 153 *dum-a 176 (*dum-k’¦-a >) *dun-k’¦-a 177 *tºum-a 213 *t’uq’¦-a 244 *t’äl-a and/or *t’ïl-a 263 *kºar-a 425 *k’ar-a 476 *ħag-a 696 *¦am-a 772


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *rum-a 964 daughter-in-law *k’el-a 482 *nus¨-a 924 day *daɢ-a 146 daylight *dil¨-a 164 (deadly) disease *daw-a 157 deal (= trade; exchange), to *wos- 825 death *daw-a 157 *ǯaʔ-a 325 *k’¦ed-a 545 *q’¦al-a 583 *ħul-a 733 *wed-a 816 *mar¨-a 874 deathly sick, to become *daw- 157 debilitated *ʔeb-a 651 debilitated, to be *nus¨- 925 debilitated, to become *ʔeb- 651 decay *bul-a 68 *tºaħ-a 184 *k’¦ed-a 545 *was¨-a 809 decay, to *bad- 9 *k’er- 485 *k’¦ed- 545 *was¨- 809 *mar¨- 874 decayed *k’er-a 485 deceive, to *makº- 844 deceived, to be *makº- 844 deception *makº-a 844 declaration *bakº-a 16 declare, to *bakº- 16 decline *bul-a 68 decomposition *was¨-a 809 decrease *ʔek’-a 653 *nus¨-a 923 decrease, to *k’al- 459 *k¦ºar- 517 *ʔek’- 653 decree *ħak’-a 699 decrepit *ǯaw-a 329 deed *daw-a 156

194 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *day-a 158 *tºikº-a 205 *k¦ºey-a 523 deep *ʕam-a 741 deep place *ʕam-a 741 deer *ʔil-a (~ *ʔel-a) 661 defeat *wel-a 817 deficiency *k’al-a 459 *ʔek’-a 653 *ħiw-a, *ħiy-a 729 deficit *gaʔ-a 346 deliberation *ʕeŋ-a 751 delicate *nus¨-a 923 delicate, to be *nus¨- 923 delight *pºar-a 97 delighted with, to be *pºar- 97 deluge *ʔib-a 659 *ħaw-a 722 *wel¨-a 819 dense *t’an-a 224 *k’an-a 467 density *t’an-a 224 *k’an-a 467 depart, to *gaʔ- 346 *wal- 789 departing *bar-a 37 departure *wal-a 789 deprivation *bad-a 8 *gaʔ-a 346 deprive of, to *k’al- 459 deprived of *gaʔ-a 346 depth *t’al-a 221 deride, to *ʒak’- 291 descendant *pºas¨-a 109 *pºir-a 117 *ʔum-a 677 *n¨apº-a 929 desire *t’el-a 235 *haw-a 690 *win-a or *wiŋ-a 823 desire, ardent *man¨-a 862 desire, to *haw- 690 *win- or *wiŋ- 823


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number desire passionately, to *man¨- 862 desolate *bar-a 38 desolate, to be or become *bar- 38 desolated area *bad-a 6 destroy, to *cºaħ- 300 *k’¦ed- 545 *ħal- 700 *ħul- 733 *mur- 894 destoyed *mur-a 894 destruction *gupº-a 391 *k’¦ed-a 545 *q’¦al-a 583 *ħal-a 700 *ħul-a 733 *nikº-a 920 detach, to *law- 946 detention *kºal-a 405 deteriorate, to *s¨en¨- 278 devoted to, to be *mal- 849 dew *t’al¨-a 223 *mat’-a 877 die, to *daw- 157 *ǯaʔ- 325 die (from a fatal disease), to *mar¨- 874 difference *ʔaŋ-a 631 different *t¨ºin-a 257 *ʔaŋ-a 631 difficulty *k’acº-a 452 *wal-a 792 *muŋ-a 893 difficulty, to be in *muŋ- 893 difficulty, to cause *muŋ- 893 dig, that which is used to *ɢar-a 557 *ʔakº-a 617 dig, to *kºay-V-w- 436 *k¦ºar- 516 *ɢar- 557 *ʔakº- 617 dig out, to *gal- 354 *gupº- 391 *ɢar- 557 dig up, to *ɢar- 557

196 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *wur¨- 831 digging *k¦ºar-a 516 *ʔakº-a 617 digging out, the act of *gal-a 354 diligence *qºad-a 565 diminish, to *tºaħ- 184 *k’al- 459 *k¦ºar- 517 *ʔek’- 653 diminished, to be or become *k’al- 459 diminishment *ʔek’-a 653 *nus¨-a 923 dip (= plunge; immersion) *mus¨-a 898 *mus¨-k’-a 898 dip, to *ʕam- 741 dip in water, to *mus¨- 898 *mus¨-V-k’- 898 dip into, to *t’al- 221 direct, to *ħak’- 699 direction *qºad-a 565 *ħak’-a 699 dirt *t’uq’¦-a 244 *k’ar-a 476 *mar-a 871 dirty *k’ar-a 476 *mar-a 871 dirty, to be *t’uq’¦- 244 disagree, to *mar- 866 disclose, to *kºal- 406 discourse *t’il-a 237 disease *gal-a 358 *nus¨-a 925 disease, (deadly) *daw-a 157 disheartened, to be *ħag- 695 disjoined *ʔar-a 635 dispersed *tºar-a 194 dispute *bur-a 72 *mar-a 866 dispute, to *mar- 866 dissipate, to *bad- 5 dissipation *bad-a 6 *tºaħ-a 184 dissolve, to *ɢar- 556


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number dissolved *ɢar-a 556 distance *t’aw-a 230 *ʔut’-a 679 distant *k¦ºal- 513 distinction *mag-a 839 distress *bad-a 7 *k’al-a 461 *ħag-a 695 *wal-a 792 *muŋ-a 893 distress, to be in *muŋ- 893 distress, to cause *muŋ- 893 distressed, to be *ħag- 695 distribute, to *bay- 40 disturb, to *dal- 148 *dul- 172 *ɢal- 553 *nad¨- 909 disturbance *dal-a 148 *dul-a 172 *dul¨-a 173 *gal-a 357 *k’al-a 461 *ɢal-a 553 *nad¨-a 909 disturbed, to be *dal- 148 *dul- 172 *ɢal- 553 *mal- 855 ditch *ɢar-a 557 *ʔakº-a 617 *wur¨-a 831 dive into, to *t’al- 221 dive into water (bird), to *ħaŋ- 710 divide, to *pºar- 98 *šiħ- 343 *kºas- 427 *ʔaŋ- 631 *xal- 762 *law- 946 divide into shares, to *bay- 40 divide into two parts, to *t’uʔ¦- 240 division *t’aħ-a 218

198 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *šiħ-a 343 *kºas-a 427 *xal-a 762 *law-a 946 division into two *t’uʔ¦-a 240 do, to *daw- 156 *kºam- 410 *k¦ºey- 523 do something slowly, to *hakº- 681 do together, to *ɢam- 554 do well, to *c’al- or *č’al- 304 dog *kºuwan-a or *kºun-a 450 down *c’ar- 305 *kºatº- 430 downpour *bal-a 19 *ʒar-a or *ǯar-a 292 drag *tºar-a 193 drag, to *tºar- 193 dragged along, something *tºar-a 193 dragging *wal-a 787 draw, to *tºar- 193 draw near to, to *ʔan¨- 628 draw (out), to *mal- 851 draw out, to *mad- 837 *mat’- 876 *rak’- 955 drawing, the act of *rak’-a 955 drawn out *rak’-a 955 dried mucous *pºakº-a 84 dried up *tºar-a 197 drill, to *dur- 180 drink (= beverage) *tºar-a 199 *šaw-a 340 drink, to *tºar- 199 *šaw- 340 *ʕun¨- 757 drinking, the act of *tºar-a 199 drip *ʒil-a or *ǯil-a 294 *k’¦al¨-a 532 drip, to *ban- 22 *t’al¨- 223 *k’¦al¨- 532 drive, to *ʒag- 288


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number drive away, to *gus- 394 drive together, to *gid- or *ɢid- 377 drizzle *duw-a 182 *t’al¨-a 223 *ʒar-a or *ǯar-a 292 drop (of water, rain, dew, etc.) *ban-a 22 *ʒil-a or *ǯil-a 294 drop, (rain) *t’al¨-a 223 drop down, to *kºatº- 430 dropping *ʒil-a or *ǯil-a 294 drops, to fall in *t’al¨- 223 drunk *tºar-a 199 dry *tºar-a 197 *c’aw-a 307 *c’aw-l¨-a 307 dry, that which is *c’aw-a 307 *c’aw-l¨-a 307 dry, to be *säw- 274 dry, to be or become *c’aw- 307 *c’aw-V-l¨- 307 dry place *säw-a 274 dry up, to *tºar- 197 *was¨- 809 dryness *tºar-a 197 *säw-a 274 duck (= aquatic bird) *gaŋ-a 363 duck down, to *lam- 941 *lam-V-d- 941 dug (out), that which is *ɢar-a 557 dug, that which is *ʔakº-a 617 dullness *t¨ºum-a 260 (dumb, to be) *dul- 172 dusk *rum-a 964 dust *duw-a 182 *tºor¨-a 209 *t’uq’¦-a 244 dusty, to be *t’uq’¦- 244 dwell, to *q’¦ad- 581 *man- 858 dwelling *buw-a 79 *kºay-a 434 *q’¦ad-a 581 *ʔil-a 660

200 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *wan-a 796 *man-a 858 eagle *ħur-a (and/or *ħer-a ?) 734 ear *kºul-a 444 *q’¦ar¨-a or *q’¦ur¨-a 587 earth *diqº-a 166 *tºor¨-a 209 *ʔer-a 658 *ʔul-a 675 *ħak’-a 698 *mag-a 840 eat, to *bal- 20 *bur- 75 *pºaħ- 83 *q’am- 573 *ʔakº- 615 *ʔit’- 665 *ham- 687 *ʕun¨- 757 eat greedily, to *lab- 932 eaten, that which is *ʔit’-a 665 eating *lab-a 932 eating, the act of *ʔit’-a 665 edge *s¨ub-a 285 *ʒag-a 290 *gaŋ-a 364 *gol-a 385 *kºar-a 421 *q’¦ar-a 585 effort *muk’-a 890 effort, to make an *woy- 827 efforts, to make great *muk’- 890 egg *ʔow-ħ-a 673 *mun-a 892 *mun-d-a 892 eject, to *wam- 795 elder sister *ʔen¨a 656 eldest *wan-a 798 elevate, to *k’ul- 494 *war- 805 elevated *dim-a 165 *sal-a 317 elevated, to be *ʕal- 739


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number elevated place *dim-a 165 elevation *ħon-a 732 else *hal- 684 emaciated, to be or become *c’aw- 307 *c’aw-V-l¨- 307 ember *ħas-a 718 embers *kºum-a 448 *k’¦am-a 533 embers, (burning) *d¨ak¦º-a 246 embers, glowing *k’al-a 460 embrace *ħapº-a 711 eminent *mag-a 839 eminent, to be *˜ºir- 600 *mag- 839 emptiness *čºal-a 331 empty *čºal-a 331 empty, to *čºal- 331 encircle, to *c’ur- 310 encircles, that which *c’ur-a 310 enclose, to *c’ur- 310 *gir- 382 enclosed space *gul-a (~ *gol-a) 389 encloses, that which *c’ur-a 310 enclosure *c’ur-a 310 *gir-a 382 end *tºal-a 187 *t¨ºar-a 256 *s¨ub-a 285 *ǯaw-a 329 *k¦ºal-a 512 *k’¦ad-a 529 *ħul-a 733 end, to *k¦ºal- 512 endurance *tºal¨-a 188 endure, to *bad- 7 *tºal¨- 188 *tºan¨- 190 endure, to cause to *bad- 7 enduring, to be *man- 858 engrave, to *k’ir- or *k’ur- 487 *xat’- 765 engraved line *xat’-a 765 energy *wak’-a 785

202 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number energy, to act with *woy- 827 engraving *bar-a 35 *xat’-a 765 enjoy, to *bir¨- 52 enlarge, to *dar¨- 154 enough *tºir-a 207 enough, to have *tºir- 207 *tºir-V-pº- 208 enough, to have more than *tºir- 207 entreat, to *pºir- 134 entreaty *pºir-a 134 entwine, to *net’¨- 918 entwined, anything *net’¨-a 918 entwining *net’¨-a 918 enumerate, to *t’il- 237 *xal- 762 erect, to be or become *gar¨- 370 escape *her-a and/or *hor-a 693 *wal-a 789 escape, to *her- and/or *hor- 693 escaped *her-a and/or *hor-a 693 essence *kºar-a 426 establish, to *daw- 156 established *ʔas¨-a 640 established, to be *man- 858 established, to be firmly *dag- 145 esteemed, highly *mag-a 839 esteemed, to be highly *˜ºir- 600 *mag- 839 evening *¦am-a 772 *nak¦º-a 913 evident *c’ar-a or *č’ar-a 306 *gal-a 356 evident, to be or become *c’ar- or *č’ar- 306 *gal- 356 evil *t’¨aw-a 269 *ʔakº-a 616 evil, to be *ʔakº- 616 exalted *ʔad-a 611 *mag-a 839 exalted, to be *ʔad- 611 *ʕal- 739 *mag- 839


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number examination *day-a 159 *saħ-a or *šaħ-a 314 examine, to *day- 159 *saħ- or *šaħ- 314 excavation *k¦ºar-a 516 exceed, to *d¨iʔ- 251 *c’al- or *č’al- 304 *maħ- 842 *mik’- 885 excellence *mag-a 839 *maħ-a 842 excess *tºir-pº-a 208 *gar¨-a 369 *mik’-a 885 excess, to be in *mik’- 885 excite, to *wak’- 785 exhale, to *pºuw- 137 exhausted *dal¨-a 149 *tºan¨-a 191 *ʔeb-a 651 *xal-a 761 exhausted (from straining, laboring), to become *k’acº- 452 exhausted, to be or become *was¨- 808 exhausted, to become *ʔeb- 651 exhausted, to grow *tºan¨- 191 exhaustion *dal¨-a 149 *tºan¨-a 191 *ʔeb-a 651 *xal-a 761 *was¨-a 808 exist, to *ʔil- 660 existence *k’al-a 462 existing *ʔil-a 660 expand, to *bar- 26 *bul- 62 *bun- 69 *bun-V-g- 69 *tºar- 194 *kºaw- 432 *war- 804 *mad- 837 *man- 860

204 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *man-V-g- 861 *mat’- 876 *mik’- 885 expanse *pºal-a 88 *tºar-a 194 *ħak’-a 698 expansion *bul-a 62 *kºaw-a 432 experience *bad-a 7 *ħin-kº-a 728 experience, to *bad- 7 explain, to *kºal- 406 explanation *kºal-a 406 expression *yan-a 776 extend, to *pºal- 88 *tºal¨- 188 *tºan¨- 190 *tºar- 194 *t’al- 222 *c’al- or *č’al- 304 *ħak’- 698 *war- 804 *rak’- 955 extended *pºar-a 99 *tºal¨-a 188 *tºan¨-a 190 *rak’-a 955 extending, the act of *rak’-a 955 extension *pºar-a 99 *tºan¨-a 190 *rak’-a 955 extent *mad-a 837 *mat’-a 876 exterior *ʔut’-a 679 extinction *ǯaw-a 329 extinguish, to *gupº- 391 extinguished, to be *gupº- 391 extra *ʔapº-a 634 extra, that which is *ʔapº-a 634 extra, to be *ʔapº- 634 eye *k’an¨-a 471 *˜ºil-a or (?) *˜ºir-a 599 *ʔil-a 662


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number eyebrow *bur-a 78 eyelash *bur-a 78 face *pºa—-a 96 fade, to *t¨ºum- 260 *ǯaʔ- 325 *wal- 792 *was¨- 809 faint, to grow *dow-, *doy- 168 *s¨en¨- 278 falcon *ħur-a (and/or *ħer-a ?) 734 fall *bad-a 9 *pºul-a 124 fall, to *pºul- 124 fall down, to *bad- 9 *pºul- 124 *c’ar- 305 *kºatº- 430 fall ill, to *mar¨- 874 fall in drops, to *t’al¨- 223 fall into, to *t’al- 221 fallen *pºul-a 124 falling down, the act of *c’ar-a 305 fallow land *bar-a 38 fame *kºul-a 444 far away *t’aw-a 230 *k¦ºal- 513 far off *k¦ºal- 513 fart *pºas¨-a 107 fart, to *pºas¨- 107 farthest point *mun-a 891 fashion, to *tºikº- 205 *k¦ºey- 523 *lip’- 950 fashion something, tool used to *tºikº-a 205 fashioning something, the act of *tºikº-a 205 fast, to make *dab- 144 fasten, to *baʕ- 2 *bin- 47 *sak’¦- 316 *ǯal- 328 *kºad- 402 *k’ad- 454 *k¦ºir- 525

206 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *rakº- 953 fasten (together), to *ban-V-d- 25 *dab- 144 *rakº- 954 fasten together, to *tºakº- 185 *k’ačº- 453 fasten two things together, to *kºol¨- 442 fastening *baʕ-a 2 *dab-a 144 *sak’¦-a 316 *kºad-a 402 *k’ačº-a 453 *k’ad-a 454 fastening (together), the act of *rakº-a 954 fat (= large) *bun-g-a 69 *tºaw-a 201 *k’an-a 467 *ħay-t’-a 726 *man-g-a 861 (fat [= grease]) *pºul¨-a 126 fat (= grease) *mar-a 870 fat (= lard) *s¨il-a 279 fat, that which is *pºul¨-a 126 fat, to be *ħay-V-t’- 726 fatal disease *mar¨-a 874 father *baba 3 *ʔab(b)a ~ *ʔapº(pº)a 610 *ʔatºtºa 641 *ʔay(y)a 649 fatigue *dow-a, *doy-a 168 *tºan¨-a 191 *t¨ºum-a 260 *xal-a 761 *was¨-a 808 *muk’-a 890 fatigued, to be or become *was¨- 808 fatigued (from straining, laboring), to become *k’acº- 452 fat(ness) *pºuʔ-a 123 fatness *k’an-a 467 fatten, to *pºuʔ- 123 fault *gal-a 359 favor *ħan-a 707


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number favor, to show *ħan- 707 favorably disposed towards, to be *mal- 849 fear *pºel-a 114 *pºir-a 120 *s¨ur-a 286 *naħ-a 911 fear, to *pºir- 120 *s¨ur- 286 *naħ- 911 fearful, to be *pºel- 114 feathers, (fine, soft) *bur-a 77 feed *ʔakº-a 615 feed, to *k’al- 457 feed (on), to *ʕun¨- 757 feeding *pºin¨-a 116 feel, to *gas¨- 371 feel affection for, to *pºar- 97 feeling *san-a or *šan-a, *sin-a or *šin-a, *sun-a or *šun-a 319 female *nus¨-a 924 female connected by marriage, any *nus¨-a 924 female in-law *kºal-a 403 *k’el-a 482 female relative *ʔay(y)a 648 *nat’-a 915 female relative, (older) *ʔaŋ(ŋ)a 632 female relative, older *ʔakºkºa 618 *ʔema 655 fence *gir-a 382 fetter *kºam-a or *qºam-a 409 few things *k’al-a 459 fiber (= string; cord) *k’aŋ-a 469 field *q’an-a 574 *ħak’-a 698 *wel¨-a 818 fiery, to be *ʔekº- 652 fight *bur-a 72 *ɢal-a 553 *qºatº-a 569 *wel-a 817 *mar-a 866 *laħ-a 936

208 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number fight, to *bur- 72 *qºatº- 569 *wel- 817 *laħ- 936 fight against, to *mar- 866 fight with, to *mar- 866 fill, to *pºal- 90 *t’an- 224 *mal- 848 fill (up), to *gam- 362 filled *k’¦aħ-a 530 *waš-a 810 *mal-a 848 fine, to be *süw- 287 fingernail *t’ïpº-a 271 finish (= completion) *k¦ºal-a 512 finish, to *k¦ºal- 512 fire *bud-a 56 *pºaħ-a 129 *pºaħ-w-a 129 *dul-a 171 *däk¦º-a 246 *g¦ir-a 507 *k’¦as-a 541 *ʔak¦º-a 620 *ʕal-a 740 fire, to be on *hag- 680 fire, to light a *ʕal- 740 fire, to make a *ʕal- 740 fire to, to set *wal- 791 firewood *˜ºer-a 597 firm (= solid) *tºik’-a 206 *t’är-a 265 *kºar-a 422 *ʕur-a 758 firm, to be *ʕur- 758 *man- 858 firm grip *där-a 248 firmly attached, to be *t’är- 265 firmly established, to be *dag- 145 firmness *tºik’-a 206 *t’är-a 265 *kºar-a 422


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *ʕur-a 758 first *pºar-a 100 *wan-a 798 first-born *wan-a 798 first person personal

pronoun stem (stative) *kºa- 397 first, to be *mun- 891 fish *dig-a 162 fish, (a kind of) *min-a 886 fish, large *k¦ºal-a 514 fissure *t¨ºal-m-a 255 fist *k’om-a 488 fit (= appropriate) *t’akº-a 219 fit, to be *t’akº- 219 fit (together), to *rakº- 954 fit together, to *dab- 144 fit two things together, to *kºol¨- 442 fitness *t’akº-a 219 fitting (= joining) *dab-a 144 fitting (= proper) *süw-a 287 fitting, to be *süw- 287 fitting (together), the act of *rakº-a 954 flame *pºaħ-a 129 *pºaħ-w-a 129 *däk¦º-a 246 *war-a 806 flank (= side) *gaŋ-a 364 flash, to *bar- 33 flat *pºal-a 88 *tºal¨-a 188 flat, that which is *pºal-a 88 flat of hand *pºal-a 89 flee, to *pºar- 101 *pºir- 118 *her- and/or *hor- 693 fleeing *pºar-a 101 *pºir-a 118 flight *pºar-a 101 *pºir-a 118 *her-a and/or *hor-a 693 *wal-a 789 flock *man-a 860 float, to *wuy- or *Huy- 832

210 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number floating *wuy-a or *Huy-a 832 flood *bun-a 70 *ʔib-a 659 *wel¨-a 819 *mor-a 889 flood, to *wel¨- 819 flourish, to *riy- 961 flow *bal-a 19 *bun-a 70 *dun-a 178 *däw-a 249 *sör-a 284 *gir¨-a or *ɢir¨-a 384 *k’¦al¨-a 532 *wal-a 790 flow, to *bun- 70 *däw- 249 *t’ör- 272 *ʒil- or *ǯil- 294 *gir¨- or *ɢir¨- 384 *k’¦al¨- 532 *ɢal- 552 *ħapº- 712 *wal- 790 *waǯ- 815 flow, to make to *laħ- 935 flow forth, to *sör- 284 *ʒar- or *ǯar- 292 *ʒil- or *ǯil- 294 *sig- 323 *wel¨- 819 flow (out), to *dun- 178 flow out, to *ʒar- or *ǯar- 292 flowing *däw-a 249 *t’ör-a 272 *ʒil-a or *ǯil-a 294 *sig-a 323 *ʔor-a 669 *laħ-a 935 fluid *maw-a 878 flutter, to *pºar- 101 *pºatº- 110 *pºir- 118


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number flux *gir¨-a or *ɢir¨-a 384 fly, to *pºar- 101 *pºir- 118 fly about, to *duw- 182 flying *pºar-a 101 *pºir-a 118 fodder *ʔakº-a 615 fog *p’ul¨-a 140 *dum-a 176 fold (= bend) *k’un-a 500 fold together, to *k’ačº- 453 *k’un- 500 folded, that which is *k’un-a 500 fond of, to be *pºar- 97 food *bur-a 75 *pºaħ-a 83 *˜’ar-s-a 603 *ʔakº-a 615 *ʔit’-a 665 *ʕun¨-a 757 foolish *ʔeb-a 651 foolishness *ʔeb-a 651 foot *pºat’-a 111 *kºab-a 400 *lakº-a 938 for *ʔan¨- 629 force *tºal¨-a 189 *tºur-a 215 *ʒag-a 288 *gid-a or *ɢid-a 377 force, to *tºal¨- 189 force together, to *gid- or *ɢid- 377 forefather *ʔab(b)a ~ *ʔapº(pº)a 610 forehead *pºa—-a 96 *q’aw-a 576 foremost *pºar-a 100 foremost (person or thing) *xaŋ-tº-a 764 foremost, that which is *xaŋ-a 763 foremost, to be *mun- 891 foremost person *ner-a 917 foremost thing *ner-a 917 form *sam-a 318 *lip’-a 950

212 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number form, to *tºikº- 205 *k¦ºey- 523 *lip’- 950 form something, tool used to *tºikº-a 205 forming something, the act of *tºikº-a 205 forsake, to *gaʔ- 346 forsaken *gaʔ-a 346 forth from, to go *gus- 394 forth from, to make to go *gus- 394 fortitude *kºar-a 422 fowl, wild *ɢar¨-a 559 *ɢar¨-ɢar¨-a 559 fracture *mur-a 894 fragment *dum-a 174 *dun¨-a 179 *cºal-a 302 *gad-a 351 *kºas-a 427 fragrance *ʕut’-a 759 free-born *ħar-a 715 freed *her-a and/or *hor-a 693 freed (from) *čºal-a 331 freedom *čºal-a 331 freeze, to *gil- 379 *kºir- 440 *k’ul¨- 495 *q’in- 578 fresh, to be *ʔax- 614 friend *ʔar-a 637 fright *pºel-a 114 frighten, to *sür- 286 frightened, to be *pºel- 114 *ħat’- 720 frightened, to be or become *sür- 286 front *gab-a 347 *xaŋ-tº-a 764 front part *pºa—-a 96 *süb-a 285 *gab-a 347 *xaŋ-tº-a 764 frost *kºir-a 440 *k’ul¨-a 495 *q’in-a 578


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number fruit *bir¨-a 52 *pºir-a 117 *čºan-a 332 fruit, to bear *pºir- 117 fulfillment *k¦ºal-a 512 full *tºaw-a 201 *tºir-a 207 *waš-a 810 *maħ-a 842 *mal-a 848 full, to be or become *mal- 848 fullness *buw-a 80 *pºal-a 90 *pºuʔ-a 123 *tºir-a 207 *ħapº-a 711 *maħ-a 842 *mal-a 848 *mik’-a 885 fur *bur-a 77 furious, to be *ʔekº- 652 furnace *gub-a 387 furrow *ɢar-a 557 fury *qºatº-a 569 *ʔekº-a 652 gain *ħin-kº-a 728 gain, to *ħin-V-kº- 728 game (= wild animals) *guw-a 396 *guw-r-a 396 gap *t¨ºal-m-a 255 gape *haŋ-a 688 gape, to *haŋ- 688 gash *dal-a 147 *waŋ-a 800 gash, to *dal- 147 gasp, to *šaw- 341 gather, to *k’er- 486 *ʔas- 639 *lak’- 939 gather (together), to *gid- or *ɢid- 377 gather together, to *kºam- 411 *k’atº- 479 *ɢam- 554

214 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number gather (with the hands or arms), to *ħapº- 711 gathered *lak’-a 939 gathered, that which as been *ħapº-a 711 gathering *kºam-a 411 *k’atº-a 479 *k’er-a 486 *ɢam-a 554 gathering, the act of *ʔas-a 639 gazelle *ʔar-a 638 genitals (male or female) *pºit’¨-a 122 *q’al¨-a 572 genitals, male *pºas¨-a 109 gentle *rom-a 962 get, to *sag- or *šag- 313 *k’an- 465 get rid of, to *čºal- 331 gift *t’ox¦-a 239 *gib-a 376 *mig-a 883 gimlet *bur-a 73 gird, to *gir- 382 *yaʔ- 774 girdle *yaʔ-a 774 give, to *t’ox¦- 239 *gib- 376 *mig- 883 give back, to *muy- 899 give birth, to *bar- 30 *s¨aw- or *s¨ew- 275 *ʔum- 677 *¦il- 773 give birth to, to *pºit’¨- 122 give off smoke, vapor, steam, to *p’ul¨- 140 given back, that which is *muy-a 899 giving *t’ox¦-a 239 gleam *bal-a 21 gleam, to *t’ay- or *t’iy- 233 gleaming *ɢil-a 562 *law-a 945 glide, to *ʒil- or *ǯil- 295 *gil- 378 gliding *gil-a 378 gliding, the act of *ʒil-a or *ǯil-a 295


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number glisten, to *ɢil- 562 *ʔel- 654 glistening *ɢil-a 562 glitter *bal-a 21 *wal¨-a 794 glitter, to *daɢ- 146 *t’ay- or *t’iy- 233 *q’al- or *q’el- 571 *ʔel- 654 globe *ɢ¦al-a 579 glorious *mag-a 839 glorious, to be *˜ºir- 600 *mag- 839 glory *mag-a 839 glow *law-a 945 glow, to *t’ay- or *t’iy- 233 glowing *kºum-a 448 *law-a 945 glowing, to be *k’¦am- 533 glowing embers *k’al-a 460 glued *˜’im-a 605 gnat *k’uɢ-n-a (~ *k’oɢ-n-a) 493 gnaw, to *˜’ar- 603 *˜’ar-V-s- 603 go, to *buw- 79 *pºar- 104 *t’aw- 230 *gaʔ- 346 *gir¨- or *ɢir¨- 384 *k¦ºal- 509 *k’¦al- 531 *ɢal- 551 *ʔay- 646 *ʔiy- 666 *wal- 789 *naʕ- 905 go across, to *pºar- 104 go after (= follow), to *k’¦al- 531 go after (= pursue), to *mar- 869 go around, to *k¦ºal- 510 go (away), to *bar- 37 go away, to *t’aw- 230 *k’¦al- 531

216 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *wal- 789 go behind (= follow), to *k’¦al- 531 go forth, to *pºar- 104 go forth from, to *gus- 394 go on foot, to *lakº- 938 go out, to *pºar- 104 go outside of, to *gus- 394 go over, to *pºar- 104 go (round), to *mar- 869 go up, to *sal- 317 go, to let *t’aw- 230 *čºal- 331 goal *t¨ºar-a 256 goat *bag-a 11 *dur-a 181 *ʔar-a 638 goat, (young) *˜ºaħ-a 590 goat, young *gad-a 352 goes round and round, that which *k¦ºal-a 511 going *buw-a 79 *pºar-a 104 going (away) *bar-a 37 going, the act of *ɢal-a 551 good *bar-a 34 *mal-a 849 good, to be *s¨uw- 287 good, to do *bar- 34 goodness *bar-a 34 *mal-a 849 goose *gaŋ-a 363 goose, wild *ɢar¨-a 559 *ɢar¨-ɢar¨-a 559 gossip *war-a and/or *wir-a 807 gouge *ʔakº-a 617 gouge, to *dal- 147 gracious, to be *ħan- 707 graciousness *ħan-a 707 gradually (= slowly) *hakº- 681 gradually, to do or approach something *hakº- 681 gradualness *hakº-a 681 grain (= seed) *bar-a 32 *yiw-a (~ *yew-a) 778 grain, a kind of *hay-a 691


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number grain, (unripe or blighted) *pºat’-a 112 grandeur *mag-a 839 grasp *bar-a 31 *pºid-a 115 *k’ab-a 451 *ʔam-a 623 *ʕap’-a 746 grasp, to *bar- 31 *tºekº- 202 *gab- 349 *gar- 365 *gat’- 372 *kºam- or *qºam- 409 *k’aw- 481 *k’um- 497 *ʔam- 623 *ʕap’- 746 *wotº- 826 *lab- 931 grasp with the hand, to *kºapº- 415 grasped *ʔam-a 623 grasping *lab-a 931 grasping, the act of *tºekº-a 202 *wotº-a 826 grass *č’am-a 335 grate, to *ɢar- 556 grated *ɢar-a 556 grating, the act of *ɢar-a 556 gray *pºar¨-a 106 gray hair *˜ºay-a 596 gray, (hair) to turn *pºar¨- 106 *˜ºay- 596 (grease) *pºul¨-a 126 grease *mar-a 870 great *bir-a 49 *gad-a 350 *ħal¨-a 703 *maʔ-a 836 *maħ-a 842 *mak’-a 845 *mik’-a 885 great, to be *maħ- 842 *mak’- 845

218 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number great, to be or become *gad- 350 great amount *ħaw-a 723 great importance, to be of *mag- 839 great influence, to be of *mag- 839 great number *ħaw-a 723 *man-g-a 861 great power, to be of *mag- 839 great quantity *gar¨-a 369 greatness *bir-a 49 *gad-a 350 *maħ-a 842 grief *ħag-a 695 grief, exclamation of *hay 692 grime *k’ar-a 476 grind, to *bul- 68 *t’aħ- 218 *cºaħ- 300 *gin- 381 *k’¦ar- 538 *ɢar- 556 *q’am- 573 *ħur- 735 *wal- 792 *was¨- 809 grind down, to *mel- 879 *mol- 888 grinding *cºaħ-a 300 grinding, the act of *cºaħ-a 300 *gin-a 381 *ɢar-a 556 *was¨-a 809 grinding pestle *k’¦ar-a 538 grinding stone *k’¦ar-a 538 grip *kºam-a or *qºam-a 409 *k’ab-a 451 grip, firm *d¨ar-a 248 grip, to *kºam- or *qºam- 409 groan *k’um-a 496 *k’¦as-a 542 *ɢar-a 555 *ɢar-ɢar-a 555 groan, to *k’um- 496 *k’¦as- 542


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *ɢar- 555 *ɢar-ɢar- 555 groove *k¦ºar-a 516 ground (= pulverized) *mol-a 888 ground (= pulverized), anything *t’aħ-a 218 *ɢar-a 556 ground (= land) *ʔer-a 658 *ʔul-a 675 ground (= land), elevated *t’id-a 236 group of two *yor-a 779 grow, to *bir- 49 *buw- 80 *čºan- 332 *gar¨- 369 *kºaw- 432 *ħal¨- 703 *ħon- 732 *ʕag- 737 *war- 805 *man- 860 *man-V-g- 861 *mik’- 885 *liʔ- 949 *riy- 961 grow faint, to *dow-, *doy- 168 *sën¨- 278 grow old, to *pºar¨- 106 *tºan¨- 191 *sën¨- 278 *˜ºay- 596 *watº- 811 grow thin, to *tºaħ- 184 grow (up), to *näʕ-V-r- 926 grow weak, to *dow-, *doy- 168 grow weary, to *dow-, *doy- 168 growl, to *gur- 393 growling noise or sound *gur-a 393 grown *ħal¨-a 703 grown, that which is *čºan-a 332 growth *bul-¦-a 64 *bun-a 69 *buw-a 80 *t¨ºiq’¦-a 258

220 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *gar¨-a 369 *kºaw-a 432 *ħaw-a 723 *mik’-a 885 *riy-a 961 grub (= maggot; larva) *k¦ºur-a 527 grumble *k’um-a 496 grumble, to *ɢar- 555 *ɢar-ɢar- 555 guard *war-a 802 guard, to *kºal- 405 guardian *man-a 859 guardianship *war-a 802 *man-a 859 guidance *ħak’-a 699 guide *day-a 160 guide, to *ħak’- 699 gully *ɢal-a 552 gulp down, to *x¦el¨- 770 gurgle, to *gur- 393 gurgling noise or sound *gur-a 393 gush *sör-a 284 *k’¦al¨-a 532 gush forth, to *sör- 284 *ʒar- or *ǯar- 292 *k’¦al¨- 532 *nab- 906 gushing forth *nab-a 906 gut *gur-a 392 gutter (= ditch) *ɢar-a 557 habitation *ʔil-a 660 hair *˜ºiʕ-r-a 598 hair, (body) *bur-a 77 hair, (young, fine, or soft) *wun-d-a (~ *won-d-a) 829 half *ʔar-a 635 half-witted *ʔeb-a 651 hammer *t’äd-a 261 hammer, to *t’äd- 261 hand *pºaŋ-a 95 *pºaŋ-k¦º-a 95 *där-a 248 *gab-a 349 *gar-a 365


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *gas¨-a 371 *gat’-a 372 *kºapº-a 415 *k’aw-a 481 *k’om-a 488 *ħar-a 714 *man¨-a 864 hand, flat of *pºal-a 89 hand(ful) *kºam-a or *qºam-a 409 *ʔam-a 623 handful *k’er-a 486 *ħapº-a 711 handful, to take a *k’er- 486 handle *pºaŋ-a 95 *pºaŋ-k¦º-a 95 handle, to *pºaŋ- 95 *pºaŋ-V-k¦º- 95 *gas¨- 371 hang, to *dul¨- 173 *˜ºuŋ-V-kº- 601 hang up, to *˜ºuŋ-V-kº- 601 hanging *dul¨-a 173 happen, to *bad- 7 happening *bad-a 7 happiness *mak’-a 846 happy, to be *pºar- 97 *mak’- 846 harass, to *dal¨- 149 hard *t’är-a 266 *kºar-a 422 *ʕur-a 758 hard, that which is *t’är-a 266 hard, to be *t’är- 266 *ʕur- 758 hard work *qºad-a 565 hardness *tºik’-a 206 *kºar-a 422 *ʕur-a 758 harm *dar-a 152 *t’aw-a 231 *däb-a 245 *g¦an-a 504 *˜ºar-a 593

222 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *ʔakº-a 616 *waŋ-a 800 *nikº-a 920 harm, to *dar- 152 *d¨ab- 245 *g¦an- 504 *ʔakº- 616 harm, to cause *˜ºar- 593 harmful *dar-a 152 harnessed *˜’im-a 605 harsh (= coarse; rough) *bar-a 29 harsh (= pungent) *kºar-a 424 harsh (of sounds) *kºatº-a 431 harsh, to be *bar- 29 harsh screech, to make a *kºatº- 431 harsh sound, to make a *kºatº- 431 harshness (= coarseness; roughness) *bar-a 29 harshness (= pungency) *kºar-a 424 haste *pºatº-a 110 hasten, to *pºar- 101 *pºat’- 111 *pºir- 118 *gir¨- or *ɢir¨- 384 hasten in advance, to *pºar- 100 hasty *ʔor-a 669 hatch eggs, to *ʔow-V-ħ- 673 hatchet *ħaʒ-a 727 haulm *kºal¨-a 407 hawk *ħur-a (and/or *ħer-a ?) 734 hawk-like bird *ħur-a (and/or *ħer-a ?) 734 haze (= mist) *p’ul¨-a 140 he *si- (~ *se-) 322 he-goat *buk’-a (~ *bok’-a) 61 head *pºa—-a 96 *tºal-a 187 *kºir-a 439 *q’aw-a 576 *ɢ¦al-a 580 headman *ħak’-a 699 health *s¨ol-a 283 *ħal¨-a 703 healthy *ħal¨-a 703 heap *tºul-a 212


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *gid-a or *ɢid-a 377 *kºaw-a 432 *kºum-a 446 *k’um-a 497 heap up, to *kºum- 446 *waš- 810 heaped up *waš-a 810 hear, to *sad¨- 312 *kºul- 444 *q’¦ar¨- or *q’¦ur¨- 587 hearing *sad¨-a 312 heart *kºar-a 426 heat *pºek¦º-a 113 *dul-a 171 *tºepº-a 203 *t’ab-a 216 *t’ay-a or *t’iy-a 233 *s¨ax¦-a 277 *kºay-a 435 *kºum-a 448 *g¦ir-a 507 *k’¦am-a 533 *k’¦at’-a 543 *ʔak¦º-a 620 *ħas-a 718 *wal-a 791 *war-a 806 heat of sun *hag-a 680 heat, to *pºek¦º- 113 *pºaħ- 129 *pºaħ-V-w- 129 *kºay- 435 heat up, to *dul- 171 *t’ab- 216 *s¨ax¦- 277 *wal- 791 heated *˜ºer-a 597 heaviness *k’¦ur¨-a 549 heavy *k’¦ur¨-a 549 heavy, to be *k’¦ur¨- 549 heavy rain *nab-a 907 heed *guw-a 395 heed, to *guw- 395

224 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number he-goat *kºab-a 399 heifer *pºar-a 102 *pºur-a 127 height *bir-a 49 *bir-g-a 49 *t’al-a 222 *sal-a 317 *kºaw-a 432 *kºil¨-a 438 *ħon-a 732 held *ʔam-a 623 her [oblique] *si- (~ *se-) 322 her [possessive] *-si (~ *-se) 322 herd *man-a 860 herd of small animals *ʕuw-a (~ *ʕow-a) 760 herdsman *man-a 859 hero *pºar-a 100 hide (= animal skin) *pºač’-a 82 *pºal-a 130 *kºar-a 419 *k’¦oy-a 548 *nakº-a 912 hide, to *pºal- 93 *tºum- 213 *kºal¨- 408 *ħag- 696 *¦am- 772 high *bir-g-a 49 *t’al-a 222 *sal-a 317 *kºil¨-a 438 high, to be *bir-V-g- 49 *ʕal- 739 high, to make *k’ul- 494 *ʕam- 742 *ʕam-V-d- 742 high place *bir-g-a 49 high rank *˜ºir-a 600 higher in rank, to be *ħar- 715 higher in status, to be *ħar- 715 highest part *war-a 805 highest person *ner-a 917 highest point *gub-a 386


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *k’ul-a 494 *ʕal-a 739 *ʕam-a 742 *ʕam-d-a 742 *mun-a 891 highest thing *ner-a 917 highly esteemed *mag-a 839 hill *tºul-a 212 *t’id-a 236 *kºil¨-a 438 *mal-a 847 him *si- (~ *se-) 322 hind part *dub-a 169 *k’¦ad-a 529 hinder, to *t’ad- 217 hindquarters *ʕar-a 747 hindrance *t’ad-a 217 his *-si (~ *-se) 322 hit *tºapº-a 192 *k’¦aħ-a 530 *lax¦-a 948 hit, to *tºapº- 192 *t’aw- 231 *d¨ab- 245 *g¦an- 504 *k’¦aħ- 530 *q’¦al- 583 *nikº- 920 *lax¦- 948 hitting, the act of *lax¦-a 948 (hoar)frost *tºow-a 210 hoarse, to be *qºar¨- 568 hold *bar-a 31 *pºid-a 115 *kºal-a 405 *kºam-a or *qºam-a 409 *k’ab-a 451 *ʔam-a 623 *ʕap’-a 746 hold, to *pºid- 115 *k’aw- 481 *man¨- 864 hold (closely or tightly), to *ʔam- 623

226 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number hold back, to *kºal- 405 hold firmly, to *d¨ar- 248 hole *bi˜º-a 54 *pºutº-a 136 *dur-a 180 *t¨ºal-m-a 255 *k¦ºar-a 516 *ʔakº-a 617 *haŋ-a 688 *ħal¨-a 704 hole, to make a *dur- 180 hollow (= cave) *kºay-w-a 436 *k’um-a 499 *k¦ºar-a 516 *ħal¨-a 704 hollow out, to *gal- 354 *k¦ºar- 516 *xat’- 765 hollowing out, the act of *gal-a 354 home *man-a 858 honey *bay-a 41 *kºan¨-a ~ *kºin¨-a ~ *kºun¨-a 413 *mad-w-a 838 *mal-a 850 honor *mag-a 839 hoof *kºab-a 400 hook *tºakº-a 185 *gam-a 361 *kºon-k’-a, *kºok’-a 443 *˜ºuŋ-kº-a 601 hook together, to *tºakº- 185 hook up, to *˜ºuŋ-V-kº- 601 hooked, that which is *k’un-a 500 horn *kºir-a 439 hot *pºek¦º-a 113 *t’ab-a 216 *kºum-a 448 hot (of taste) *kºar-a 424 hot, to be *s¨am- 273 *k’¦am- 533 *ʔak¦º- 620 *ʔepº- 657 *ħas- 718


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number hot, to be or become *s¨ax¦- 277 *kºay- 435 *kºum- 448 *g¦ir- 507 hot, to make *s¨ax¦- 277 house *pºar-a, (?) *pºur-a 103 *q’¦ad-a 581 *ʔil-a 660 *man-a 858 howl *ɢar-a 555 *ɢar-ɢar-a 555 *waʕ-a 782 *wal-a 788 howl, to *ɢar- 555 *ɢar-ɢar- 555 hubbub *q’¦al-a 582 *wal-a 788 hump *bun-a 69 *p’ul-a 139 *tºaw-a 201 *k’ar-a 478 *k’um-a 499 hunch *ɢub-a 564 (hunger) *bad-a 8 hunger *wal-a 792 hunt wild animals, to *guw- 396 *guw-V-r- 396 hurl, to *q’¦al- 584 *ʕam- 743 hurling *q’¦al-a 584 hurry *pºatº-a 110 hurry, to *gir¨- or *ɢir¨- 384 hurry, to be in a *pºar- 101 *pºir- 118 hurt, to *q’¦al- 583 *ʔakº- 616 husband *ʔar-a 636 husband’s sister *k’el-a 482 husk *pºat’-a 112 I *ʔa- (~ *ʔə-), *ʔi- (~ *ʔe-) 607 *wa- (~ *wə-) 780 *mi (~ *me) 881 *na (~ *nə) 900

228 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number ibex *ʔar-a 638 ice *gil-a 379 idea *t’¨iŋ-a 270 *saħ-a or *šaħ-a 314 *ʕeŋ-a 751 ignite, to *ʕal- 740 ignoble, to be *ʔek’- 653 ill, to be *gal- 358 ill, to become *daw- 157 ill, to fall *mar¨- 874 illness *gal-a 358 *mar¨-a 874 illustrious *mag-a 839 illustrious, to be *˜ºir- 600 *mag- 839 immature *¦il-a 773 immerse in water, to *mus¨- 898 *mus¨-V-k’- 898 immerse into, to *t’al- 221 immersion *t’al-a 221 *mus¨-a 898 *mus¨-k’-a 898 impediment *t’ad-a 217 in addition to *bi 46 *da- (~ *dǝ-) 142 in front of, to be *mun- 891 in the middle of *matº- or *metº- 875 in-law, (elder) male *t’ay-a 232 in-law, female *kºal-a 403 *k’el-a 482 incise, to *k’ir- or *k’ur- 487 *wur¨- 831 incision *tºar-a 195 *kºar-a 418 *˜ºar-t’-a 595 *ħaʒ-a 727 *xat’-a 765 incisions, to make *˜ºar-V-t’- 595 increase *bar-a 26 *bul-¦-a 64 *gar¨-a 369 *ħaw-a 723 *waš-a 810


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *mik’-a 885 *riy-a 961 increase, to *bun-V-g- 69 *gar¨- 369 *kºaw- 432 *ħaw- 723 *war- 805 *waš- 810 *maħ- 842 *mal- 848 *man- 860 *man-V-g- 861 *mik’- 885 *riy- 961 increase (in number), to *maʔ- 836 increased *waš-a 810 increment *waš-a 810 indefinite pronoun stem *ma- (~ *mǝ-), *mi- (~ *me-), *mu- (~ *mo-) 833 inferior *kºatº-a 430 inflammation *dar¨-a 154 inflate, to *bul- 62 *bun- 69 *pºuš- 128 *pºuw- 137 *kºaw- 432 inflation *bul-a 62 *kºaw-a 432 initiate, to *bad- 10 initiation *bad-a 10 injure, to *dar- 152 *d¨ab- 245 *g¦an- 504 *qºal- 566 *˜ºar- 593 injury *dar-a 152 *tºar-a 195 *t’aw-a 231 *d¨ab-a 245 *gar-a 366 *g¦an-a 504 *qºal-a 566

230 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *˜ºar-a 593 *waŋ-a 800 *nikº-a 920 inquiry *saħ-a or *šaħ-a 314 (insane, to be) *dul- 172 (insane, to drive someone) *dul- 172 insane, to become *ʔeb- 651 (insanity) *dul-a 172 insect *k¦ºur-a 527 inside of anything *wat’¨-a 813 inside, the *k’¦ar-b-a 539 instigate, to *bad- 10 instrument, sharp *t¨ºal-a 254 insufficiency *k’al-a 459 *nus¨-a 923 insufficient *k’al-a 459 insuffient, to be *ʔek’- 653 intention *ʕeŋ-a 751 interior *k’¦ar-b-a 539 interior of anything *wat’¨-a 813 interrogative pronoun stem *k¦ºa- (~ *k¦ºǝ-) 524 *ʔay-, *ʔya- 645 *mi- (~ *me-) 880 interrogative/relative particle *na- (~ *nə-) 903 intoxicated *tºar-a 199 inundation *wel¨-a 819 investigation *saħ-a or *šaħ-a 314 *kºal-a 406 invitation *q’¦at¨º-a 588 invocation *k’ar-a 475 *q’¦at¨º-a 588 inward part *k’¦ar-b-a 539 irritate, to *nad¨- 909 irritating *nad¨-a 909 irritating, to be *nad¨- 909 irritation *nad¨-a 909 issue (= offspring) *pºir-a 117 issue (from), to *ʒar- or *ǯar- 292 it *si- (~ *se-) 322 itch *gar-b-a 368 its *-si (~ *-se) 322 jab *˜ºak¦º-a 591 jab, to *ʒer- or *ǯer- 293


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number jar *kºapº-a 416 javelin *ʒer-a or *ǯer-a 293 jaw *gen-a 373 *k’an-a 466 *k’apº-a and/or *k’epº-a 472 *ɢat’¨-a 561 *q’ab-a 570 jawbone *k’apº-a and/or *k’epº-a 472 join, to *gid- or *ɢid- 377 join (together), to *rakº- 954 join together, to *dab- 144 *dar- 151 *tºakº- 185 *k’ačº- 453 *k’atº- 479 *ɢam- 554 *˜’im- 605 join two things together, to *kºol¨- 442 joined together *dar-a 151 *˜’im-a 605 joined together, to be or become *t’¨ar- 265 joining *dab-a 144 joining (together), the act of *rakº-a 954 joint *k’aŋ-a 470 *k’en¨-a 483 joke, to *ʒak’- 291 journey *pºar-a 104 *ʔay-a 646 *naʕ-a 905 journey, to *naʕ- 905 joy *pºar-a 97 *mak’-a 846 judge, to *sad¨- 312 judgment *day-a 159 *sad¨-a 312 judgment, sound *ħakº-a 697 juice *šaw-a 340 jumping *raq’-a 957 jut out, to *gar¨- 370 *mun- 891 keen, to be *ħakº- 697 keeper *war-a 802 kid *gad-a 352

232 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number kill, to *g¦an- 504 *q’¦al- 583 *ħal- 700 killing *d¨ab-a 245 *qºatº-a 569 *q’¦al-a 583 *ħal-a 700 kind (= benevolent) *bar-a 34 kind, to be *bar- 34 kindle, to *bud- 56 *ʕal- 740 kindness *bar-a 34 kinsman *ʔar-a 637 kite *ħur-a (and/or *ħer-a ?) 734 knead (clay), to *diqº- 166 knee *b[e]r-a 44 knife *sakº-a 315 *č’ir-a 337 *šar-a 339 *k¦ºar-a 515 *k’¦at’-a 544 *˜ºar-a 594 *waħ-a 784 *waŋ-a 800 *miʔ-a 882 knob *k’aŋ-a 470 *k’um-a 499 knock *t’uk’-a 241 *k’an-a 468 *k’ud-a 491 *k’¦ad-a 528 knock, to *tºapº- 192 *t’uk’- 241 *t¨ºum- 260 knot *kºatº-a 428 *k’ačº-a 453 *k’aŋ-a 470 *k’en¨-a 483 know, to *ʔil- 662 *ʕey- 752 knowledge *baw-a 39 known *ʕey-a 752 known, to make *c’ar- or *č’ar- 306


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *kºal- 406 *war- and/or *wir- 807 labor *daw-a 156 *kºam-a 410 labor, to *kºam- 410 *k’acº- 452 lack *bad-a 8 *gaʔ-a 346 *k’al-a 459 *ʔek’-a 653 *ħiw-a, *ħiy-a 729 lack, to *ħiw-, *ħiy- 729 lacking *gaʔ-a 346 *k’al-a 459 lacking, to be *ʔek’- 653 ladle *kºay-a 436 lake *mor-a 889 lament, to *k’um- 496 lamentation *k’ar-a 475 *k’um-a 496 *wal-a 788 land (= countryside) *q’an-a 574 land (= earth; ground) *ʔul-a 675 *mag-a 840 land, any piece of *lam-a 941 *lam-d-a 941 language *t’il-a 238 *kºil-a 437 lap (up), to *lab- 932 *las¨-, *lis¨-, *lus¨- 942 lap up, to *lakº- 937 lard *s¨il-a 279 large *bir-a 49 *ħal¨-a 703 *maʔ-a 836 *mik’-a 885 large amount *kºum-a 446 *man-g-a 861 large fish *k¦ºal-a 514 large quantity *g¦an-a 505 *maʔ-a 836 large quantity or amount *bul-a 62 largeness *bir-a 49

234 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number lax *dow-a, *doy-a 168 laxity *dow-a, *doy-a 168 lay, to *kºay- 434 lay down, to *lag- 933 lay waste, to *ħal- 700 *ħul- 733 laying down, the act of *lag-a 933 lead, to *wad- 783 leader *pºar-a 100 *day-a 160 *ħak’-a 699 leading, the act of *wad-a 783 leak *dun-a 178 leak, to *dun- 178 *k’¦al¨- 532 leak out, to *ʒar- or *ǯar- 292 lean (= emaciated) *c’aw-a 307 *c’aw-l¨-a 307 lean, to be or become *c’aw- 307 *c’aw-V-l¨- 307 lean down (= bend down), to *c’ar- 305 lean, that which is *c’aw-a 307 *c’aw-l¨-a 307 learning *kºal-a 406 leather *k’¦oy-a 548 leave, to *t’aw- 230 *čºal- 331 *gaʔ- 346 leave behind, to *čºal- 331 *gaʔ- 346 leaving *bar-a 37 left behind *gaʔ-a 346 leg *lakº-a 938 leisure *čºal-a 331 leasure, at *čºal-a 331 length *tºan¨-a 190 *t’al-a 222 *ʔut’-a 679 *war-a 804 lengthen, to *ʔut’- 679 *mad- 837 *mat’- 876 lessen, to *tºaħ- 184


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *k¦ºar- 517 let go, to *t’aw- 230 *čºal- 331 level *pºal-a 88 level, that which is *pºal-a 88 liberated *her-a and/or *hor-a 693 lick, to *t’al- 220 *lakº- 937 *lak’-, *lik’-, *luk’- 940 *las¨-, *lis¨-, *lus¨- 942 licking *t’al-a 220 *lakº-a 937 *lak’-a, *lik’-a, *luk’-a 940 lie (= recline), to *kºay- 434 lie down, to *bad- 9 *nak¦º- 913 *lam- 941 *lam-V-d- 941 life *ħay-a 725 *ħay-w-a 725 *ʕan-a 744 *napº-a, *nipº-a, *nupº-a 914 lift, to *tºul- 212 *k’ul- 494 *ʕam- 742 *ʕam-V-d- 742 *xaŋ- 763 lift (up), to *ni˜º- 921 lift up, to *sal- 317 *kºil¨- 438 *hal- 683 *ʕar-V-g- 748 lifting, the act of *ni˜º-a 921 light (= luminosity) *bah-a 13 *bar-a 33 *bud-a 56 *t’ay-a or *t’iy-a 233 *ʔel-a 654 *wal¨-a 794 *wil¨-a 822 *law-a 945 lightning *bar-a 33 like (= as) *wa- (~ *wə-) 781

236 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number like, to *mal- 849 like, to be (= to resemble) *sam- 318 likeness *sam-a 318 limit *mad-a 837 *mat’-a 876 lip *las¨-a, *lis¨-a, *lus¨-a 942 liquid *šuw-a 345 *šuw-l-a 345 *maw-a 878 list (= enumerate), to *t’il- 237 listen, to *sad¨- 312 *kºul- 444 little *k’al-a 459 littleness *k’al-a 459 live, to *ʔil- 660 *ħay- 725 *ħay-V-w- 725 *ʕan- 744 living *ʔil-a 660 load *t’an-a 224 *ʔan-a 626 *wig-a 821 load tightly together, to *t’an- 224 load up and go, to *ʔan- 626 location *ʔin-a (~ *ʔen-a) 663 lofty *bir-g-a 49 loneliness *kºay-a 433 *kºay-w-a 433 *xol-a 766 lonely *xol-a 766 long *t’al-a 222 *ʔut’-a 679 long for, to *haw- 690 long-lasting *tºan¨-a 190 long-lasting, to be *tºan¨- 190 look, to *war- 802 look at, to *day- 159 *gal- 356 loop *c’ur-a 310 *sak’¦-a 316 lord *pºar-a 100 *ʔad-a 611 lose one’s mind, to *ʔeb- 651


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number lose one’s way, to *ʔeb- 651 loss *gaʔ-a 346 *gupº-a 391 *ʔek’-a 653 loud clatter *ɢad-a 550 *ɢad-ɢad-a 550 loud noise *ɢad-a 550 *ɢad-ɢad-a 550 *x¦ir-a 771 loud noise, to make a *ɢad- 550 *ɢad-ɢad- 550 *x¦ir- 771 loud rumble *ɢad-a 550 *ɢad-ɢad-a 550 loud sound, to make a *ɢad- 550 *ɢad-ɢad- 550 love *pºar-a 97 low *pºul-a 124 *lam-a 941 *lam-d-a 941 low, to be *lam- 941 *lam-V-d- 941 lower *kºatº-a 430 *ħal-a 702 lower part *kºatº-a 430 *ħal-a 702 lower place *kºatº-a 430 lower thing *kºatº-a 430 lower, to *ħal- 702 lowest part of anything *ʔul-a 675 lowest part or region (of anything) *bud-a 57 lowland *lam-a 941 *lam-d-a 941 lowly, to be *ʔek’- 653 low-lying ground *lam-a 941 *lam-d-a 941 lump *bun-a 69 *p’ul-a 139 *tºaw-a 201 *k’ar-a 478 *k’um-a 497 *k’um-a 499 lust *man¨-a 862

238 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number lust after, to *man¨- 862 luster *ʔel-a 654 *wal¨-a 794 lying down *bad-a 9 maceration *tºaħ-a 184 mad *ʔeb-a 651 (mad, to be) *dul- 172 (mad, to drive someone) *dul- 172 mad, to go *ʔeb- 651 (madness) *dul-a 172 madness *ʔeb-a 651 maggot *k¦ºur-a 527 magnificence *mag-a 839 make, to *daw- 156 *tºikº- 205 *kºam- 410 *k¦ºey- 523 make an effort, to *woy- 827 make clear, to *c’ar- or *č’ar- 306 *kºal- 406 make fast, to *dab- 144 make fun of, to *ʒak’- 291 make known, to *c’ar- or *č’ar- 306 *kºal- 406 *war- and/or *wir- 807 make something, tool used to *tºikº-a 205 make sport, to *ʒak’- 291 making something, the act of *tºikº-a 205 malady *mar¨-a 874 *muŋ-a 893 *nus¨-a 925 male *kºum-a 447 *ʔar-a 636 *war-a 801 *man¨-a 863 male (human or animal) *g[e]n-d-a 374 *mar-a 867 male animal *war-a 801 male genitals *pºas¨-a 109 male in-law, (elder) *t’ay-a 232 male relative *ʔay(y)a 649 male relative, (elder) *t’ay-a 232 male relative, older *ʔakºkºa 619


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *ʔatºtºa 641 male relative, (older) *ʔaŋ(ŋ)a 633 male of certain animals *daqº-a 150 male of small, hoofed animals *buk’-a (~ *bok’-a) 61 male sheep *kºab-a 399 malevolent *dar-a 152 malicious *nad¨-a 909 malicious, to be *nad¨- 909 mallet *k’an-a 468 man *kºum-a 447 *ʔar-a 636 *war-a 801 *man¨-a 863 man, (young) *mar-a 867 man, old *p’ap’-a 138 manifest *wil¨-a 822 manifest, to *wil¨- 822 manifestation *wil¨-a 822 manner *ħar-a 713 manslaughter *q’¦al-a 583 many *baǯ-a 42 *pºal-a 90 *ʔapº-a 634 *maʔ-a 836 *mak’-a 845 *mal-a 848 *man-g-a 861 many, to be *baǯ- 42 *maʔ- 836 marsh *mar-a 872 mark off, to *miħ- 884 mash, to *nad¨- 908 mashed, anything *nad¨-a 908 mass *k’um-a 497 massacre *wel-a 817 massive *tºik’-a 206 massiveness *tºik’-a 206 master *pºar-a 100 *ʔad-a 611 *ħar-a 715 mastery *ħin-kº-a 728 mat *kºatº-a 428 *net’¨-a 918

240 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number mature *pºar¨-a 106 *ʕatº-a 749 mature, to *bul-V-¦- 64 *pºar¨- 106 *n¨aʕ-V-r- 926 maturity *bul-¦-a 64 *pºar¨-a 106 *ʕatº-a 749 me *ʔa- (~ *ʔə-), *ʔi- (~ *ʔe-) 607 *wa- (~ *wə-) 780 *mi (~ *me) 881 *na (~ *nə) 900 mead *mad-w-a 838 meadow *wel¨-a 818 meager *k’al-a 459 meal (= food; repast) *ʔakº-a 615 *ʕun¨-a 757 mean (= nasty) *pºul-a 124 *nad¨-a 909 mean (= nasty), to be *nad¨- 909 measure *mad-a 837 *mat’-a 876 *miħ-a 884 measure, to *miħ- 884 measure out, to *mad- 837 *mat’- 876 measurement *xal-a 762 *mad-a 837 *mat’-a 876 *miħ-a 884 melt, to *ɢar- 556 melted *ɢar-a 556 memory *gun-a 390 mentally sharp, to be *ħakº- 697 method *ħar-a 713 midday heat *hag-a 680 middle *k’¦ar-b-a 539 *matº-a or *metº-a 875 might *gad-a 350 *wak’-a 785 *mag-a 839 mighty *gad-a 350 *ʔab-a 609


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *ʔad-a 611 mighty, to be *ʔad- 611 *mak’- 845 mighty, to be or become *gad- 350 milk *mam(m)a, *mema 834 *mal-a 851 mincing, the act of *k’ep’-a 484 mind *san-a or *šan-a, *sin-a or *šin-a, *sun-a or *šun-a 319 *gun-a 390 minute (= small) *nus¨-a 923 minute (= small), to be *nus¨- 923 misery *muŋ-a 893 misfortune, exclamation of *hay 692 mist *p’ul¨-a 140 *ħag-a 696 mistaken, to be *mal- 855 misty *ħag-a 696 mix, to *bul- 66 *k’al- 461 mix together, to *k’atº- 479 mix up, to *bul- 66 mixed colors, that which is *bul-a 67 mixture *bul-a 66 *k’atº-a 479 moan *k’um-a 496 *k’¦as-a 542 moan, to *k’um- 496 *k’¦as- 542 mock, to *ʒak’- 291 mockery *ʒak’-a 291 moist *šuw-a 345 *šuw-l-a 345 *mat’-a 877 *nat’-a 916 moist, to be *mat’- 877 moisten, to *t’al¨- 223 *wal- 790 *wet’- 820 *nat’- 916 *laħ- 935 *law- 947

242 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *rek’- 960 moistness *nat’-a 916 *laħ-a 935 moisture *šuw-a 345 *šuw-l-a 345 *wal-a 790 *mat’-a 877 mold *lip’-a 950 mold, to *lip’- 950 mold (clay), to *diqº- 166 moment *ʔam-a 624 mommy *ma(a) 834 more *ʔapº-a 634 more, that which is *ʔapº-a 634 more, to be *ʔapº- 634 moreover *ʔapº- 634 morning *dil¨-a 164 morsel *bal-a 20 *ʔakº-a 615 *mol-a 888 morsel bitten *˜’ar-s-a 603 mortar *ħur-a 735 *mol-a 888 mosquito *k’uɢ-n-a (~ *k’oɢ-n-a) 493 most prominent (person or thing) *xaŋ-tº-a 764 most prominent, that which is *xaŋ-a 763 most prominent part *mun-a 891 most prominent person *ner-a 917 most prominent thing *ner-a 917 mother *da 143 *da-da- 143 *ʔam(m)a 625 *ʔan¨a 630 *ʔay(y)a 648 *ʔema 655 *ʔen¨a 656 *ma(a) 834 *mam(m)a, *mema 834 motion *qºad-a 565 motion, any rapid *ʔor-a 669 *raq’-a 957 motion, to be in *qºad- 565 motion, to put into *qºad- 565


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number mound *tºul-a 212 mount, to *ʔor¨-V-g- 671 *ʕar-V-g- 748 mountain *t’id-a 236 *ʕal-a 739 *mal-a 847 mountain-goat *ʔar-a 638 mounting *ʔor¨-g-a 671 *ʕar-g-a 748 mourning *k’um-a 496 mouth *ham-a 687 *haŋ-a 688 mouth, to take into the *ham- 687 move, to *gir¨- or *ɢir¨- 384 *k’al- 461 *qºad- 565 *ʕatº- 749 *rag- 952 move about, to *k¦ºal- 509 move away from, to *ʔot’- 672 move back and forth, to *raq’- 957 move hastily, to *ʔor- 669 move out of the way, to *ʔot’- 672 move quickly, to *pºat’- 111 *ʔekº- 652 *ʔor- 669 *ħapº- 712 *raq’- 957 move rapidly, to *pºatº- 110 *k¦ºatº- 520 *ʔor- 669 move swiftly, to *pºar- 101 *pºir- 118 *gir¨- or *ɢir¨- 384 move to or toward, to *ʔot’- 672 movement *gir¨-a or *ɢir¨-a 384 *qºad-a 565 *rag-a 952 movement, rapid *k¦ºatº-a 520 *ʔekº-a 652 movement, violent *ʔekº-a 652 movement away from *ʔot’-a 672 movement to or toward *ʔot’-a 672

244 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number much *baǯ-a 42 *pºal-a 90 *k’an-a 467 *mak’-a 845 *mik’-a 885 much, to be *baǯ- 42 mucous, dried *pºakº-a 84 mud *diqº-a 166 mulberry *mur-a 896 multitude *kºum-a 446 *ɢam-a 554 *man-a 860 *man-g-a 861 mumble *k’¦as-a 542 mumble, to *k’¦as- 542 munch, to *k’ep’- 484 murder *q’¦al-a 583 *wed-a 816 *nikº-a 920 murmur *k’¦as-a 542 *ɢar-a 555 *ɢar-ɢar-a 555 *mur-a 897 *mur-mur-a 897 murmur, to *k’¦as- 542 *mur- 897 *mur-mur- 897 musical instrument *bir-a 50 mutilated *mur-a 894 mutter, to *ɢar- 555 *ɢar-ɢar- 555 my *ʔiya 667 name *ǯaħ-a 327 nape of the neck *k’apº-a 473 narrow *ħan-g-a 709 narrow, to make *ħan-V-g- 709 near *gid-a or *ɢid-a 377 near to, to draw *ʔan¨- 628 nearness *ʔan¨-a 628 neck *qºar¨-a 568 *q’el-a 577 *q’¦ur-a 589 *x¦el¨-a 770


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *makº-a 843 need *bad-a 8 *gaʔ-a 346 *ʔek’-a 653 *ħiw-a, *ħiy-a 729 needs fulfilled, to have all *tºir- 207 *tºir-V-pº- 208 need, to stand in *ħiw-, *ħiy- 729 needy *k’al-a 459 negative/prohibitive particle *ʔe 650 *ma(ʔ)- (~ *mə(ʔ)-) 835 *na (~ *nə), *ni (~ *ne), *nu (~ *no) 904 nerve *s¨ir-a 281 net *kºatº-a 428 *net’¨-a 918 news *war-a and/or *wir-a 807 next *mal-a 853 nick (= incision; notch) *ħaʒ-a 727 night *rum-a 964 nighttime *nak¦º-a 913 nip, to *t’¨ipº- 271 nip off, to *k’ir- or *k’ur- 487 nipple *diy-a 167 *ʒuʒ-a 298 *ʕim-a 754 no *ʔe 650 *ma(ʔ)- (~ *mə(ʔ)-) 835 *na (~ *nə), *ni (~ *ne), *nu (~ *no) 904 nobility *mag-a 839 noble *ħar-a 715 nobleman *ħar-a 715 noise *baħ-a 14 *bar-a 36 *bug-r-a 60 *daw-a 155 *gal-a 357 *kºal-a 404 *kºaŋ-a 414 *kºil-a 437 *q’¦al-a 582 *waʕ-a 782

246 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *wal-a 788 *mur-a 897 *mur-mur-a 897 noise, (rustling or rumbling) *t’¨ar-a 268 noise, loud *ɢad-a 550 *ɢad-ɢad-a 550 *x¦ir-a 771 noise, to make *baħ- 14 *bug-V-r- 60 *daw- 155 *t’¨ar- 268 noise, to make a *kºal- 404 *kºaŋ- 414 *kºil- 437 *mur- 897 *mur-mur- 897 noise, to make a loud *ɢad- 550 *ɢad-ɢad- 550 *x¦ir- 771 noise, to utter a *bar- 36 noisy, to be *gal- 357 nose *san-a or *šan-a, *sin-a or *šin-a, *sun-a or *šun-a 319 not *ʔe 650 *ma(ʔ)- (~ *mə(ʔ)-) 835 *na (~ *nə), *ni (~ *ne), *nu (~ *no) 904 notch *dal-a 147 *k’ir-a or *k’ur-a 487 *ħaʒ-a 727 notch, to *dal- 147 *k’ir- or *k’ur- 487 *ħaʒ- 727 nothing *ʔal-a 622 notice *gun-a 390 *guw-a 395 notice, to *baw- 39 *gun- 390 *guw- 395 *ʕen- 750 noticeable, that which is *xaŋ-a 763 notion *ʕeŋ-a 751


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number nourish, to *pºin¨- 116 *k’al- 457 nourishing *pºin¨-a 116 nourishment *pºaħ-a 83 *pºin¨-a 116 *k’al-a 457 *˜’ar-s-a 603 *ʔit’-a 665 now *ʔam-a 624 *nu 922 number *xal-a 762 numerous *ʔapº-a 634 *mal-a 848 *man-g-a 861 numerous, to be *baǯ- 42 nurse, to *k’¦an- 534 *mam-, *mem- 834 *mal- 851 nurse (a child), to *man- 856 nurture, to *pºin¨- 116 nutriment *k’al-a 457 obscure *bal-a 18 obscure, to *dum- 176 *ħag- 696 obscure, to be or become *bal- 18 obscurity *bal-a 18 *k’ar-a 476 observation *guw-a 395 *k’an¨-a 471 *raʔ-a 951 *raʔ-y-a 951 *rak’-a 956 observe, to *baw- 39 *guw- 395 *k’an¨- 471 *war- 802 *rak’- 956 observes, that which *k’an¨-a 471 observing, the act of *k’an¨-a 471 obstacle *t’ad-a 217 obstruct, to *t’ad- 217 obstruction *t’ad-a 217 obtain, to *sag- or *šag- 313

248 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number obtained *ʔam-a 623 obvious, to be or become *gal- 356 occur, to *bad- 7 odor *ʕut’-a 759 odor, to give off a strong *dïpº- 252 offer, to *ħin-V-kº- 728 offering *ħin-kº-a 728 offspring *pºas¨-a 109 *pºir-a 117 *k’an-a 465 *ʔum-a 677 *näpº-a 929 (oil) *pºul¨-a 126 oil *mar-a 870 ointment *mar-a 870 old *bul-a 68 *tºan¨-a 191 *sën¨-a 278 *ǯaw-a 329 *gir¨-a 383 *k’er-a 485 *ʕatº-a 749 *watº-a 811 old, to be or become *gir¨- 383 old, to become *bul- 68 *k’er- 485 old, to grow *pºar¨- 106 *tºan¨- 191 *sën¨- 278 *˜ºay- 596 *watº- 811 old age *tºan¨-a 191 *sën¨-a 278 *gir¨-a 383 *k’er-a 485 *˜ºay-a 596 *ʕatº-a 749 old man *p’ap’-a 138 old person *sën¨-a 278 *gir¨-a 383 *k’er-a 485 old woman *p’ap’-a 138 (older) female relative *ʔaŋ(ŋ)a 632


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number (older) male relative *ʔaŋ(ŋ)a 633 older female relative *ʔakºkºa 618 *ʔema 655 older male relative *ʔakºkºa 619 *ʔatºtºa 641 older relative (male or female) *ʔat’¨a 642 on *ʔan¨- 629 *ʕal- 739 on fire, to be *hag- 680 on top of *ʕal- 739 *xaŋ- 763 one *ʔoy-a 674 one [indefinite pronoun stem] *ma- (~ *mǝ-), *mi- (~ *me-), *mu- (~ *mo-) 833 ooze, to *k’¦al¨- 532 open *pºal-a 88 *pºitº-a 121 open, that which is *pºal-a 88 open, to *ban- 23 *pºitº- 121 *haŋ- 688 open, to be *pºitº- 121 *wel¨- 818 open, to burst *pºitº- 121 open land *bar-a 38 *wel¨-a 818 open space *pºal-a 88 *pºitº-a 121 *wel¨-a 818 open surface *pºal-a 88 open the mouth, to *haŋ- 688 opening *bad-a 5 *ban-a 23 *pºačº-a 81 *pºitº-a 121 *pºutº-a 136 *dur-a 180 *t¨ºal-m-a 255 *haŋ-a 688 oppose, to *mar- 866 opposite side *t¨ºin-a 257 oppress, to *bad- 7

250 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *dal¨- 149 *hak’- 682 oppressed *dal¨-a 149 oppressed, to be *ħag- 695 opression *bad-a 7 *hak’-a 682 *ħag-a 695 or *ʔaw-, *ʔwa- (~ *ʔwə-) 643 *ħar¨- 717 order *woy-kº-a 828 order, to arrange in *woy-V-kº- 828 order, to put in *woy-V-kº- 828 ordinary, to be *ʔek’- 653 origin *pºit’¨-a 122 originate, to *bad- 10 origination *bad-a 10 other *t¨ºin-a 257 *hal-a 684 *mal-a 853 other [indefinite pronoun stem] *ma- (~ *mǝ-), *mi- (~ *me-), *mu- (~ *mo-) 833 other side *t¨ºin-a 257 *hal-a 684 otherwise *hal- 684 outcry *q’¦al-a 582 outdoor area *ʔut’-a 679 outer covering *k’¦oy-a 548 outgrowth *dar¨-a 154 *ʕag-a 737 outpour *baʕ-a 1 *bal-a 19 outside of, to go *gus- 394 outside, to make to go *gus- 394 outsider *gus-a 394 outstrip, to *pºar- 100 oven *ʔepº-a 657 over (= above) *ʔan¨- 629 *ʕal- 739 *xaŋ- 763 over (= above), that which is *ʔapº-a 634 over (= above), to be *ʔapº- 634 *ħar- 715


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number overflow *ʔib-a 659 overflow, to *bal- 19 *bul- 62 *bun- 70 *k’¦al¨- 532 *ʔib- 659 *ħaw- 722 overshadow, to *t’¨al- and/or *t’¨il- 263 *ħag- 696 overtake, to *pºar- 100 overturn, to *maq¦º- 865 *mar- 868 overturned *hapº-a 689 overturning *hapº-a 689 *maq¦º-a 865 ox *k’¦ow-a 547 pacify, to *t’um- 243 pack *bag-a 12 pack tightly together, to *t’an- 224 pack together, to *hak’- 682 packed tightly together *t’an-a 224 pain *pºal¨-a 94 *tºal¨-a 188 *gal-a 358 *k’acº-a 452 *hak’-a 682 *wal-a 792 *mir-a 887 *muŋ-a 893 *nikº-a 920 *nus¨-a 925 pain, to be in *gal- 358 *muŋ- 893 *nus¨- 925 pain, to cause *mir- 887 *muŋ- 893 painful, to be *pºal¨- 94 pair *kºol¨-a 442 *yor-a 779 pair, to *kºol¨- 442 palm (= flat of the hand) *pºal-a 89 palpitate, to *pºatº- 110 pan *gub-a 387

252 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number pant, to *šaw- 341 parched *˜ºer-a 597 part *pºar-a 98 *pºas¨-a 108 *dun¨-a 179 *cºal-a 302 *šiħ-a 343 *ʔar-a 635 part, to *law- 946 part asunder, to *ʔar- 635 part cut off *law-a 946 parted *ʔar-a 635 partridge (onomatopoeic bird name) *k’ak’-a 456 pass, to *pºar- 104 pass (of time), to *watº- 811 pass across, to *pºar- 104 pass over, to *pºar- 104 passage *pºar-a 104 *qºad-a 565 *mar-a 869 passion *man¨-a 862 path *qºad-a 565 *ʔiy-a 666 paw *man¨-a 864 pay attention, to *guw- 395 *ʕen- 750 pay-back *kºap’-a 417 pay back, to *kºap’- 417 payment *k¦ºar-a 519 *k¦ºey-a 522 peace *t’um-a 243 *ʔan¨-a 627 peace, to be at *ʔan¨- 627 peaceful *t’um-a 243 *ʔan¨-a 627 peak (= pinnacle) *gab-a 348 *gar¨-a 370 *kºir-a 439 *q’¦ar-a 585 *ʕal-a 739 peep, to *c’ir¨- 309 peer at, to *gal- 356 peg *tºakº-a 185


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *t’ul¨-a 242 *˜ºuŋ-kº-a 601 pelt (= animal skin) *nakº-a 912 penis *bul-a (~ *bol-a) 63 *pºas¨-a 109 *kºum-a 447 *man¨-a 863 perceive, to *san- or *šan-, *sin- or *šin-, *sun- or *šun- 319 *gun- 390 *k’an¨- 471 *raʔ- 951 *raʔ-V-y- 951 perceived, that which is *san-a or *šan-a, *sin-a or *šin-a, *sun-a or *šun-a 319 perceives, that which *san-a or *šan-a, *sin-a or *šin-a, *sun-a or *šun-a 319 *k’an¨-a 471 perceiving *raʔ-a 951 *raʔ-y-a 951 perceiving, the act of *k’an¨-a 471 perception *san-a or *šan-a, *sin-a or *šin-a, *sun-a or *šun-a 319 *gun-a 390 *k’an¨-a 471 *raʔ-a 951 *raʔ-y-a 951 period (of time) *wan-a 797 perish, to *bad- 9 *gupº- 391 *mar¨- 874 perish, to cause to *ħul- 733 perplex, to *dul- 172 perplexed, to be *diɢ- 163 *dul- 172 *makº- 844 *mal- 855 perplexity *diɢ-a 163 *dul-a 172

254 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *mal-a 855 perturbation *k’al-a 461 *ɢal-a 553 pestle *ħur-a 735 pestle, grinding *k’¦ar-a 538 (pick)axe *gad-a 351 *gar-a 366 pick, to *k’er- 486 *ħac’- 694 pick up, to *k’ul- 494 picked *ħac’-a 694 *lak’-a 939 picking, the act of *ħac’-a 694 piece *cºal-a 302 *gad-a 351 *kºas-a 427 *mol-a 888 piece broken off *bi˜º-a 54 piece cut off *dum-a 174 *dun¨-a 179 *k’ir-a or *k’ur-a 487 *k¦ºar-a 515 pierce, to *bur- 73 *dal- 147 *tºar- 195 *ʒer- or *ǯer- 293 *cºag- 299 *˜ºak¦º- 591 *xat’- 765 *mir- 887 *nag- 910 piercing (of sounds) *kºatº-a 431 pile *kºaw-a 432 pile up, to *tºul- 212 *kºum- 446 pimple *pºul¨-a 125 pinch *bit’¨-a 53 pinch, to *t’¨ipº- 271 pit *kºay-w-a 436 *k¦ºar-a 516 *wur¨-a 831 point out, to *kºal- 406 place *dag-a 145


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *ʔas¨-a 640 *ʔin-a (~ *ʔen-a) 663 place, to *dag- 145 *daw- 156 *day- 158 *kºay- 434 *ʔas¨- 640 place down, to *lag- 933 place, to put in *dag- 145 placed *ʔas¨-a 640 placed, to be *kºay- 434 placing down, the act of *lag-a 933 plain (= evident) *gal-a 356 plain, to be *ʔek’- 653 plait, to *t’an- 225 *kºatº- 428 *ħaw- 724 plaited, anything *t’an-a 225 plaited, that which is *kºatº-a 428 plaiting, the act of *ħaw-a 724 plane, to *tºar- 198 plank *č’ir-a 337 play (a musical instrument), to *bir- 50 play (a wind instrument), to *ʒim- or *ǯim- 296 play about, to *ʒak’- 291 playing (a musical instrument) *bir-a 50 playing (a wind instrument) *ʒim-a or *ǯim-a 296 pleasant *mal-a 849 pleasant, to be *mak’- 846 pleasantness *mal-a 849 pleased, to be *pºar- 97 pleasing *mal-a 849 pleasure *mak’-a 846 plenty *tºir-pº-a 208 *gam-a 362 *ħapº-a 711 *maʔ-a 836 plenty, to have *tºir- 207 *tºir-V-pº- 208 pluck, to *pºid- 131 *t’ar-V-pº- 229 *k’er- 486 *ħac’- 694

256 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number pluck off, to *pºid- 131 *gal- 353 *k’al¨- 463 pluck out, to *pºid- 131 *k’al¨- 463 plucked *ħac’-a 694 plucking *t’ar-pº-a 229 plucking, the act of *pºid-a 131 *ħac’-a 694 plug *ʒag-a 289 plum *bir¨-q’-a 52 plunder *s¨il¨-a 280 plunge *mus¨-a 898 *mus¨-k’-a 898 plunge, to *ʕam- 741 plunge in water, to *mus¨- 898 *mus¨-V-k’- 898 plunge into, to *t’al- 221 point (= tip) *bar-a 27 *dud-a 170 *gar¨-a 370 *q’¦ar-a 585 point of time *ʔam-a 624 point out, to *war- and/or *wir- 807 pointed *ʔad¨-a 612 pole *ɢar¨-a 558 polish, to *mel- 879 *mol- 888 pool *mor-a 889 poplar *wir-a 824 portion *bay-a 40 *pºar-a 98 *pºas¨-a 108 *šiħ-a 343 *xal-a 762 *wan-a 797 possessions *ħapº-a 711 post-positional intensifying

and conjoining particle *k¦ºa- (~ *k¦ºǝ-) 508 pot (= container) *gal-a 355 *gub-a 387 *k’ud-a (~ *k’od-a) 492 *k¦ºar-a 518


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number pound, to *dar- 152 *tºapº- 192 *t’aħ- 218 *t’apº- 226 *t’uk’- 241 *t¨ºum- 260 *t’¨ad- 261 *cºaħ- 300 *gin- 381 *k’an- 468 *k’¦ad- 528 *k’¦aħ- 530 *ħur- 735 *was¨- 809 pound (earth), to *diqº- 166 pounded *k’¦aħ-a 530 pounding *cºaħ-a 300 pounding, the act of *cºaħ-a 300 *gin-a 381 *was¨-a 809 pour, to *baʕ- 1 *ban- 22 *laħ- 935 pour out, to *ʔib- 659 pour over, to *bal- 19 *ʔib- 659 pouring *ʔor-a 669 *laħ-a 935 poverty *k’al-a 459 power *gal-a 360 *ʔab-a 609 *ħal¨-a 703 *wak’-a 785 *wal-a 786 *woy-a 827 *mag-a 839 *mak’-a 845 powerful *ʔad-a 611 *ħal¨-a 703 *mag-a 839 *mak’-a 845 powerful, to be *gal- 360 *ʔad- 611

258 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *mak’- 845 pray, to *pºir- 134 prayer *pºir-a 134 precede, to *pºar- 100 prepare, to *ħar- 713 *rakº- 954 preparing, the act of *rakº-a 954 presence *k’al-a 462 present (= gift) *t’ox¦-a 239 *ħin-kº-a 728 present, to *ħin-V-kº- 728 presently *nu 922 press, to *tºal¨- 189 *ʒag- 289 *čºečº- 333 *wal- 792 *nad¨- 908 *n¨am- 928 press between the fingers, to *bit’¨- 53 press forward, to *pºar- 100 press (in), to *˜’ukº- 606 press in, to *tºur- 215 *k’¦aħ- 530 press together, to *tºik’- 206 *c’ur- 310 *gid- or *ɢid- 377 *k’um- 497 *˜’im- 605 *hak’- 682 press with the hand, to *kºapº- 415 pressed, that which is *čºečº-a 333 pressed close together *gid-a or *ɢid-a 377 pressed down, to be *ħag- 695 pressed tightly together *t’an-a 224 pressed together *k’¦aħ-a 530 *˜’im-a 605 pressing *ʒag-a 289 *n¨am-a 928 pressing, the act of *čºečº-a 333 pressure *bit’¨-a 53 *tºal¨-a 189 *tºik’-a 206 *tºur-a 215


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *k’um-a 497 prick *cºag-a 299 prick, to *bi˜º- 54 *dal- 147 *cºag- 299 *˜ºak¦º- 591 *xat’- 765 prickly *ʔad¨-a 612 private parts (male or female) *q’al¨-a 572 proceed, to *buw- 79 *ʔay- 646 *ʕatº- 749 proclaim, to *bakº- 16 proclamation *bakº-a 16 *k’ar-a 475 procure, to *k¦ºar- 519 procurement *k¦ºar-a 519 produce *k’an-a 465 produce, to *čºan- 332 *k’an- 465 produced *k’an-a 465 produced, that which is *čºan-a 332 progenitor *man¨-a 863 project, to *gar¨- 370 prominence *did-a 161 prominent, that which is most *xaŋ-a 763 prong *˜ºak¦º-a 591 pronominal base of uncertain deictic function *gi- (~ *ge-) 375 proper *t’akº-a 219 *süw-a 287 proper, to be *t’akº- 219 *süw- 287 *c’al- or *č’al- 304 property *ħapº-a 711 propriety *t’akº-a 219 *süw-a 287 prosper, to *riy- 961 prosperity *bul-¦-a 64 *buw-a 80 *c’al-a or *č’al-a 304 *g¦an-a 505 *riy-a 961

260 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number protect, to *pºin¨- 116 *t’aq’- 227 *man- 859 protector *man-a 859 protection *pºin¨-a 116 *kºad-a 401 *kºal-a 405 *man-a 859 *rak’-a 956 protrude, to *gar¨- 370 *mun- 891 protuberance *did-a 161 *tºaw-a 201 *k’ar-a 478 *ʕag-a 737 protuberance, rounded *bun-a 69 proximity *ʔan¨-a 628 puff *bul-a 62 *bul-bul-a (> *bum-bul-a) 65 *pºuš-a 128 *pºuw-a 137 puff of air *ʔupº-a 678 puff, to *pºuw- 137 puff up, to *bar- 26 *bul- 62 *bun- 69 *pºuš- 128 *pºuw- 137 puffed up *šiw-a 344 pull *tºar-a 193 pull, to *bir- 51 *pºid- 131 *tºar- 193 pull apart, to *p’ut’- 141 pull off, to *bir- 51 *pºid- 131 *k’al¨- 463 *x¦al- 767 pull (out), to *wal- 787 pull out, to *pºid- 131 *k’al¨- 463 *x¦al- 767 pulled along, something *tºar-a 193


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number pulled-off piece or part *p’ut’-a 141 pulling *wal-a 787 pulling, the act of *pºid-a 131 pulling off, the act of *bir-a 51 *x¦al-a 767 pulling out, the act of *x¦al-a 767 pulverized, anything *t’aħ-a 218 pungency *kºar-a 424 pungent *ǯem-a 330 *kºar-a 424 pungent, anything that is *ǯem-a 330 pungent smell *d¨ipº-a 252 punishment *sad¨-a 312 puppy *kºuwan-a or *kºun-a 450 pure *hal-a 683 purify, to *ʔal- 621 purity *hal-a 683 pursue, to *mar- 869 purulent, to be *k’¦iy- 546 pus *k’¦iy-a 546 push *tºal¨-a 189 *ʒag-a 288 *˜’ukº-a 606 push, to *tºak’- 186 *tºal¨- 189 *ʒag- 288 *˜’ukº- 606 push in, to *tºur- 215 *k’¦aħ- 530 pushed together *k’¦aħ-a 530 pustule *bug-a 59 put *ʔas¨-a 640 put, to *dag- 145 *daw- 156 *day- 158 *kºay- 434 *ʔas¨- 640 put down, to *lag- 933 put in order, to *woy-V-kº- 828 put in place, to *dag- 145 put in place, to be *dag- 145 put into motion, to *qºad- 565 put out (fire), to *k’¦as- 541

262 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number put (together), to *rakº- 954 put together, to *k’ačº- 453 *ɢam- 554 *ħar- 713 putting down, the act of *lag-a 933 putting (together), the act of *rakº-a 954 putrid *q’ar¨-a 575 putrid, to be *k’¦iy- 546 putrid thing *q’ar¨-a 575 puzzled, to be *diɢ- 163 quaking *rag-a 952 quarrel *bur-a 72 *ɢal-a 553 *qºatº-a 569 *mar-a 866 quarrel, to *bur- 72 *mar- 866 quick *ʔor-a 669 quiet *t’um-a 243 *k’¦ar-a 537 *ʔan¨-a 627 *rom-a 962 quiet, to *t’um- 243 quiet, to be *ʔan¨- 627 quiet, to become *ħam- 706 quietness *t’um-a 243 quietude *k’¦ar-a 537 *rom-a 962 quiver, to *pºatº- 110 radiance *hal-a 683 *wil¨-a 822 radiant *bah-a 13 *hal-a 683 radiate, to *ʔel- 654 *hal- 683 rag *kºatº-a 429 rage *bur-a 74 *ʔekº-a 652 rage, to *bur- 74 *ʔekº- 652 raging, to be *ʔekº- 652 rain *duw-a 182 *ʒar-a or *ǯar-a 292


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *k’¦ar¨-a 540 *mat’-a 877 *rek’-a 960 rain, to *sig- 323 *ħaw- 722 raindrop *ʒil-a or *ǯil-a 294 raindrops *duw-a 182 rain, heavy *nab-a 907 raining *sig-a 323 rainy weather *k’ar-a 476 raise, to *tºul- 212 *k’ul- 494 *ʕam- 742 *ʕam-V-d- 742 *ʕar-V-g- 748 *xaŋ- 763 *war- 805 *ni˜º- 921 raise up, to *sal- 317 raised *did-a 161 *dim-a 165 *sal-a 317 *kºil¨-a 438 raised place *dim-a 165 raising, the act of *ni˜º-a 921 rake *tºar-a 198 *gar-a 367 raking *tºar-a 198 ram (= male sheep) *daqº-a 150 *dur-a 181 *kºab-a 399 *ʔar-a 638 rapid *ʔor-a 669 rapid motion, any *ʔor-a 669 *raq’-a 957 rapid movement *k¦ºatº-a 520 *ʔekº-a 652 rasping sound, to make *qºar¨- 568 ravine *ɢal-a 552 reach, to *d¨iʔ- 251 *t¨ºar- 256 *sag- or *šag- 313 *ħin-V-kº- 728

264 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number ready, to make *ħar- 713 rear *ʕar-a 747 reckon, to *man- 857 reckoning *man-a 857 recognition *k’an¨-a 471 *ʕey-a 752 recognize, to *ʕey- 752 recognized *ʕey-a 752 recollection *gun-a 390 recompense *kºap’-a 417 *muy-a 899 recount, to *t’il- 237 *man- 857 rectitude *woy-kº-a 828 red-hot, to be *k’¦am- 533 reduce, to *tºaħ- 184 *k’al- 459 *k¦ºar- 517 *ʔek’- 653 reduced, to be or become *k’al- 459 reduction *ʔek’-a 653 reed *č’am-a 335 *kºal¨-a 407 refuse (= rubbish) *gud-a 388 regard, to *gal- 356 regard attentively, to *rak’- 956 related *ʔar-a 637 relative (= kinsman) *ʔar-a 637 relative (male or female), older *ʔat’¨a 642 relative (male or female), younger *ʔina or *ʔiŋa 664 relative, (elder) male *t’ay-a 232 relative, female *ʔay(y)a 648 *nat’-a 915 relative, male *ʔay(y)a 649 relative on the mother’s side *ħaw-a 721 relative pronoun stem *k¦ºi- (~ *k¦ºe-) 524 *ʔay-, *ʔya- 645 *ma- (~ *mə-) 880 relax, to *q’¦ad- 581 *rom- 962 relaxation *rom-a 962 relaxed *rom-a 962 release, to *čºal- 331


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number released *čºal-a 331 remain, to *k’¦ar- 537 *ħam- 706 *wan- 796 *man- 858 remembrance *gun-a 390 remote *t’aw-a 230 remoteness *t’aw-a 230 removal *s¨il¨-a 280 *k’al¨-a 463 remove, to *tºekº- 202 *k’al- 459 *k’al¨- 463 removing, the act of *tºekº-a 202 rend, to *t’ar- 228 *t’ar-V-pº- 229 rending *t’ar-pº-a 229 renown *kºul-a 444 repay in kind, to *k¦ºey- 522 repayment *k¦ºey-a 522 *muy-a 899 report *war-a and/or *wir-a 807 *watº-a 812 repose *k’¦ar-a 537 request *pºir-a 134 *t’el-a 235 request, to *pºir- 134 *t’el- 235 requital *muy-a 899 resemble, to *sam- 318 reservoir *mor-a 889 residence *buw-a 79 resound, to *daw- 155 respire, to *ʕan- 744 rest (= relaxation) *šaw-a 342 *k’¦ar-a 537 *ʔan¨-a 627 *rom-a 962 rest, at *k’¦ar-a 537 rest, to *šaw- 342 *k’¦ar- 537 *q’¦ad- 581 *ħam- 706

266 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *rom- 962 rest, to be at *ʔan¨- 627 restful *ʔan¨-a 627 resting place *kºay-a 434 *k’¦ar-a 537 *ħam-a 706 restraint *kºal-a 405 return *muy-a 899 return an equal measure, to *k¦ºay- 522 return, to *muy- 899 returned, that which is *muy-a 899 reveal, to *c’ar- or *č’ar- 306 revolve, to *c’ur- 310 *k¦ºal- 510 *wal¨- 793 revolves, that which *k¦ºal-a 511 rid of, to get *čºal- 331 ridicule *ʒak’-a 291 rift *t¨ºal-m-a 255 right (= correct) *woy-kº-a 828 rigid *t’är-a 266 rigid, that which is *t’är-a 266 rigid, to be *t’är- 266 rigid, to be or become *gar¨- 370 rind *kºar-a 419 ring (= circle) *kºar-a 420 rinse, to *ħal- 701 rip *t’ar-a 228 *t’är-a 267 rip apart, to *šar- 339 rip off, to *bir- 51 ripe *pºar¨-a 106 ripen, to *bul-V-¦- 64 *pºar¨- 106 ripeness *pºar¨-a 106 ripening *bul-¦-a 64 *dïʔ-a 251 ripped *t’är-a 267 ripping off, the act of *bir-a 51 rise, to *bir- 49 *did- 161 *kºil¨- 438 *k’ul- 494


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *ħon- 732 *ʕar-V-g- 748 *xaŋ- 763 *ni˜º- 921 rise (up), to *ʔor¨- 670 rise high, to *ʕal- 739 rising motion *ʔor¨-a 670 rising movement *ʔor¨-a 670 river *k’¦al¨-a 532 *ɢal-a 552 *ħapº-a 712 road *mar-a 869 roaming *k¦ºal-a 509 roar *k’ar-a 475 *k’um-a 496 *ɢar-a 555 *ɢar-ɢar-a 555 roar, to *gur- 393 *ɢar- 555 *ɢar-ɢar- 555 roaring noise or sound *gur-a 393 roast, to *gub- 387 *k’al- 460 *˜ºer- 597 roasted *˜ºer-a 597 roasting *k’al-a 460 rob, to *kºal¨- 408 robbery *s¨il¨-a 280 rock (= stone) *k’al-a 458 *k’¦ar-a 538 rocking (= swaying; shaking) *rag-a 952 rod *ɢar¨-a 558 roil (water), to *dal- 148 roll, to *g¦ar- 506 *k¦ºal- 510 *ɢ¦al- 579 *wal¨- 793 *mar- 868 *ratº- 958 roll down, to *c’ar- 305 rolling *g¦ar-a 506 *ratº-a 958 rolling down, the act of *c’ar-a 305

268 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number rolls, that which *k¦ºal-a 511 room *raw-ħ-a 959 rope *pºir-a 119 *k’aŋ-a 469 *k¦ºir-a 525 *mar-a 868 root (of tree or plant) *sïr-a 282 rot, to *k’¦ed- 545 *q’ar¨- 575 rot away, to *was¨- 809 rotate, to *k’aw- 480 rotation *wal¨-a 793 rotten *q’ar¨-a 575 rotten thing *q’ar¨-a 575 rotten, that which is *t’äm-a 264 rough *bar-a 29 *t’är-a 266 *kºar-a 423 rough, that which is *t’är-a 266 rough, to be *bar- 29 *t’är- 266 roughness *bar-a 29 *kºar-a 423 round *p’ul-a 139 *kºar-a 420 *k’aw-a 480 *g¦ar-a 506 *˜’il-a 604 *wal¨-a 793 round object *ɢ¦al-a 579 round object, any *k’aw-a 480 *g¦ar-a 506 round thing or object *˜’il-a 604 round, to be *ɢ¦al- 579 *˜’il- 604 rounded protuberance *bun-a 69 rounded prominence at the end of the

bone forming a ball and a socket joint with the hollow of another bone *ʔom-a 668

rouse, to *wak’- 785 rub, to *tºar- 196 *wal- 792 *mal- 852


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *mel- 879 *mol- 888 rub into, to *mel- 879 *mol- 888 rub smooth, to *mel- 879 *mol- 888 rub (with greast, oil, fat, ointment), to *mar- 870 rubbed *tºar-a 196 rubbing, the act of *mal-a 852 rubbish *gud-a 388 rude *nad¨-a 909 rude, to be *nad¨- 909 ruffle, to *dul- 172 ruffled, to be *dul- 172 ruin *bad-a 9 *pºul-a 124 *k’¦ed-a 545 *ħul-a 733 *wed-a 816 ruin, to *pºul- 124 *k’¦ed- 545 ruined *pºul-a 124 ruler *˜ºir-a 600 *ħak’-a 699 rumble, loud *ɢad-a 550 *ɢad-ɢad-a 550 rumble, to *gur- 393 *k’¦ar¨- 540 rumbling noise or sound *gur-a 393 rumination *k’ep’-a 484 rump *k’uŋ-a 501 run, to *dun- 178 *däw- 249 *t’ör- 272 *gir¨- or *ɢir¨- 384 *ħapº- 712 *mar- 869 *ratº- 958 run after, to *mar- 869 run away, to *her- and/or *hor- 693 run out, to *ʒar- or *ǯar- 292 running *däw-a 249 *t’ör-a 272

270 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *ʔor-a 669 *ratº-a 958 running water *waǯ-a 815 rupture *cºag-a 299 *mur-a 894 ruptured *mur-a 894 sadness *ħag-a 695 safe *söl-a 283 safe, to be *söl- 283 safety *söl-a 283 saliva *tºupº-a 214 same *sam-a 318 satisfied, to be *pºar- 97 *tºir- 207 *tºir-V-pº- 208 savor, to *bir¨- 52 saw (= cutting tool) *gad-a 351 *˜ºar-a 594 *ħaʒ-a 727 say, to *t’eʔ- 234 *t’il- 237 *kºil- 437 *q’¦at¨º- 588 *yan- 776 *war- and/or *wir- 807 *watº- 812 *man- 857 saying *yan-a 776 scab *pºakº-a 84 *gar-b-a 368 scanty *k’al-a 459 scar *gal-a 359 *waħ-a 784 *wed-a 816 scarcity *k’al-a 459 scatter, to *pºar- 99 *duw- 182 *tºar- 194 *siħ- 324 scattered *pºar-a 99 *duw-a 182 *tºar-a 194 scattered about *siħ-a 324


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number scattered about, anything *duw-a 182 scattered about, to be *duw- 182 scattering *ban-a 23 scattering about, the act of *siħ-a 324 scoop out, to *gal- 354 *kºay- 436 scooping out, the act of *gal-a 354 scrape, to *bar- 35 *tºar- 198 *č’ir- 337 *gar- 367 *ħar- 716 *ħok’- 731 *x¦at’- 768 scrapes, that which *gar-a 367 scraping *tºar-a 198 *ħar-a 716 *ħok’-a 731 scraping, the act of *x¦at’-a 768 scratch *č’ir-a 337 *˜ºar-t’-a 595 scratch, to *tºar- 198 *č’ir- 337 *gar- 367 *ħar- 716 *ħok’- 731 *x¦at’- 768 *wur¨- 831 scratches, that which *gar-a 367 scratching *tºar-a 198 *ħar-a 716 *ħok’-a 731 scratching, the act of *x¦at’-a 768 screech, to *kºatº- 431 *k’ar- 475 screeching *kºatº-a 431 sea *yam-a 775 *mor-a 889 seat *ʔas¨-a 640 seated *ħam-a 706 seated, to be *ʔas¨- 640 seclusion *xol-a 766 second *mal-a 853

272 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number section *šiħ-a 343 see, to *˜ºil- or (?) *˜ºir- 599 *ʔil- 662 *ʕen- 750 *raʔ- 951 *raʔ-V-y- 951 seed *bar-a 32 seedling *n¨aʕ-r-a 926 seek, to *mar- 869 seeing *raʔ-a 951 *raʔ-y-a 951 seen *ʕey-a 752 seize, to *pºid- 115 *tºekº- 202 *s¨il¨- 280 *ʒum- or *ǯum- 297 *gab- 349 *gar- 365 *kºam- or *qºam- 409 *k’ab- 451 *k’aw- 481 *k’um- 497 *ʔam- 623 *ʕap’- 746 *wotº- 826 seize hold of, to *bar- 31 seize with the hand, to *kºapº- 415 seize with the teeth, to *k’ab- 451 seized *ʔam-a 623 seizing *ʒum-a or *ǯum-a 297 seizing, the act of *tºekº-a 202 *ʒum-a or *ǯum-a 297 *wotº-a 826 seizure *bar-a 31 *k’ab-a 451 *ʕap’-a 746 self *bey-a 45 semen *pºas¨-a 109 send off, to *ʔan- 626 sensation, burning *pºal¨-a 94 sense *san-a or *šan-a, *sin-a or *šin-a, *sun-a or *šun-a 319


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number sense, to *san- or *šan-, *sin- or *šin-, *sun- or *šun- 319 sensed, that which is *san-a or *šan-a, *sin-a or *šin-a, *sun-a or *šun-a 319 senses, that which *san-a or *šan-a, *sin-a or *šin-a, *sun-a or *šun-a 319 separate (= different) *ʔaŋ-a 631 separate, to *bad- 5 *ban- 23 *pºar- 98 *gal- 353 *kºas- 427 *k’al¨- 463 *ʔaŋ- 631 *ʔar- 635 *law- 946 separate into (equal) parts, to *šiħ- 343 separate into two parts, to *t’uʔ¦- 240 separated *gar-a 366 *ʔar-a 635 separated from, to be *xol- 766 separation *ban-a 23 *šiħ-a 343 *gal-a 353 *kºas-a 427 *k’al¨-a 463 *ʔaŋ-a 631 *law-a 946 separation into two *t’uʔ¦-a 240 separatness *kºay-a 433 *kºay-w-a 433 set (= put; placed) *ʔas¨-a 640 set, to *daw- 156 *kºay- 434 *ʔas¨- 640 set apart, to be *xol- 766 set down, to *kºatº- 430 *lag- 933 set fire to, to *wal- 791 set fire to something, to *bud- 56

274 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number set free, to *čºal- 331 set in motion, to *ʔor- 669 set of two *yor-a 779 set up, to *daw- 156 setting down, the act of *lag-a 933 settle down, to *ħam- 706 settled *ħam-a 706 settled place *pºal-a 91 settlement *pºal-a 91 sever, to *dum- 174 *t’ar- 228 *k’ir- or *k’ur- 487 *ʔar- 635 *law- 946 severance *dum-a 174 severed *ʔar-a 635 sewing *ʕor¨-a 755 sexual intercourse, to have *man¨- 862 sexual organs (male or female) *q’al¨-a 572 shade *t’äl-a and/or *t’ïl-a 263 shadow *t’äl-a and/or *t’ïl-a 263 shaggy *bar-a 29 shaggy, to be *bar- 29 shagginess *bar-a 29 shake, to *pºel- 114 *pºir- 120 *tºar- 200 *gud- 388 *k’al- 461 *k¦ºatº- 520 *ħat’- 720 *ħut’- 736 *naħ- 911 *nükº- 930 *rag- 952 shaken, to be *ħat’- 720 shaking *dul¨-a 173 *k¦ºatº-a 520 *ħat’-a 720 *ħut’-a 736 *nükº-a 930 *rag-a 952 *raq’-a 957


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number shaking (from fear, fright) *tºar-a 200 shape *sam-a 318 share *bay-a 40 *pºar-a 98 *pºas¨-a 108 *dun¨-a 179 *xal-a 762 *wan-a 797 share, to *bay- 40 sharp (= pointed; cutting) *k’¦at’-a 544 *ʔad¨-a 612 sharp (= pungent) *ǯem-a 330 *kºar-a 424 *ɢat’¨-a 560 *ħam-a 705 sharp (= pungent), anything that is *ǯem-a 330 sharp (= pungent), to be *ħam- 705 sharp (of sounds) *kºatº-a 431 sharp instrument *t¨ºal-a 254 sharp instrument used for cutting, any *sakº-a 315 sharp point *ħokº-a 730 sharp-tasting foodstuff, any *ħam-a 705 sharpen, to *ʒag- 290 shatter, to *pºas¨- 108 she *si- (~ *se-) 322 sheep *bag-a 11 *dur-a 181 sheep, (young) *˜ºaħ-a 590 sheep and goats *ʕuw-a (~ *ʕow-a) 760 shell *k’¦oy-a 548 shield *kºad-a 401 shine (= luster; sparkle) *ɢil-a 562 shine, to *bah- 13 *bal- 21 *bar- 33 *daɢ- 146 *dil¨- 164 *t’ay- or *t’iy- 233 *ɢil- 562 *q’al- or *q’el- 571 *ʔel- 654 *hal- 683 *wal¨- 794

276 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *lah- 934 *law- 945 shine brightly, to *hag- 680 shining *bah-a 13 *ɢil-a 562 *hal-a 683 *wal¨-a 794 *lah-a 934 *law-a 945 shiver, to *ħut’- 736 shivering *ħut’-a 736 shoot (= sprout) *n¨aʕ-r-a 926 shoot, to *ʕam- 743 short *k’ut’-a 502 *k¦ºar-a 517 short of *k’al-a 459 shortened *gar-a 366 shortness *k’ut’-a 502 *k¦ºar-a 517 shout *q’¦ar-a or *q’¦ur-a 586 *waʕ-a 782 shout, to *gal- 357 *kºal- 404 *k’ar- 475 *q’¦al- 582 *waʕ- 782 *wal- 788 shove *ʒag-a 288 *˜’ukº-a 606 shove, to *ʒag- 288 *˜’ukº- 606 shove into, to *ʒer- or *ǯer- 293 shower *duw-a 182 shrill (of sounds) *kºatº-a 431 shrill screech, to make a *kºatº- 431 shrill sound, to make a *kºatº- 431 *x¦ir- 771 shrub *ǯag¦-a 326 shut, to *cºukº- 303 *k’apº- 474 sick, to be *nus¨- 925 sick, to be or become *mar¨- 874 sick, to become deathly *daw- 157


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number sickness *daw-a 157 *mar¨-a 874 *nus¨-a 925 side *ʒag-a 290 *gaŋ-a 364 *kºar-a 421 *ʔar-a 635 sieve *saʔ-y-a 311 sift, to *saʔ-V-y- 311 sigh *šaw-a 341 *k’um-a 496 *k’¦as-a 542 sigh, to *pºuš- 128 *šaw- 341 *k’um- 496 *k’¦as- 542 sight *ʕen-a 750 *ʕey-a 752 *raʔ-a 951 *raʔ-y-a 951 silence *dum-a 175 silent *rom-a 962 silent, to be *dum- 175 silliness *ʔeb-a 651 silly *ʔeb-a 651 similar *sam-a 318 simple, to be *ʔek’- 653 sinew *s¨ir-a 281 *s[e]n-a or *š[e]n-a 320 sing, to *bir- 50 singing *bir-a 50 single *ʔoy-a 674 sink, to *ʕam- 741 sink down, to *lam- 941 *lam-V-d- 941 sink into, to *t’al- 221 sister *da 143 *da-da- 143 sister, elder *ʔen¨a 656 sister-in-law *k’el-a 482 *nus¨-a 924 sit, to *ʔas¨- 640 skin *pºač’-a 82

278 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *pºal-a 130 *kºar-a 419 *k’¦oy-a 548 *latº-a 943 skin, (animal) *nakº-a 912 skull *kºapº-a 416 *kºir-a 439 *ɢ¦al-a 580 slack *dow-a, *doy-a 168 slacken, to *dow-, *doy- 168 slackness *dow-a, *doy-a 168 slap *tºapº-a 192 slash *qºal-a 566 *˜ºar-a 594 *waŋ-a 800 slaughter *d¨ab-a 245 *qºatº-a 569 *ħal-a 700 *wel-a 817 *laħ-a 936 slaughter, to *ħal- 700 slay, to *g¦an- 504 *q’¦al- 583 *wel- 817 sleep *bad-a 9 *šaw-a 342 sleep, to *šaw- 342 sleep, to go to *nak¦º- 913 slice *t’ar-a 228 *č’ir-a 337 *˜ºar-a 594 *xat’-a 765 slide, to *ʒil- or *ǯil- 295 *gil- 378 slide down, to *c’ar- 305 sliding *gil-a 378 sliding, the act of *ʒil-a or *ǯil-a 295 sliding down, the act of *c’ar-a 305 sling *q’¦al-a 584 slip, to *gil- 378 slip down, to *c’ar- 305 slippery *ʒil-a or *ǯil-a 295 *gil-a 378


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number slipping, the act of *ʒil-a or *ǯil-a 295 slipping down, the act of *c’ar-a 305 slit *bi˜º-a 54 *k’ir-a or *k’ur-a 487 *˜ºal-a 592 *˜ºar-a 594 slow *dow-a, *doy-a 168 slow, to be *hakº- 681 slow down, to *dow-, *doy- 168 slowly *hakº- 681 slowly, to do or approach something *hakº- 681 slownesss *dow-a, *doy-a 168 *hakº-a 681 sluggish, to be *hakº- 681 sluggishness *hakº-a 681 slumber *šaw-a 342 small *č’ik’-a 336 *gin-a or *ɢin-a 380 *k’ut’-a 502 *nus¨-a 923 small, to be *č’ik’- 336 *gin- or *ɢin- 380 *ʔek’- 653 *nus¨- 923 small piece *t’äkº-a 262 small pieces, to cut into *t’äkº- 262 small quantity *k’al-a 459 small things *č’ik’-a 336 smallness *k’ut’-a 502 *nus¨-a 923 smart, to *pºal¨- 94 smash, to *k’¦ad- 528 smear (with greast, oil, fat, ointment), to *mar- 870 smell *ʕut’-a 759 smell, pungent *dïpº-a 252 smell, to *ʕut’- 759 smoke *p’ul¨-a 140 *duw-a 182 *t’uq’¦-a 244 *k’¦am-a 533 *k’¦at’-a 543 smoke, to *k’¦am- 533 *k’¦at’- 543

280 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number smoke, to give off *p’ul¨- 140 smoky, to be *t’uq’¦- 244 smolder, to *kºum- 448 *k’¦am- 533 *k’¦at’- 543 smoldering *kºum-a 448 smooth *ʒil-a or *ǯil-a 295 *gil-a 378 *mel-a 879 smoothness *mel-a 879 snake *g¦al-a 503 snatch, to *sïl¨- 280 snort *pºuš-a 128 snow *tºow-a 210 snow, to *tºow- 210 snow-storm *tºow-a 210 so-and-so, to be not *ʔal- (perhaps also *ʔel-, *ʔul-) 622 soak, to *šuw- 345 *šuw-V-l- 345 soaked *šuw-a 345 *šuw-l-a 345 soft *mel-a 879 *nus¨-a 923 soft, to be *nus¨- 923 soften, to *mel- 879 *mol- 888 softened *ɢar-a 556 softness *mel-a 879 soil (= earth) *tºor¨-a 209 *ʔul-a 675 soil, to *mar- 871 soiled (= dirty) *k’ar-a 476 *mar-a 871 sole of the foot *ʔul-a 675 solid *tºik’-a 206 *t’är-a 265 *k’¦ur¨-a 549 solid, to be *k’¦ur¨- 549 solidity *tºik’-a 206 *t’är-a 265 *k’¦ur¨-a 549 solitude *kºay-a 433


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *kºay-w-a 433 *ʔoy-a 674 *xol-a 766 somebody [indefinite pronoun stem] *ma- (~ *mǝ-), *mi- (~ *me-), *mu- (~ *mo-) 833 someone [indefinite pronoun stem] *ma- (~ *mǝ-), *mi- (~ *me-), *mu- (~ *mo-) 833 son *säw-a or *sëw-a 275 soot *tºukº-a 211 *t’uq’¦-a 244 sooty, to be *t’uq’¦- 244 sore *gar-b-a 368 sore on the skin *gal-a 359 soul *bey-a 45 sound (= noise) *baħ-a 14 *bar-a 36 *bug-r-a 60 *daw-a 155 *t’eʔ-a 234 *kºal-a 404 *kºil-a 437 *q’¦al-a 582 *wal-a 788 *watº-a 812 *mur-a 897 *mur-mur-a 897 sound, (crackling) *k’ak’- 455 sound, (ringing or tinkling) *kºaŋ-a 414 sound (= healthy) *söl-a 283 sound (= healthy), to be *söl- 283 sound, to *daw- 155 *kºal- 404 *kºaŋ- 414 sound, to make a *bar- 36 *bug-V-r- 60 *kºil- 437 *mur- 897 *mur-mur- 897 sound, to make a loud *ɢad- 550 *ɢad-ɢad- 550 sound judgment *ħakº-a 697

282 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number sour *ǯem-a 330 *ħam-a 705 sour, anything that is *ǯem-a 330 sour, that which is *t’äm-a 264 sour, to be *ħam- 705 sour, to turn *t’äm- 264 sour foodstuff, any *ħam-a 705 space *pºar-a 99 *raw-ħ-a 959 spacious *pºitº-a 121 *raw-ħ-a 959 spacious, to be *raw-V-ħ- 959 spade *gar-a 367 *ɢar-a 557 sparse *k’al-a 459 spark *pºaħ-a 129 *pºaħ-w-a 129 *k’¦as-a 541 sparkle, to *bar- 33 *q’al- or *q’el- 571 speak, to *t’eʔ- 234 *kºil- 437 *q’¦at¨º- 588 *x¦at’- 769 *yan- 776 *war- and/or *wir- 807 *watº- 812 *man- 857 spear *tºar-a 195 *ʒer-a or *ǯer-a 293 spear(head) *waħ-a 784 speech *t’eʔ-a 234 *t’il-a 237 *kºil-a 437 *war-a and/or *wir-a 807 speedy *t’ör-a 272 spend time, to *buw- 79 sperm *pºas¨-a 109 sphere *ɢ¦al-a 579 spike (= barb) *bar-a 27 *˜ºak¦º-a 591 spill *dun-a 178 *ʔib-a 659


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number spill out, to *ʒar- or *ǯar- 292 spill over, to *ʔib- 659 spin around, to *kºar- 420 spirit *bey-a 45 spirited, to be *ʔekº- 652 spit, to *tºupº- 214 spit out, to *wam- 795 spit up, to *wam- 795 spite *qºatº-a 569 spittle *tºupº-a 214 *wam-a 795 spleen *pºal-a 85 splendor *bah-a 13 *ʔel-a 654 *wil¨-a 822 *mag-a 839 split *bad-a 5 *bak’-a 17 *pºačº-a 81 *pºal-a 86 *pºas¨-a 108 *pºil¨-a 132 *dal-a 147 *tºar-a 195 *t’aħ-a 218 *t’¨ar-a 267 *cºal-a 301 *gad-a 351 *˜ºut’-a 602 split, that which is *gad-a 351 split, to *bad- 5 *bak’- 17 *bi˜º- 54 *pºal- 86 *pºas¨- 108 *pºil¨- 132 *dun¨- 179 *tºar- 195 *t’aħ- 218 *t’¨ar- 267 *cºal- 301 *sakº- 315 *šar- 339

284 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *gad- 351 *gar- 366 *k’ir- or *k’ur- 487 *qºal- 566 *˜ºut’- 602 *nag- 910 split (with a tool or weapon), to *bar- 35 split apart, to *bi˜º- 54 *pºačº- 81 *haŋ- 688 split into small pieces, to *k’ep’- 484 split into two parts, to *t’uʔ¦- 240 split open, to *pºačº- 81 *˜ºal- 592 splits, that which *šar-a 339 splitting into small pieces, the act of *k’ep’-a 484 spoil, to *k’¦ed- 545 spoiled, that which is *t’¨am-a 264 spoon *kºay-a 436 sport *ʒak’-a 291 sport, to make *ʒak’- 291 spot *mar-a 871 spotted, that which is *bul-a 67 spray *rek’-a 960 spray, to *rek’- 960 spread *ban-a 23 *bul-a 62 *pºal- 88 *tºal¨-a 188 *tºan¨- 190 *tºar-a 194 spread, to *ban- 23 *pºar- 99 *pºitº- 121 *tºal¨- 188 *tºar- 194 *ħak’- 698 spread about, to *tºar- 194 spread forth, to *s¨or- 284 spread out *pºar-a 99 *tºal¨-a 188 spread out, to *bul- 62 *tºar- 194


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number spring (= stream) *k’¦al¨-a 532 spring forth, to *sör- 284 *ʒar- or *ǯar- 292 sprinkle, to *ban- 22 *t’al¨- 223 *rek’- 960 sprinkle with water, to *siħ- 324 sprinkled *duw-a 182 sprinkled about, anything *duw-a 182 sprinkling *ʒil-a or *ǯil-a 294 *rek’-a 960 sprout *ʕag-a 737 *näʕ-r-a 926 sprout, to *bul-V-¦- 64 *ʕag- 737 *näʕ-V-r- 926 squander, to *bad- 6 squeak, to *c’ir¨- 309 squeeze *bit’¨-a 53 squeeze (out), to *mal- 851 squeeze, to *bit’¨- 53 *čºečº- 333 *näm- 928 squeeze tight, to *ʒag- 289 squeeze together, to *tºik’- 206 *hak’- 682 squeeze with the hand, to *kºapº- 415 squeezed, that which is *čºečº-a 333 squeezing *ʒag-a 289 *näm-a 928 squeezing, the act of *čºečº-a 333 squirrel *wur-a (~ *wor-a) 830 stab *˜ºak¦º-a 591 stab, to *ʒer- or *ǯer- 293 *˜ºak¦º- 591 *waħ- 784 *waŋ- 800 *mir- 887 *nag- 910 stable, to be *dag- 145 stack *tºul-a 212 stack (in a heap), to *tºul- 212 staff *ɢar¨-a 558

286 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number stain *mar-a 871 stain, to *mar- 871 stalk *kºal¨-a 407 *kºan¨-a 412 *ɢar¨-a 558 stand guard over, to *man- 859 stand on end, to *bar- 27 stand out, to *gar¨- 370 *mun- 891 star *q’al-a or *q’el-a 571 startled, to be *ħat’- 720 starvation *wal-a 792 stay, to *k’¦ar- 537 *wan- 796 *man- 858 staying *buw-a 79 steadfast *t’är-a 265 steadfast, to be *man- 858 steal, to *kºal¨- 408 steam *p’ul¨-a 140 *duw-a 182 steam, to give off *p’ul¨- 140 stem *kºal¨-a 407 *kºan¨-a 412 *ɢar¨-a 558 stench *dïpº-a 252 step *ʔot’-a 672 step aside, to *ʔot’- 672 step by step, to do or approach something *hakº- 681 stick *bud-a 58 *kºan¨-a 412 *ɢar¨-a 558 stick out, to *gar¨- 370 stiff *t’är-a 266 stiff, that which is *t’är-a 266 stiff, to be *t’är- 266 stiff, to be or become *gar¨- 370 still (= quiet) *k’¦ar-a 537 *ʔan¨-a 627 *rom-a 962 still, to be *ʔan¨- 627 still, to become *ħam- 706 stillness *k’¦ar-a 537


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *ħam-a 706 sting *cºag-a 299 stink, to *d¨ipº- 252 *q’ar¨- 575 stinking *q’ar¨-a 575 stinking thing *q’ar¨-a 575 stir, to *k’al- 461 *rag- 952 stir up, to *dal- 148 *ɢal- 553 *wak’- 785 stir up trouble, to *dul- 172 stirred up, to be *ɢal- 553 stomach *wat’¨-a 813 stone *pºal-a 87 *kºiw-a 441 *k’al-a 458 *k’¦ar-a 538 stone, grinding *k’¦ar-a 538 stoop down, to *k’um- 498 *lam- 941 *lam-V-d- 941 stooping, the act of *k’um-a 498 stop, to *t’ad- 217 *rom- 962 stoppage *cºukº-a 303 storm *bur-a 74 *sig-a 323 *k’¦ar¨-a 540 storm cloud *nab-a 907 stormy weather *k’¦ar¨-a 540 story *kºul-a 445 stove *gub-a 387 straight *woy-kº-a 828 straightness *woy-kº-a 828 strain *k’acº-a 452 strain, to *k’acº- 452 *muk’- 890 straining (as a woman in labor or as when defecating) *muk’-a 890 stranger *gus-a 394 strangle, to *ħan-V-g- 709 strap *ǯal-a 328

288 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number stream *d¨aw-a 249 *ʒar-a or *ǯar-a 292 *k’¦al¨-a 532 *ħapº-a 712 *mor-a 889 strength *t’¨ar-a 265 *gal-a 360 *g[e]n-d-a 374 *kºar-a 422 *ʔab-a 609 *ħal¨-a 703 *ʕur-a 758 *wak’-a 785 *wal-a 786 *woy-a 827 *mag-a 839 *mak’-a 845 stretch *ban-a 23 *tºal¨-a 188 *tºar-a 194 *rak’-a 955 stretch, to *tºal¨- 188 *tºan¨- 190 *tºar- 194 *ʔut’- 679 *war- 804 *mad- 837 *mat’- 876 *rak’- 955 stretch out, to *tºar- 194 *t’al- 222 *c’al- or *č’al- 304 stretched *tºal¨-a 188 *tºan¨-a 190 *tºar-a 194 *rak’-a 955 stretching, the act of *rak’-a 955 strew, to *tºar- 194 *siħ- 324 strewing about, the act of *siħ-a 324 strewn *duw-a 182 strewn about *siħ-a 324 strewn about, anything *duw-a 182


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number strewn about, to be *duw- 182 strife *˜ºar-a 593 strife, to cause *˜ºar- 593 strike *baħ-a 15 *dal-a 147 *t¨ºal-a 254 *k’an-a 468 *g¦an-a 504 *wed-a 816 strike, to *baħ- 15 *ban- 24 *tºak’- 186 *tºapº- 192 *t’apº- 226 *t’aw- 231 *t’uk’- 241 *d¨ab- 245 *t¨ºum- 260 *t’¨ad- 261 *k’an- 468 *k’ud- 491 *g¦an- 504 *k’¦ad- 528 *k’¦aħ- 530 *qºal- 566 *qºatº- 569 *q’¦al- 583 *ʕakº- 738 *waħ- 784 *waŋ- 800 *nag- 910 *nikº- 920 *laħ- 936 *lax¦- 948 strike fire, to *k’¦as- 541 strike (with a weapon), to *wed- 816 strike (with an instrument), to *gad- 351 strike with a sharp instrument, to *t¨ºal- 254 striking, the act of *ʕakº-a 738 *lax¦-a 948 string *pºir-a 119 *ǯal-a 328 *k’aŋ-a 469

290 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *mar-a 868 strip away, to *k’al¨- 463 strip off, to *k’al¨- 463 stripping away *k’al¨-a 463 stripping off *k’al¨-a 463 strive against, to *mar- 866 strive for, to *win- or *wiŋ- 823 stroke *tºak’-a 186 *tºapº-a 192 *t’apº-a 226 *t’uk’-a 241 *däb-a 245 *cºal-a 301 *k’ud-a 491 *k’¦ad-a 528 *qºal-a 566 *nag-a 910 *lax¦-a 948 stroke, to *mal- 852 stroking, the act of *mal-a 852 strong *t’är-a 265 *kºar-a 422 *ʔab-a 609 *ʔad-a 611 *ħal¨-a 703 *ʕur-a 758 *mag-a 839 *mak’-a 845 *man-g-a 861 strong, to be *gal- 360 *ʔad- 611 *ħal¨- 703 *ʕur- 758 *mak’- 845 strong, to be or become *wal- 786 strong odor, to give off a *dïpº- 252 strongly attached, to be *t’är- 265 struggle *bur-a 72 stuck together, to be or become *t’är- 265 study *kºal-a 406 stuff, to *tºur- 215 *t’an- 224 *ʒag- 289


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number (stupid, to be) *dul- 172 (stupidity) *dul-a 172 stupor *t¨ºum-a 260 succumb, to *ʔeb- 651 such-and-such, to be not *ʔal- (perhaps also *ʔel-, *ʔul-) 622 suck (milk from a breast), to *ʕun¨- 757 suck (out), to *mal- 851 suck, to *diy- 167 *k’¦an- 534 *ʕim- 754 suck, to give *mal- 851 suck milk, to *lab- 932 suck (the breast), to *mam-, *mem- 834 sucking *lab-a 932 sucking, the act of *ʕim-a 754 suckle, to *diy- 167 *k’¦an- 534 *mam-, *mem- 834 *mal- 851 *man- 856 suckling *man-a 856 suffer, to *tºal¨- 188 *gal- 358 *muŋ- 893 *nus¨- 925 suffer, to make to *bad- 7 suffering *bad-a 7 *tºal¨-a 188 *muk’-a 890 *muŋ-a 893 *nikº-a 920 suffering, to be in *muŋ- 893 suffering, to cause *muŋ- 893 suitability *t’akº-a 219 *süw-a 287 suitable *t’akº-a 219 *süw-a 287 suitable, to be *t’akº- 219 *süw- 287 summer *säm-a 273 summit *gub-a 386 *kºir-a 439

292 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *ʕal-a 739 summons *q’¦at¨º-a 588 sun *säx¦-a 277 sunken *ʕam-a 741 sunlight *hag-a 680 sunny, to be *säm- 273 sunset *¦am-a 772 superior *ʔapº-a 634 *ħar-a 715 superior, that which is *ʔapº-a 634 superior, to be *ʔapº- 634 *ħar- 715 supervise, to *rak’- 956 support *kºal-a 405 surge *bal-a 19 *sör-a 284 *wel¨-a 819 surge, to *bal- 19 *wel¨- 819 surge forth, to *sör- 284 surge up, to *ħaw- 722 surpass, to *pºar- 100 *dïʔ- 251 *ʔapº- 634 *maħ- 842 *mik’- 885 surplus *tºir-pº-a 208 *gam-a 362 surprise, exclamation of *hay 692 surround, to *c’ur- 310 surroundings *c’ur-a 310 surrounds, that which *c’ur-a 310 suspend, to *˜ºuŋ-V-kº- 601 sustenance *k’al-a 457 swallow, to *q’el- 577 *q’¦ur- 589 *ʕim- 754 *ʕun¨- 757 swallowing, the act of *ʕim-a 754 swamp *ber-a 43 *mar-a 872 swell, to *bar- 26 *bir- 49


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *bug- 59 *bul- 62 *bul-bul- (> *bum-bul-) 65 *bun- 69 *bun-V-g- 69 *pºuʔ- 123 *pºul¨- 125 *p’ul- 139 *dar¨- 154 *did- 161 *tºaw- 201 *t¨ºiq’¦- 258 *šiw- 344 *gar¨- 369 *kºaw- 432 *g¦an- 505 *ħaw- 723 *ħay-V-t’- 726 *ħon- 732 *maħ- 842 *man- 860 *man-V-g- 861 *mik’- 885 swelling *bar-a 26 *bul-bul-a (> *bum-bul-a) 65 *bun-a 69 *bun-g-a 69 *pºuʔ-a 123 *p’ul-a 139 *dar¨-a 154 *tºaw-a 201 *t¨ºiq’¦-a 258 *šiw-a 344 *gar¨-a 369 *g¦an-a 505 *ħaw-a 723 *ħay-t’-a 726 *ħon-a 732 swelling (on the skin) *pºul¨-a 125 swift *t’¨or-a 272 swiftly, to move *pºar- 101 swim *wuy-a or *Huy-a 832 swim, to *wuy- or *Huy- 832

294 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number swimming *wuy-a or *Huy-a 832 swing back and forth, to *dul¨- 173 swinging *dul¨-a 173 swollen *bun-g-a 69 *p’ul-a 139 *did-a 161 *tºaw-a 201 *šiw-a 344 *ħay-t’-a 726 *man-g-a 861 swollen, that which is *pºul¨-a 126 sword *sakº-a 315 *waħ-a 784 tail *k’¦ad-a 529 take (away), to *tºekº- 202 *s¨il¨- 280 take (with the hand), to *gat’- 372 take (with the hands or arms), to *ħapº- 711 take, to *day- 160 *ʒum- or *ǯum- 297 *k’aw- 481 *ʔam- 623 *wad- 783 *man¨- 864 *ni˜º- 921 take away, to *k’al- 459 *wotº- 826 take by force, to *ʕap’- 746 take care of, to *man- 859 take hold of, to *bar- 31 *pºaŋ- 95 *pºaŋ-V-k¦º- 95 *gar- 365 *k’ab- 451 *ʕap’- 746 *wotº- 826 *lab- 931 take in hand, to *pºaŋ- 95 *pºaŋ-V-k¦º- 95 take with the hand, to *kºapº- 415 taking *ʒum-a or *ǯum-a 297 *lab-a 931 taking, the act of *tºekº-a 202


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *ʒum-a or *ǯum-a 297 *wad-a 783 *wotº-a 826 tale *t’il-a 237 *kºul-a 445 talk (= speech; discourse) *t’il-a 237 *x¦at’-a 769 talk, to *kºil- 437 talkative, to be *watº- 812 tall *bir-a 49 *bir-g-a 49 *t’al-a 222 tall, to be *ʕal- 739 tallness *bir-a 49 (tallow) *pºul¨-a 126 tame *t’um-a 243 tame, to *t’um- 243 tamp (earth), to *diqº- 166 taut *tºar-a 194 tear (= split) *tºar-a 195 *t’ar-a 228 *t’¨ar-a 267 *gal-a 353 *row-a 963 tear, to *pºid- 131 *tºar- 195 *t’ar- 228 *t’ar-V-pº- 229 tear apart, to *p’ut’- 141 *row- 963 tear asunder, to *šar- 339 tear off, to *bir- 51 *pºid- 131 *p’ut’- 141 *gal- 353 *k’al¨- 463 *x¦al- 767 tear out, to *pºid- 131 *k’al¨- 463 *x¦al- 767 tearing *t’ar-pº-a 229 tearing, the act of *pºid-a 131 tearing off, the act of *bir-a 51

296 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *x¦al-a 767 tearing out, the act of *x¦al-a 767 teat *diy-a 167 *ʕim-a 754 teeming *ʔapº-a 634 tell, to *t’il- 237 *kºul- 445 *q’¦at¨º- 588 *war- and/or *wir- 807 tend, to *man- 859 tender *ʔax-a 614 *mel-a 879 tender, to be *ʔax- 614 *ħan- 707 tenderness *ħan-a 707 tendon *sïr-a 281 *s[e]n-a or *š[e]n-a 320 terrified, to be *ħat’- 720 testicle *mun-a 892 *mun-d-a 892 testicles *bul-a (~ *bol-a) 63 that *tºi- (~ *tºe-) 183 *ša- (~ *šǝ-) 338 *kºi- (~ *kºe-) 398 *ʔu- (~ *ʔo-) 608 *mi- (~ *me-) 833 *na (~ *nə), *ni (~ *ne) 902 that one *dï- (~ *dë-) 250 that over there *t¨ºa- 253 *ʔa- (~ *ʔə-) 608 *ʔul- (~ *ʔol-) 676 that yonder *tºu- (~ *tºo-) 183 *kºu- (~ *kºo-) 398 *ʔa- (~ *ʔə-) 608 *ʔul- (~ *ʔol-) 676 *mu- (~ *mo-) 833 that yonder (not very far) *t¨ºa- 253 theft *kºal¨-a 408 their *-si (~ *-se) 322 them *si- (~ *se-) 322 then *ħar¨- 717 therefore *ħar¨- 717 they *si- (~ *se-) 322


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number thick *bar-a 29 *bun-g-a 69 *tºik’-a 206 *t’an-a 224 *k’an-a 467 thick, to be *bar- 29 thickness *bar-a 29 *t’an-a 224 *k’an-a 467 *k’¦ur¨-a 549 (thin) *tºal¨-a 188 thin, to grow *tºaħ- 184 think, to *t’ïŋ- 270 *ʕeŋ- 751 *man- 857 think about, to *saħ- or *šaħ- 314 thinness *tºal¨-a 188 this *tºa- (~ *tºǝ-) 183 *ša- (~ *šǝ-) 338 *kºa- (~ *kºǝ-) 398 *ʔi- (~ *ʔe-) 608 *ma- (~ *mǝ-) 833 *na (~ *nə), *ni (~ *ne) 902 this one *dï- (~ *dë-) 250 thorn *˜ºak¦º-a 591 *ʔad¨-a 612 though *k¦ºay- 521 thought *t’ïŋ-a 270 *saħ-a or *šaħ-a 314 *ʕeŋ-a 751 thrashing *cºaħ-a 300 thrashing, the act of *cºaħ-a 300 thrive, to *riy- 961 throat *qºar¨-a 568 *q’el-a 577 *q’¦ur-a 589 *ħan-g-a 709 *x¦el¨-a 770 throng *ɢam-a 554 throw, to *day- 158 *siħ- 324 *gud- 388 *q’¦al- 584

298 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *ʕam- 743 throw down, to *c’ar- 305 throwing *q’¦al-a 584 throwing about, the act of *siħ-a 324 thrown about *siħ-a 324 thrown aside, that which is *gud-a 388 thrown off, that which is *gud-a 388 thrust *tºal¨-a 189 *tºur-a 215 *k’¦ad-a 528 *˜ºak¦º-a 591 *˜’ukº-a 606 thrust, to *tºal¨- 189 thrust (in), to *˜’ukº- 606 thrust in, to *tºur- 215 thrust into, to *ʒer- or *ǯer- 293 thumb *pºal-a 92 thump *t’uk’-a 241 *k’an-a 468 *k’ud-a 491 thunder, clap of *ɢad-a 550 *ɢad-ɢad-a 550 thunder, to *k’¦ar¨- 540 thunderstorm *k’¦ar¨-a 540 tickle, to *ɢit’- 563 tie *baʕ-a 2 *ban-d-a 25 *bin-a 47 *kºad-a 402 *k’ačº-a 453 *k’ad-a 454 *k’aŋ-a 469 *k¦ºir-a 525 *˜’im-a 605 *rakº-a 953 tie (together), to *ban-V-d- 25 tie, to *baʕ- 2 *t’an- 225 *sak’¦- 316 *ǯal- 328 *kºad- 402 *k’ad- 454 *yaʔ- 774


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *net’¨- 918 *rakº- 953 tie tightly, to *ħan-V-g- 709 *bin- 47 *k’ar- 477 tie together, to *bag- 11 *s¨ir- 281 *c’ur- 310 *k’ačº- 453 *k’aŋ- 469 *k’un- 500 *k¦ºir- 525 tie two things together, to *kºol¨- 442 tied *k’ar-a 477 *˜’im-a 605 *xal-a 761 tied together, that which is *c’ur-a 310 *k’ar-a 477 tight *tºar-a 194 time *ʔam-a 624 time, point of *ʔam-a 624 tip (= point) *dud-a 170 *gab-a 348 *gar¨-a 370 *kºir-a 439 *q’¦ar-a 585 *ʕam-a 742 *ʕam-d-a 742 tipsy *tºar-a 199 tire, to *dal¨- 149 tire out, to *t¨ºum- 260 tired *bul-a 68 *dal¨-a 149 *tºan¨-a 191 *mel-a 879 tired, that which is *bul-a 68 tired, to be or become *was¨- 808 tired, to become *bul- 68 *mel- 879 *mol- 888 tired, to grow *tºan¨- 191 tiredness *dal¨-a 149 to *ʔan¨- 629

300 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number together *kºam- 411 together with *bi 46 *da- (~ *dǝ-) 142 toil *kºam-a 410 toil, to *kºam- 410 tongue *t’il-a 238 *kºil-a 437 *las¨-a, *lis¨-a, *lus¨-a 942 tool used to form something *tºikº-a 205 tool used to make something *tºikº-a 205 tooth *q’am-a 573 *˜’ar-s-a 603 top *tºal-a 187 *s¨ub-a 285 *gab-a 348 *gub-a 386 *kºir-a 439 *ʕam-a 742 *ʕam-d-a 742 topmost part *war-a 805 *mun-a 891 torch *ʕal-a 740 torment, to *dar- 152 *muŋ- 893 torn *t’¨ar-a 267 torn-off piece or part *p’ut’-a 141 torrent *baʕ-a 1 *ʒar-a or *ǯar-a 292 *ħaw-a 722 torrential rain *ħaw-a 722 torture, to *muŋ- 893 toss, to *gud- 388 tossed aside, that which is *gud-a 388 tossed off, that which is *gud-a 388 touch *tºak’-a 186 touch, to *tºak’- 186 *gas¨- 371 *ʔam- 623 touched *ʔam-a 623 towards *ʔan¨- 629 track *k’¦al-a 531 *ʔot’-a 672 *mar-a 869


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number trade *wos-a 825 trade, to *wos- 825 trample, to *tºapº- 192 *t’uk’- 241 tranquil *rom-a 962 tranquil, to become *ħam- 706 tranquility *t’um-a 243 *ʔan¨-a 627 *ħam-a 706 *rom-a 962 travel, to *naʕ- 905 travel on foot, to *lakº- 938 tree *mar-a 873 tree, a kind of *dän-w-a 247 tree, small *ǯag¦-a 326 tree and its fruit *ħas¨-a 719 tremble, to *pºatº- 110 *pºel- 114 *pºir- 120 *tºar- 200 *k’al- 461 *ħat’- 720 *ħut’- 736 *naħ- 911 *nükº- 930 trembling *pºir-a 120 *k’al-a 461 *ħat’-a 720 *ħut’-a 736 *nükº-a 930 *rag-a 952 *raq’-a 957 trembling (from fear, fright) *tºar-a 200 trench *k¦ºar-a 516 *ʔakº-a 617 tribute *kºap’-a 417 trick, to *makº- 844 trickery *makº-a 844 trickle *k’¦al¨-a 532 *wal-a 790 trickle, to *k’¦al¨- 532 trickling *ʒil-a or *ǯil-a 294 trip *ɢal-a 551

302 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number trouble *bad-a 7 *dul-a 172 *k’acº-a 452 *ħag-a 695 *nad¨-a 909 trouble, to be in *muŋ- 893 trouble, to cause *muŋ- 893 trouble, to stir up *dul- 172 troubled, to be *dal- 148 *dul- 172 *ħag- 695 *makº- 844 true *woy-kº-a 828 truncheon *k’an-a 468 try to find out, to *saħ- or *šaħ- 314 try to understand, to *saħ- or *šaħ- 314 tumor *dar¨-a 154 tumult *gal-a 357 turbidity *bul-a 66 turmoil *gal-a 357 turn *bur-a 71 *pºir-a 119 *dar-a 151 *wal¨-a 793 *mal-a 854 *maq¦º-a 865 *law-a 944 *rakº-a 953 turn, to *bur- 71 *pºir- 119 *dar- 151 *c’ur- 310 *čºokº- 334 *k’ar- 477 *g¦ar- 506 *hapº- 689 *ħaw- 724 *wal¨- 793 *mal- 854 *maq¦º- 865 *mar- 868 *mur- 895 *net’¨- 918


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *law- 944 *rakº- 953 *ratº- 958 turn around, to *kºar- 420 *ʕor¨- 755 turn away, to *hapº- 689 turn back, to *hapº- 689 turn gray, (hair) to *pºar¨- 106 turn over, to *mar- 868 turn round, to *k’aw- 480 *maq¦º- 865 *mar- 868 turn together, to *s¨ir- 281 *k’aŋ- 469 turn upside down, to *maq¦º- 865 turned *g¦ar-a 506 turned away from *hapº-a 689 turned back *hapº-a 689 turned together *dar-a 151 turning *ʕor¨-a 755 *ratº-a 958 turning, the act of *čºokº-a 334 *mar-a 868 turning away, the act of *hapº-a 689 turning back, the act of *hapº-a 689 turning over, the act of *mar-a 868 turning round, the act of *mar-a 868 turns, that which *dar-a 151 *k¦ºal-a 511 twilight *rum-a 964 twine *pºir-a 119 twine together, to *k¦ºir- 525 twining *pºir-a 119 twining together, the act of *k¦ºir-a 525 twist *bur-a 71 *pºir-a 119 *k¦ºir-a 525 *ħan-a 708 *maq¦º-a 865 *law-a 944 *rakº-a 953 twist, to *bur- 71 *pºir- 119

304 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *dar- 151 *tºakº- 185 *c’ur- 310 *čºokº- 334 *kºatº- 428 *k’ar- 477 *g¦ar- 506 *ɢub- 564 *ħan- 708 *ħaw- 724 *mal- 854 *maq¦º- 865 *mar- 868 *mur- 895 *law- 944 *rakº- 953 twist around, to *kºar- 420 twist round, to *k’aw- 480 *ʕor¨- 755 twist together, to *bin- 47 *dar- 151 *tºakº- 185 *s¨ir- 281 *k’aŋ- 469 *k¦ºir- 525 *net’¨- 918 twist (together), to *ban-V-d- 25 twisted *kºar-a 420 *g¦ar-a 506 twisted, that which is *kºatº-a 428 *ɢub-a 564 twisted, to be *tºakº- 185 twisted together *dar-a 151 twisted together, anything *net’¨-a 918 twisted together, that which is *c’ur-a 310 twisting *ʕor¨-a 755 twisting, the act of *čºokº-a 334 twisting together, the act of *k¦ºir-a 525 twists, that which *dar-a 151 two *yor-a 779 two halves *t’uʔ¦-a 240 two things, any combination of *kºol¨-a 442 tying *ʕor¨-a 755


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number udder *k’¦an-a 534 under, that which is *ħal-a 702 underpart *ħal-a 702 understanding *saħ-a or *šaħ-a 314 *gal-a 356 *ħakº-a 697 uneasiness *k’al-a 461 unfruitful *bar-a 38 unfruitful, to be or become *bar- 38 unguent *mar-a 870 union *gid-a or *ɢid-a 377 *˜’im-a 605 unite, to *gid- or *ɢid- 377 unite together, to *˜’im- 605 united *gid-a or *ɢid-a 377 united together *˜’im-a 605 untamed *guw-a 396 *guw-r-a 396 upon *ʔan¨- 629 *ʕal- 739 up *ʕaŋ- 745 upper part *ʕaŋ-a 745 uppermost part *war-a 805 uppermost part (of anything) *kºir-a 439 uproar *gal-a 357 *q’¦al-a 582 upset, to *dul- 172 upset, to be *dul- 172 upward, to go *xaŋ- 763 us *wa- (~ *wə-) 780 *ma (~ *mə) 881 *na (~ *nə) 901 used up *ǯaw-a 329 used up, to be *ǯaw- 329 useless *bar-a 38 useless, to be or become *bar- 38 utter, to *bakº- 16 utterance *bakº-a 16 vacant, to be *wel¨- 818 valley *gol-a 385 *ʕam-a 741 vapor *duw-a 182 vapor, to give off *p’ul¨- 140

306 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number vehicle *wig-a 821 vein *s¨ir-a 281 vessel (= pot) *gal-a 355 *k’ud-a (~ *k’od-a) 492 *k¦ºar-a 517 vex, to *nad¨- 909 vexation *nad¨-a 909 vexed, to be *ħag- 695 victory *sag-a or *šag-a 313 *wel-a 817 view *ʕen-a 750 view, to come into *wil¨- 822 vigil *war-a 802 vigor *wak’-a 785 vile *pºul-a 124 violence *ħal-a 700 violent, to be *ʔekº- 652 violent movement *ʔekº-a 652 virility *g[e]n-d-a 374 visibility *c’ar-a or *č’ar-a 306 *gal-a 356 visible *c’ar-a or *č’ar-a 306 visible, that which is *xaŋ-a 763 visible, to be or become *c’ar- or *č’ar- 306 *gal- 356 voice *baħ-a 14 vomit *pºutº-a 135 *wam-a 795 vomit, to *pºutº- 135 voyage *ɢal-a 551 wail *wal-a 788 walk *k¦ºal-a 509 *mar-a 869 walk, to *bar- 37 *gir¨- or *ɢir¨- 384 *k¦ºal- 509 *mar- 869 walking *bar-a 37 *k¦ºal-a 509 *mar-a 869 wall *c’ur-a 310 *gir-a 382 wandering *k¦ºal-a 509


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number wane, to *tºar- 197 want *bad-a 8 *gaʔ-a 346 *k’al-a 459 *ʔek’-a 653 *ħiw-a, *ħiy-a 729 want, to be in *ħiw-, *ħiy- 729 wanting *gaʔ-a 346 *k’al-a 459 wanting, to be *ʔek’- 653 warder *war-a 802 warm *pºek¦º-a 113 *t’ab-a 216 *kºum-a 448 warm, to *pºaħ- 129 *pºaħ-V-w- 129 *dul- 171 *tºepº- 203 *säx¦- 277 *k’al- 460 *g¦ir- 507 *wal- 791 warm, to be *pºal¨- 94 *pºek¦º- 113 warm, to be or become *t’ab- 216 *säx¦- 277 *kºay- 435 warm, to make *t’ab- 216 *kºay- 435 warm oneself, to *ʔak¦º- 620 warmth *pºek¦º-a 113 *dul-a 171 *tºepº-a 203 *t’ab-a 216 *säx¦-a 277 *kºum-a 448 *wal-a 791 *war-a 806 wash, to *ħal- 701 *law- 947 washed *ħal-a 701 washed, that which is *ʔal-a 621 washing, the act of *ʔal-a 621

308 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *ħal-a 701 *law-a 947 waste *bad-a 6 waste, to *bad- 6 waste away, to *tºaħ- 184 *t¨ºum- 260 *k’er- 485 *wal- 792 *was¨- 809 waste away by rubbing, to *ħur- 735 wasted *ǯaw-a 329 *k’er-a 485 wasted, to become *ʔeb- 651 wasteland *bad-a 6 wasting away *was¨-a 809 watch *war-a 802 watch, to *guw- 395 *kºal- 405 *rak’- 956 watch out for, to *war- 802 watch (over), to *pºin¨- 116 watch over, to *man- 859 watchfulness *rak’-a 956 watchman *war-a 802 *man-a 859 water *ham-a 686 *yam-a 775 *wet’-a 820 *maw-a 878 water, (flowing or running) *ħapº-a 712 water, running *waǯ-a 815 water, to *law- 947 watercourse *ɢal-a 552 waterfowl *gaŋ-a 363 wattle *ɢub-a 564 wave *wel¨-a 819 way (= method) *ħar-a 713 way (= path) *k’¦al-a 531 *qºad-a 565 *ʔiy-a 666 *mar-a 869 way, winding *dar-a 151 we *wa- (~ *wə-) 780


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *ma (~ *mə) 881 *na (~ *nə) 901 weak *bul-a 68 *dal¨-a 149 *gin-a or *ɢin-a 380 *xal-a 761 *mel-a 879 *nus¨-a 923 weak, that which is *bul-a 68 weak, to be *t¨ºum- 260 *gin- or *ɢin- 380 *ʔek’- 653 *wal- 792 *nus¨- 923 weak, to become *bul- 68 *t¨ºum- 260 *ʔeb- 651 *mel- 879 *mol- 888 weak, to grow *dow-, *doy- 168 weaken, to *bad- 9 *bul- 68 *dal¨- 149 *xal- 761 weakened *pºul-a 124 *ʔeb-a 651 *mur-a 894 weakened, to be *xal- 761 *mar¨- 874 *nus¨- 925 weakness *bul-a 68 *dal¨-a 149 *ʔeb-a 651 *xal-a 761 *wal-a 792 *mel-a 879 *nus¨-a 925 wealth *c’al-a or *č’al-a 304 *ħapº-a 711 *riy-a 961 wealthy, to be *c’al- or *č’al- 304 weapon *ʒer-a or *ǯer-a 293 *wed-a 816

310 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number wear (= abrasion) *bul-a 68 *tºaħ-a 184 *tºar-a 196 wear away, to *tºaħ- 184 wear away by rubbing, to *ħur- 735 wear down, to *bul- 68 *tºar- 196 *xal- 761 wear out, to *ǯaw- 329 *k’er- 485 *xal- 761 *wal- 792 *was¨- 809 *mel- 879 *mol- 888 wearied (from straining, laboring), to become *k’acº- 452 weariness *dal¨-a 149 *dow-a, *doy-a 168 *tºan¨-a 191 *t¨ºum-a 260 *xal-a 761 *was¨-a 808 weary *dal¨-a 149 *dow-a, *doy-a 168 *tºan¨-a 191 *xal-a 761 *mel-a 879 weary, to *t¨ºum- 260 weary, to be *t¨ºum- 260 weary, to be or become *was¨- 808 weary, to become *t¨ºum- 260 *mel- 879 *mol- 888 weary, to grow *dow-, *doy- 168 *tºan¨- 191 weave, to *t’an- 225 *kºatº- 428 *ħaw- 724 *net’¨- 918 weaving *ʕor¨-a 755 *net’¨-a 918 weaving, the act of *ħaw-a 724


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number web *net’¨-a 918 wedge *t’ul¨-a 242 weep, to *k’um- 496 weighed down, to be *ħag- 695 weight *k’¦ur¨-a 549 weighty *k’¦ur¨-a 549 weighty, to be *k’¦ur¨- 549 welfare *söl-a 283 well *söl-a 283 well, to be *söl- 283 *süw- 287 well, to do *c’al- or *č’al- 304 well up, to *bal- 19 *ʔib- 659 *wel¨- 819 wet *šuw-a 345 *šuw-l-a 345 *wal-a 790 *mat’-a 877 *nat’-a 916 wet, to *t’al¨- 223 *wal- 790 *wet’- 820 *nat’- 916 *laħ- 935 *rek’- 960 wet, to be *šuw- 345 *šuw-V-l- 345 *maw- 878 wet, to be or become *mat’- 877 wet, to make *šuw- 345 *šuw-V-l- 345 wetness *wal-a 790 *mat’-a 877 *nat’-a 916 *laħ-a 935 what [relative pronoun stem] *ʔay-, *ʔya- 645 *ma- (~ *mə-) 880 what? [interrogative pronoun stem] *ʔay-, *ʔya- 645 *mi- (~ *me-) 880 what?, to do *ʔay- 644 what manner?, to act in *ʔay- 644 when *k¦ºay- 521

312 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number whet, to *ʒag- 290 which [relative pronoun stem] *ʔay-, *ʔya- 645 *ma- (~ *mə-) 880 which? [interrogative pronoun stem] *ʔay-, *ʔya- 645 *mi- (~ *me-) 880 whirl *bur-a 74 whirl, to *bur- 74 *mar- 868 whisper *k’¦as-a 542 whisper, to *k’¦as- 542 white *wal¨-a 794 whiteness *wal¨-a 794 who [relative pronoun stem] *ʔay-, *ʔya- 645 *ma- (~ *mə-) 880 who? [interrogative pronoun stem] *ʔay-, *ʔya- 645 *mi- (~ *me-) 880 wicked, to be *ʔakº- 616 wickedness *t’¨aw-a 269 *ʔakº-a 616 (wide) *tºal¨-a 188 wide *pºal-a 88 *pºitº-a 121 *tºan¨-a 190 *ʔut’-a 679 *war-a 804 *raw-ħ-a 959 wide-open space *ʔut’-a 679 *ħak’-a 698 wide, that which is *pºal-a 88 wide, to be *raw-V-ħ- 959 widen, to *ħak’- 698 width *pºar-a 99 *tºan¨-a 190 *war-a 804 wife *k’¦an-a 535 *nus¨-a 924 wild *guw-a 396 *guw-r-a 396 wild animal *guw-a 396 *guw-r-a 396 wild animals, to hunt *guw- 396 *guw-V-r- 396 wild beast *guw-a 396


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number *guw-r-a 396 wild boar *säw-a 276 wild bovine *t¨ºom-a 259 wild fowl *ɢar¨-a 559 *ɢar¨-ɢar¨-a 559 wild goose *ɢar¨-a 559 *ɢar¨-ɢar¨-a 559 wild, to be *ʔekº- 652 wind (= breeze) *bar-a 28 wind, to *čºokº- 334 *k’ar- 477 *g¦ar- 506 wind around, to *kºar- 420 winding couse or way *dar-a 151 winding, the act of *čºokº-a 334 winds, that which *dar-a 151 wipe, to *mal- 852 *mel- 879 *mol- 888 wiped out *ʔeb-a 651 wiped out, to become *ʔeb- 651 wiping, the act of *mal-a 852 wisdom *ħakº-a 697 wish *t’el-a 235 *win-a or *wiŋ-a 823 wish for, to *win- or *wiŋ- 823 with *bi 46 *ħar¨- 717 *matº- or *metº- 875 wither, to *tºar- 197 *ǯaʔ- 325 *k’er- 485 *wal- 792 *was¨- 809 wither away, to *mar¨- 874 withered *tºar-a 197 *säw-a 274 *c’aw-a 307 *c’aw-l¨-a 307 *k’er-a 485 withered, to be *säw- 274 withered, to be or become *c’aw- 307 *c’aw-V-l¨- 307

314 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number withered, that which is *c’aw-a 307 *c’aw-l¨-a 307 woe! *way 814 woman *k’¦an-a 535 *nat’-a 915 *nus¨-a 924 woman, (older) *ʔema 655 woman, old *p’ap’-a 138 womb *wat’¨-a 813 wood *mar-a 873 wool *bur-a 77 word *yan-a 776 work *daw-a 156 *kºam-a 410 *k¦ºir-a 525 work, hard *qºad-a 565 work, to *kºam- 410 worm *k¦ºur-a 527 worn down *mol-a 888 worn down, to be *xal- 761 worn out *bul-a 68 *tºar-a 196 *ǯaw-a 329 *k’er-a 485 *xal-a 761 *mel-a 879 *mol-a 888 worn out, that which is *bul-a 68 worn out, to be *xal- 761 *wal- 792 worn out, to become *bul- 68 *was¨- 808 *mel- 879 *mol- 888 wound *ban-a 24 *tºar-a 195 *qºal-a 566 *waħ-a 784 *waŋ-a 800 *wed-a 816 *mir-a 887 *nag-a 910 *nikº-a 920


English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number wound, to *dal- 147 *g¦an- 504 *qºal- 566 *q’¦al- 583 *waħ- 784 *waŋ- 800 *mir- 887 woven, anything *t’an-a 225 *net’¨-a 918 woven, that which is *kºatº-a 428 wrangle (over), to *bur- 72 wrap, to *kºad- 401 *g¦ar- 506 wrap together, to *dar- 151 *k’ačº- 453 wrap up, to *bur- 76 *c’ur- 310 wrapped together *dar-a 151 wrapped together, that which is *c’ur-a 310 wrapping *c’ur-a 310 *k’ačº-a 453 wrath *qºatº-a 569 wreath *k’aŋ-a 469 wrestle, to *bur- 72 wrinkle *k’un-a 500 wrist *gam-a 361 yawn *haŋ-a 688 yawn, to *haŋ- 688 year *watº-a 811 yelp, to *kºatº- 431 yelping *kºatº-a 431 yield, to *ʔeb- 651 you *tºi- (~ *tºe-) 204 *si- (~ *se-) 321 *ni (~ *ne) and/or *na (~ *nə) 919 you [oblique] *tºa- (~ *tºǝ-) 204 young *gin-a or *ɢin-a 380 *k’an-a 465 *ʔax-a 614 *¦il-a 773 *yaw-a 777 *mag-a 841 young (especially of animals) *kºuwan-a or *kºun-a 450

316 NOSTRATIC ETYMOLOGICAL INDEX English Meaning Proto-Nostratic Number young (of humans and animals) *man-a 856 young, to be *gin- or *ɢin- 380 *ʔax- 614 young, to produce *yaw- 777 young dog *kºuwan-a or *kºun-a 450 young goat *gad-a 352 (young) man *mar-a 867 young man *ʔax-a 614 *näʕ-r-a 927 young of an animal *ʕig-a 753 young one *gin-a or *ɢin-a 380 *näpº-a 929 young person *¦il-a 773 *yaw-a 777 *mag-a 841 younger brother *bin-a, *ban-a 48 *ʔax-a 614 younger daughter *bin-a, *ban-a 48 younger relative *bin-a, *ban-a 48 younger relative (male or female) *ʔina or *ʔiŋa 664 younger sister *bin-a, *ban-a 48 younger son *bin-a, *ban-a 48 youth *gin-a or *ɢin-a 380 *ʔax-a 614 *¦il-a 773 *yaw-a 777 *näʕ-r-a 927 youthful, to be *ʔax- 614

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