Notes

Introduction: Land That Seemed to Us Quite Vast

1 . Translations from the original Portuguese throughout are mine, unless otherwise indicated.

2 . P á dua cites a letter of instructions to Brazilian diplomats in London: “An empire so expansive and extensive, given the best ports in the world by nature ( . . . ) and so many varied and rich natural products, must be a separate and independent power” (123). Clearly, in the reference to ports and products, here the relationship between nature and nation is articulated in the terms of commerce.

3 . In addition to the already cited Holanda, Bosi, and Zilberman, the relationship between nature, nation, and regional imaginaries in Brazil has been explored by Wasserman (1994), Maliga (1998), Schwarcz (2003, 2008), S á (2004), Carvalho (2005), and Murari (2009).

4 . In a more precisely detailed rendering of the vast, biotic richness of Brazil, biologist F á bio Scarano (2009) writes: “Brazil has the greatest biodiversity on Earth, comprising fifty thousand plant species that represent approximately 20% of the documented flora known to man. It is also one of 17 countries on the planet that together give shelter to about 70% of the Earth’s fauna and flora species” (69).

5 . Brazilwood or Pernambuco wood has retained both its threatened status and its value as an international commodity, no longer for the red dye for which it was originally harvested for European markets, but as the source wood for the production of violin and cello bows. As Russ Rymer (2004) details, the very sound of Western classical music as we have known it for centuries, plus an industry of instrument mak-ers, is reliant on the singular resonance of this wood and the unique and increasingly fragile ecological conditions that produce it.

6 . In addition to the deforestation related to the continued expansion of Brazil’s agricultural frontier for the production of soybeans, bio-fuels, and cattle, major environmental debates and movements in recent years have been largely centered on large hydroelectric and fluvial canal-building projects. These include the Belo Monte dam proposal on the Xingu river, which has been stalled by the intensive mobilization of environmentalist and Indigenous opposition and,

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recently, actual physical occupation of the construction site. See Avelar’s (2011, 2012) two-part annotated bibliography on the Belo Monte controversy. Another ongoing signature development pro-ject of the PT-led Federal Government in recent years has been the “Transposition” of the S ã o Francisco River, a series of canals that would address issues of water shortage and distribution in the arid, interior Northeastern sert ã o region, though opponents argue that it threatens the ecological health of the river system and is designed to divert water toward expanded, large-scale export-oriented agri-culture. I will refer further to this project in regard to the work and activism of the visual artist Ben é Fonteles. For an excellent reflec-tion on development issues related to the S ã o Francisco River, com-bining travel memoir, conservation biology, and social ecology, see Harvey (2008).

7 . Medeiros’s Vegetal Sex (2010) is described in translator Raymond Bianchi’s introduction as encapsulating Brazil in poetry, and in a back-cover note by the poet Philip Jenks as “radically renegotiat[ing] deep ecology.” Astrid Cabral’s Cage (2008) is summarized as an “insightful and irreverent guide to the natural world,” and in trans-lator Alexis Levitin’s introduction, Cabral is quoted as describing her poetry as “breath[ing] a love for nature and an accompanying ecological concern . . . all deeply planted in the Amazonian regions of my unconscious” (iii). In back-cover notes for Birds for a Demolition (2010), a collection of poems by Manoel de Barros selected and translated by Idra Novey, poet Edward Hirsch writes of “lyrics that stick close to the natural world” and Novey introduces his poetry as environmentally situated: “Barros writes of the vast rest of the country—the wetlands and rivers . . . the poverty and solitude of rural life, but also its sensuality and its wealth of geckos, open spaces and butterflies” (7). Baptista is a relative outlier in terms of this expressly environmentalist framing. A collection of her early poems was pub-lished in English translation as On the Shining Screen of the Eyelids (2003), with emphasis in its introduction given to its intertextual-ity with the colonial Latin American baroque and concretist formal experimentation. However, as is the case of her 1992 collection, Corpografia , her poems are combined with artist Francisco Faria’s drawings of riverscapes, dense tangles of tropical foliage, and, in a series called “ 4 vezes ar ” (4 times air), bent human backs X-rayed to reveal vegetal forms within.

1 Ecopoetry and Earth Art: Theoretical Orientations and Brazilian Inflections

1 . Á vila (2011) reads Machado among a number of contemporary Brazilian poets concerned with the impurifying gaze upon the

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landscape and its elements, and with the extent to which these are reduced to a reflection of the subject that looks upon them:

The most frequent case is that of a certain interaction between the mind—and/or the body—and landscape. A sequence of four poems by Ronald Polito, for example, presents different degrees of involvement with the scene, culminating with its autonomy in “Antediluviano”: “waters / a flash of lightning awaits / the sky / of precise air.” “Material and landscape,” of Julio Casta ñ on Guimar ã es, places emphasis on the discipline of the gaze and the consequent erasure of the self. Donizete Galv ã o explains this tendency: “the body needs objects / so that they confirm / its fleeting existence.” (n pag.)

2 . Borges’s desconstructive study of these natural history dioramas, all of which depict iconic North American landscapes—from the Rocky Mountain West, the Southeast Canyonlands, the Florida Everglades, and so on—also seems to historicize ideas of the environment and environmental representation, locating them, and thus provincializ-ing them, in the particular context of US frontier expansion and its romantic aesthetics of wilderness sublime. These images, along with her other series, are available to view on the artists website: http://sofiaborges.carbonmade.com .

3 . Another example of “post-landscape” art in Brazil today is the 2010 series “ Paisagens poss í veis ” (Possible Landscapes), by the Rio de Janeiro artist Deborah Engel. Engel, like Borges, destabilizes the documentary impulse and expectations of landscape depictions, simi-larly appropriating and resignifying already existing landscape imag-ery. In her photographs, a magazine photograph of a landscape is seen to be held up against a real, present landscape as framed and captured by Engel’s camera. The appropriated images, from popular anthropology, travel, and natural history magazines such as National Geographic , are carefully aligned up against the foreign background, with the lines of a house, a horizon, a riverbank, or a roadway meet-ing, and the two landscapes thus blending into a third, hybrid, invented one. Engel thus establishes a thread of common signification between distant places and elements: a lion now stands among cattle in the cerrado , a woman draped in a bright turquoise sari bends over a dry-land crop in the sert ã o , elephants bathe in a pond with south-ern Brazil’s iconic araucaria pine trees towering in the background. In some cases, there is very little sense of disjuncture or strangeness between the overlapped landscapes: a caboclo -looking farmer is placed beside someone else’s chicken coop; a freshly cut road through a tropical forest landscape is placed upon another road freshly cut through a tropical forest landscape. Engel’s series, emanating senses of sameness, anywhereness, and nowhereness, unsettles the search for exotic difference and unique discovery that is typical of the practice of documentary landscape photography. Mimicking the subjectivity

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and gaze of the National Geographic –type documentary photogra-pher, the outsider scanning the landscape for visible difference, Engel scans “foreign,” interior landscapes of Brazil for visible congruencies with the images of exotic rurality she consumes through global media sources. A selection of images from this series can be viewed through the Galeria Artur Fidalgo website, at http://www.arturfidalgo.com.br/acervo_deborah.html .

4 . While Earth art and environmental art are largely interchangeable and expansive designations, land art generally refers to the site-specific, often monumental interventions into landscapes and environments by US-based artists such as Walter de Maria, Robert Smithson, Nancy Holt, and Dennis Oppenheim, among others who came to promi-nence in the late 1960s and 1970s. For the purpose of this study, I have opted to use Boetzkes’s preferred term, Earth art, as that which most broadly encompasses the confluence of aesthetic experi-mentation and environmental reflection and ethics.

5 . Brazil is represented in Kastner’s survey by Cildo Meireles’s 1969–1970 series, “Geographical Mutations: Rio-S ã o Paulo Border,” for which the artist fabricated objects to register the performance/intervention he undertook at the border between those two states, for which he dug holes on each side of the border and exchanged soil and plants between them.

6 . These include works by the American artist Mark Dion and the Swiss artist/scientific illustrator Cornelia Hesse-Honegger, as well as a series of Macêdo’s own works. Dion, whom I discuss a bit further below in relation to the work of Frans Krajcberg, is known for work that appropriates and reframes the collecting, documentation, and dis-playing practices of the natural sciences, incorporating into his work collaboration with scientists, fieldwork, and the ideas and forms from the modern natural history museum and the sixteenth-century cabi-net of curiosities. Hesse-Honegger, trained as a scientific illustrator, began collecting, studying, and painting “morphologically disturbed” insects following the Chernobyl nuclear disaster in 1986. She has since developed collecting and illustration projects highlighting radioactive and chemical pollution in Vietnam and the United States, in addition to Europe. Her approach has been controversial in the ways it both draws from and diverges from scientific practice in order to publi-cally present the insects as evidence of the dangers of industrial pollu-tion. Mac ê do’s own works, including “Nest,” “Air,” and “The First Mild Day in March,” all produced in collaboration with Finnish artist Henna Asikainen, also incorporate different scientific texts, forms, and practices, including fieldwork, the natural history museum, and scientific documentary footage. “Air,” for example, involved residen-cies with climate researchers in northern Finland and the Amazon, with the resulting installation including a video of the two forests, a snow-filled panorama of the Finnish forest projected onto a flat wall

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and lushly green details of the Brazilian forest projected onto a small, fragile-looking, glass greenhouse, radar and satellite images, and air-samples held in small glass vials. For more of her work, including her substantially developed theorization of it, see her website: www.silvanamacedo.com .

7 . Mar í lia Librandi-Rocha (2013) explores the connection between literary theory—namely the notions of mimesis and the aesthetic experience as proposed by Luiz Costa Lima—and Amerindian per-spectivism, and she has drawn from Viveiros de Castro’s theoreti-cal insights in her readings of Joaquim de Sous â ndrade and Jo ã o Guimar ã es Rosa. Venturing himself into literary studies, Viveiros de Castro recently presented his readings of metamorphic characters in the fiction of Guimar ã es Rosa and Clarice Lispector at Stanford University. His lecture “Through the Looking Glass of Language,” not yet published, is available to view at: http://videos.philosophyforums.com/social-sciences/eduardo-viveiros-de-castro-through-the-lookingglass-of-language-2446.html .

8 . See Perrone (1996) for the most substantial study of Brazilian poetry from 1950 to 1990. Poetry of the past two decades in Brazil is marked by a fundamental heterogeneity, largely free of schools, polemics, and the horizons of meaning that situated much of the poetry of the 1960s and 1970s at the intersections of aesthetic avant-gardism and politi-cal engagement. Helo í sa Buarque de Hollanda (1998) characterizes the poetry of the 1990s as primarily concerned with discovering its own voice, unmoored in a post-utopian moment in which there is no longer an aesthetic or political project outside of the poem itself. It seems a movement defined by an absence of movements, by an ethos of cultivated isolation: “Today, this movement no longer signals the consensus of a ‘we,’ of a ‘poem written by various hands’—as Cacaso so perfectly diagnosed it—, but a subject that imposes itself, insinu-ates itself through games of figuration and fictionalization of the self” (16). In a later consideration of the poetry of the 1990s, Hollanda (2000) identifies a shared horizon of meaning in the context of the hegemony of the market and its intensified processes of “massifica-tion, transnationalization, and specialization in the production and commercialization of its products” (248), within or against which contemporary poets stake out small, fragmented spaces of invention and intervention. Hollanda is notably ambivalent about the resulting heterogeneity and the apparent lack of coherent parameters for criti-cal evaluation. She writes:

The incontestable presence of a total heterogeneity in experi-mentation and an uncommitted and almost cynical adherence to any given style, ideology, or school, provokes a disconcerting reaction from traditional criticism, which is used to approaching poetic movements in search of a coherent aesthetic or political project. (251)

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In her review of critical assessments of contemporary Brazilian poetry, L í gia Chiappini (2004) highlights judgments ranging from apoca-lyptic to hopeful. She cites Folha de S ã o Paulo columnist Marcelo Coelho, for whom Brazilian poetry today “inhabits the realm of com-plete arbitrariness” (qtd. in Chiappini: 108). And she cites Luiz Costa Lima as mounting the most systematic effort to analyze the direc-tions taken by the newest generation of poets, including abstraction and plasticity. Costa Lima praises the poets of the 90s for having overcome the limitations of the marginal poetry of the 1970s, includ-ing “its retreat into domesticity and its affection for anecdote and minor tones, in which the conquests of modernism were funneled down into a self-sufficient subjectivity, without [modernism’s] social or national dimension” (qtd. in Chiappini: 111). Chiappini notes that, overall, the critical dialogue tends to ignore two additional ten-dencies: “poetry based in a regional culture” and “ethnic poetry, or, more precisely, Black or Afro-Brazilian poetry” (113–114).

In an assessment of poetry of the 1990s, Solange Ribeiro de Oliveira (2007) largely concurs with Hollanda that there are insufficient com-mon denominators by which to characterize contemporary Brazilian poetry, which she ends up defining by its “plurality.” She notes, however, certain tendencies, including metalanguage and hermeti-cism, the problematization of the self, and formal experimentation including engagement with visual arts and performance. In the most ambitious attempt to anthologize Brazilian poetry at the turn of the millennium, Manuel da Costa Pinto’s 2006 volume brings together seventy poets active during the first half-decade of this century. In his introduction, Pinto makes the claim that it would be possible to “extract a diagnosis for Brazilian poetry by means of this panorama” (12), yet it is a diagnosis that he himself declines to offer. Again, however, he points to plurality and heterogeneity in noting that his selection includes poets that were either protagonists of or those who engage in dialogue with the varying strands of modernism ( poesia concreta, Gera çã o de 45, poesia marginal, tropicalismo ) and poets who “bring their own, quite unique references” (12). In his preface to an earlier anthology of poets active in the 1980s and 1990s, Na Virada do S é culo: Poesia de Inven çã o no Brasil (2002), poet Cláudio Daniel describes and groups poets according to a diverse range of affinities and influences, including minimalism, constructivism, neo-baroque, language poetry, and surrealism. Though he finds among these poets a coherence as a generation in their experimentation, often despite a relative lack of contact among each other, Daniel still returns to pluralism as the defining characteristic: “What we have here is a plurality of experimental trajectories, grounded in nowness [ agoridade ]” (26). In short, it is a moment in Brazilian poetry that still evades easy definition, in its embrace of diversity and apparent rejection of avant-garde, collectively oriented aspirations.

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As a broader field of cultural production than that of poetry, the visual arts in Brazil are even more resistant to summary characterization. The field over the past three decades has undergone rapid expansion and intense dynamism as it has intersected with new multimedia forms and as it has been mediated through new spaces and networks at global and local levels. Thus, as with poetry and even more so, the visual arts in Brazil today are most typically characterized by their heterogeneity. Critic Jos é Teixeira Coelho (2006) highlights the multiplicity of mate-rials and forms and the equal value ascribed to them in terms of their potential force of meaning. He coins the term “multitudo,” a play on the notion of the multitude, for an emergent arts scene in which “ tudo vale, tudo serve ” [everything goes, everything works], in which there is a new plurality of forms, contents, materials, and artistic subjectivities that quickly coalesce and just as quickly disperse. Coelho thus resists such orienting terms as schools, tendencies, or movements, preferring instead the organizing concept of “proximate languages” (16).

Among these proximate languages—including experimentations in both figurative and abstract directions—Coelho notes a return to beauty as an orienting concept, challenging the dominance of the conceptually oriented anti-art, or “non-art art” ( arte n ã o-arte ) of the 1970s, with its Dadaist resistance to the market, the museum, and the gallery through a repudiation of displayable, saleable, permanent, and/or aesthetically defined art objects. The return of aestheticism is partially attributable, in Coelho’s assertion, to the diminishment of anti-art’s critical edge, which by the 1980s “no longer appeared to be a danger” (39). Derivatives and variations of the antiaesthetic, conceptually oriented cutting edge of the 1970s continued to flour-ish and multiply, though they increasingly had to share space in the field with other, new and renewed tendencies that emphasized aes-thetic qualities. This shift was not without significant controversy in its beginnings in the 1980s. However, as Coelho notes, “. . . the 1990s were sufficiently flexible and varied—plural is the word—to permit the question of beauty to return on the scene without any longer caus-ing any intellectual discomfort” (39). The unease with the reemerging force of aesthetics is typified in critic Martin Groissman’s earlier assess-ment of the period. Groissman sees the 1980s as a “return to order” following the waning of 1970s avant-gardism, the fading of a vari-ety of utopian alternatives to late capitalist modernity, and increasing pressure of market forces to produce displayable and saleable works.

A second frequently noted phenomenon that runs through the proximate languages and pluralities of the contemporary field is its intensified internationalization. Taking stock of its disregard for ter-ritorial boundaries, Coelho rejects designations such as art of Brazil, Brazilian art, or national art in favor of “art made in Brazil” (14). This point is echoed in Argentine critic Gerardo Mosquera’s assess-ment of the contemporary scene, noting the “international vocation

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of contemporary art in Brazil and its use, in its own way, of an inter-national language” (23). He also proposes a differentiation with the athropofagagous phase of Brazilian modernism, in which inter-national avant-garde trends were to be Brazilianized, appropriated under the sign of the nation: “Brazilian artists today, rather than devouring and creatively ingesting what is ‘international,’ actively produce it in a Brazilian fashion” (143). While Coelho and Mosquera celebrate this cosmopolitan orientation and the international circula-tion of Brazilian art and artists, Groissman is more critical of this turn, warning that the lack of territorial context is a problem that accompanies the internationalization of art, or, more precisely, the heightened globalization of markets and mediating institutions, not to mention the intensified global circulation of artists and works of art both physically and virtually. Suggesting another way to conceive of territoriality, Agnaldo Farias (2002), in a thumbnail survey, pro-poses that contemporary Brazilian art is best regarded as an archipel-ago. The image evokes discontinuity between artists and works rather than the totality of schools and a linear notion of art’s progressive unfolding. As he elaborates: “An archipelago because each quality work engenders an island, with its particular topography, atmosphere and vegetation, ultimately similar to other islands but without being mistaken for them. To explore it with care means to experience it, to perceive what only it has to offer” (20). This sense of interrupted territoriality and the absence of a sense of works and artists participat-ing in a collective project or field of signification—whether national, generational, ideological, or otherwise—is thus perceived as both a strength and a shortcoming. However, Moacir dos Anjos contests the notion that territorial belonging and identification is not an expressive feature of the contemporary scene. He sustains the term “Brazilian contemporary art” as a “notion that seeks to affirm the alterity that persists or is refashioned through the friction against the other” (26). Nevertheless, from Anjos’s perspective, for the generations of the 90s and 2000s, the sense of belonging is ambiguous, highlighting identification with an internal lineage of artistic creation, including anthropofagy and the 1960s and 1970s counterculture experimental-ism, as well as with outside artists of their same generation. It is an expression of belonging that forges ties between one’s own symbolic turf and that terrain that is called “global,” though Anjos notes that in inserting local elements, these artists more often than not avoid what would be most immediately perceived as iconographic.

In short, there are parallel trends in the contemporary fields of poetry and visual arts that have tended to divide critics as they look back comparatively toward the intensely counterculture and avant-garde tendencies of the 1970s: an increasing professionalization; interpenetration or hybridization with other cultural fields; a cos-mopolitan urge and an apparently less pronounced impulse toward

Notes 165

territorial signification; a plurality of influences and styles, including a return to more hermetic, reflexive, or aesthetically oriented works—that is, relatively more art about art and art for art’s sake.

9 . Another definition of environmentally engaged writing is proposed by J. Scott Bryson, more specifically centered on ecopoetry. Bryson defines three attributes for ecopoetry, which he distinguishes from nature poetry: “emphasis on maintaining an ecocentric perspective that recognizes the interdependent nature of the world”; “impera-tive toward humility in relationships with human and non-human nature”; skepticism concerning “hyperrationality” and an “overtech-nologized modern world” and a warning concerning the potential of ecological catastrophe” (5–6). There are certainly many variable definitions of the ecotext we could explore and parse out, but one clearly consensual attribute is around the questions of ethics and topi-cal engagement, of the text’s speaking to environmentalist claims, however broadly defined.

10 . Biographical information and works referenced here are from the art-ist’s website: www.sergioallevato.com.br .

11 . Biographical details and images of her work are available at the art-ist’s website: http://katievanscherpenberg.com.br .

2 Manoel de Barros and Astrid Cabral: Between Backyard Swamps and the Cosmos

1 . From the third volume of his Invented Memoirs and as included in the volume of his work selected and translated into English by Idra Novey (81).

2 . As Adalberto M ü ller states, in his annotated collection of interviews conducted with Barros in writing: “One of Manoel de Barros’ most recurrent affirmations is that he is not ‘the poet of the Pantanal,’ as the media tends to portray him. ‘My interest is in language,’ he tends to respond” (20).

3 . Aracuan birds and crab-falcons, leaches and poisonous caterpillars, amaryllis flowers and Surinam cherries.

4 . From Martha Barros’s interview with the poet, “Com o poeta Manoel de Barros,” included in Barros’s Gram á tica expositiva do ch ã o (1990).

5 . According to the biographical note compiled by Arnaldo Nogueira Jr. for his website, “Releituras,” Barros’s departure for Bolivia and Peru and then New York was inspired by disillusionment with the Brazilian Communist Party, with which he had been actively affiliated, follow-ing Luiz Carlos Prestes’s rapprochement with Get ú lio Vargas’s gov-ernment after his release from prison in the 1940s. Barros is quoted as stating: “When I heard his speech supporting Get ú lio—the same Get ú lio that had turned over his wife, Olga, to the Nazis—I couldn’t

Notes166

take it. I sat down on the sidewalk and wept. I took off without a path forward, inconsolable” (n. pag.).

6 . Among the recent examples of the presence of his work across vari-ous fields of artistic expression: Pedro Cezar’s 2009 award-winning documentary, S ó dez por cento é mentira: a desbiografia oficial de Manoel de Barros (Just ten per cent is a lie: the official unbiography of Manoel de Barros), for which the poet finally deviated from a decades-long practice of only participating in interviews in writing; the play “Nada, uma Pe ç a para Manoel de Barros” (Nothing, a play for Manoel de Barros), by Adriano and Fernando Guimar ã es, pro-duced in 2013 in both Bras í lia and S ã o Paulo; and “Ou isso . . .” (Or that), a collection of dance pieces inspired by his work choreo-graphed and performed in late 2013 by the Salvador, Bahia-based Bal é Teatro Castro Alves.

7 . Citations of Barros’s poems are drawn from his Poesia completa (2010) with the exception of excerpts from his three-volume Mem ó rias inventadas , which were not included in that anthology.

8 . For more on this notion of the merging of natural and human his-tory in the allegorical ruin, see Buck-Morss’s study, in particular, the section titled: “Natural History: Fossil.” This collapse or disappear-ance of history into nature is among the central objects of critique of baroque allegory, which, for Benjamin, was its denial to address the problem of human agency in the world, relegating the question of evil to the realm of divinity and spirituality. Benjamin called for a dialectical understanding of human and natural history: “No histori-cal category without natural substance; no natural substance without its historical filter” (qtd. in Buck-Morss: 59).

9 . See Castelo Branco (1995) for a comparatively minded collection of readings of Barros and Caeiro/Pessoa.

10 . From, respectively, “A r ã ” and “Achadouros,” included in the first volume (2003) of his Mem ó rias inventadas , and “Sobre import â n-cias,” part of the second volume (2006).

11 . From the eleventh poem of the second part of Livro sobre nada (1996) and the eighth poem of the series, “Biografia do orvalho,” in Retrato do artista quando coisa (1998).

12 . According to Scarano (2009), “An estimated 83% of the Pantanal is in an excellent state of conservation. Even so, reduction of protected areas, predatory tourism and fishing, large infrastructure and defor-estation are threats to the landscape’s rich diversity” (87).

13 . Anjos’s poetry is often intensely morbid, preoccupied with disease, death, and decay, drawing imagistic and lexical inspiration from the jarring discoveries and theories of late nineteenth-century biological sciences. It might also be read anew, however, as intensely telluric and even proto-ecological in its exploration, beyond symbolism, of the intersubjective connections or conditions of existence between the self and the nonhuman other.

Notes 167

14 . The title refers to a yellow-flowering wild legume similar to the sensi-tive partridge pea, whose leaflets fold together when touched.

15 . Selection of poems from Visgo da Terra cited here are taken from the anthology of Cabral’s work, De d é u em d é u .

16 . Translations of this and other selections of poems included in Jaula are by Alexis Levitin, as published in Cage .

17 . As quoted in Handley: “nature’s ‘oblivious tendencies’ whereby it dooms memory to amnesia and becomes the coterminous point of contact between nature and culture” (6).

3 Sérgio Medeiros and Josely Vianna Baptista: Meta-Landscape and

the (Re)Turn of the Native

1 . This is the first of multiple references in his work to Lewis Carroll’s nonsense poem, “The Mad Gardener’s Song.”

2 . One poem in Medeiro’s collection quite clearly evokes the trickster hero Macuna í ma’s epic journey from the Amazon to the frantically modernizing S ã o Paulo and back. In “Oriente e Ocidente,” Medeiros tells in clipped, matter-of-fact, almost abridged language of a group of Xavante Indians traveling by bus from their village to S ã o Paulo. Recalling Macuna í ma’s ability to transform and disguise himself as necessitated by the dangers that the journey, and in particular the city, presented, the Xavantes look like “a group of circumspect Japanese,” and were taken as such when they wished and taken as Indians when they wished. And again recalling Macuna í ma’s use of talismans and magic, the Xavantes each “wore a piece of wood in each ear to appease the Paulistanos. Or their hostile spirits” (160).

3 . Citations in Portuguese from this work are taken from the 2010 bilin-gual, American edition, with translations by Raymond L. Bianchi. I have consulted Bianchi’s translations, however the translation of this excerpt here and those that follow are my own.

4 . He specifically cites Claude L é vi-Strauss’s The Story of Lynx (1991) and Michel Serres’s Genesis (1982).

5 . The original verb used in both of these scenes is investir . 6 . Medeiro’s 2012 book, Totens , is further manifestation and radicaliza-

tion of this desire and poetic practice. In it Medeiros freely hybridizes genres, literary, cultural, and geographical references, and beings of different orders—human, animal, vegetal, and divine. As critic Maria Esther Maciel (2013) writes of this collection, “The divisions between the human and non-human are, thus, reshuffled throughout the work, invoking estrangement among those that tend to separate these realms in the name of science,” and she denominates his poetry as “ poesia trans-g ê nica ” (n. pag.). My own reading of this more dense and narratively structured collection will be further developed in a future publication.

Notes168

7 . One other notable example of native Brazilian flora in this collection is ara ç a azul , a small guava-like fruit, placed in the poem alongside the hazelnut.

8 . As further described by Priore and Ven â ncio, the most common form of Indigenous habitation in Brazil was semi-nomadic, involving small-scale swidden (slash-and-burn) agriculture. Following two or three harvests—in the case of manioc, these occurred every eighteen months—the clearing was abandoned, allowing the forest vegeta-tion to return. The villages would be dismantled and the community would move on to a new territory (18). As explained by Baptista, terra sem mal , which has long been translated as “paradise,” superim-posing the Judeo-Christian concept, is best translated as “land that is never exhausted” or “land that cannot be spoiled” (93). Explained by some as a concept that simply guided semi-nomadic peoples toward new lands to be cultivated, it is also thought by some to be reflective of crises both internal to Indigenous societies and to the crises caused by colonial conquest. One dimension of the terra sem mal myth and its relationship to agricultural practices and migrations that Baptista emphasizes in her essay and that centrally figures in her poem “ mora-das n ô mades ” is the notion of reciprocal cultivation. Fruit trees and manioc would be planted for those migrants who would follow, in their own search for the terra sem mal . The tropical forests most often viewed by outsiders as virgin wilderness are, rather, in Baptista’s terms, “baroque gardens,” shaped by a long human history of cycles of cultivation and migration.

9 . Baptista defines tekoha by way of anthropologist Maria In ê s Ladeira, writing in a report on the territoriality and land rights situation of the Guarani Mby á published by the Instituto Socioambiental: a “place that combines the physical (geographic and ecological) and strategic condi-tions that allow for the composition, through an extended family with its own spiritual leader, of a socio-political space centered on religion and subsistence agriculture” (qtd. in Baptista, Ro ç a Barroca : 98).

4 Frans Krajcberg and Bené Fonteles: Art, Anti-Art,

and Environmentalist Engagement

1 . In an article published in the Folha de S ã o Paulo in 2011 by Sil á s Mart í , Krajcberg is quoted as stating:

I know longer care if what I’m doing is art or not. I just want to show the remains, show that the trees were incinerated. Don’t call me an artist, I’m not superman. The only thing that I want to do is defend life until the very end of my life. (n. pag.)

2 . These, along with subsequent biographical details, are taken from two sources: a chronology of his life, including some first-person

Notes 169

commentary on particular events compiled by Marie Odile Briot, in Krajcberg (1992) and a dissertation on his work and life by Roberta Lanese Walters (1999).

3 . The best images of examples of these works are included in the cata-logue for the exhibit curated in 2003 by Denise Mattar for the Centro Cultural Banco do Brasil in S ã o Paulo, Paisagens Ressurgidas .

4 . This decisive encounter between Krajcberg and environmentalists during the 1975 CNAC exhibit in Paris is also mentioned in passing by Walters (1999), as she notes that the exhibit was “the catalyst for a more politicized work and, eventually, his accompanying position of not having to justify his work as art” (114).

5 . Feldman (2011) presents a useful synthesis of the emergence of a modern environmental movement in Brazil in the context of grow-ing global environmental concern and the military governments that ruled the country from 1964 to 1985. He notes that academic sec-tors and NGOs successfully pressured for the creation of a Special Secretary for the Environment in the federal Ministry of the Interior in 1973 and cornerstone legislation in 1981 creating a deliberative body, the National Environmental Advisory Board, including gov-ernment and civil society representation. Despite these steps, the military government remained firmly committed to its developmen-talist agenda, involving large infrastructure projects and subsidies for the occupation and economic integration of the Amazon region. These policies had disastrous effects environmentally and socially on the region, leading to intensified deforestation and the displace-ment of Indigenous and traditional peasant communities. For a more comprehensive account of the history of development and conserva-tion efforts in the Brazilian Amazon, see also Hecht and Cockburn (2011).

6 . The manifesto is included in its entirety in the catalogue for Krajcberg’s Imagens do Fogo .

7 . These descriptions of the Amazon are taken from the catalogue Imagens do Fogo , where they are part of a transcript of discussions between Krajcberg, Baendereck, and Restany, which was published in the Italian magazine Natura Int é grale in 1979 (53).

8 . In addition to having his work featured at events of global stature such as the Earth Summit and the Olympics, Krajcberg has had two permanent galleries dedicated to his art. In 2003, the Espa ç o Cultural Frans Krajcberg was created in the Botanic Garden of Curitiba, the southern Brazilian city that had become known as a model for sus-tainable urbanism projects. Krajcberg donated 110 works for the project, but following disputes with the city government over the site’s precarious infrastructure and poor maintenance of the space and the sculptures, the exhibit was closed by the city. Krajcberg was reported to have felt humiliated by the treatment meted out to him by the city government and paid to have his works removed and

Notes170

shipped back to his studio in Bahia. The city is pursuing the return of the works. See Romagnolli (2011) for reporting on this dispute. In 2003, the Montparnasse Museum in Paris inaugurated a permanent gallery and archive for his work, the Espace Frans Krajcberg, which is still active and was recently involved in publishing a new version of the “Manifesto of Integral Nature.” In Brazil, Krajcberg’s work and profile as an artist and environmentalist have also been popu-larized through documentaries including Walter Salles Jr.’s “Frans Krajcberg: O Poeta dos Vest í gios” (1987) and “Socorro Nobre” (1996) and Renata Rocha’s “O Grito Krajcberg” (2011). His work has been integrated into arts and environmental studies for elemen-tary education through the work of Sant’anna and Prates (2007) and Vieira and Lima (2012), among others, and a variety of Web-based curriculum development archives including “UOL Educa çã o” and “Revista Escola”. For more on Krajcberg’s contribution to arts and environment curricula, see Lima et al. (2009).

9 . Juliana Cardoso (2010), for example, in an essay on the role of art in reflecting on environmental problems and the concept of sustain-ability, includes a brief review of Krajcberg’s work in a grouping of artists who incorporate refuse or trash into their work. Other recent engagements with Krajcberg’s work and life, including Ventrella (2006), approach it as an engaging contribution to environmental sciences pedagogy and curriculum.

10 . For this 1992 work, also featured during the Earth Summit, Dion removed the top layer of soil and debris from a square meter of jungle floor in Par á to a gallery space in Rio’s Modern Art Museum, where he meticulously catalogued and documented the entirety of its ele-ments with the assistance of an entomologist. This work is noted in Brian Wallis’s 1998 survey of Earth art.

11 . Boetzkes opens her book with a description of this work: At the Olympic Sculpture Park in Seattle, Washington, a giant hemlock tree lies entombed in an eighty-foot-long green-house . . . . [T]he tree rests underneath an elaborate system of sprinklers, lights, and drains in a bed of soil, humus, and leaf litter. Though the tree is dead, its decomposition gives rise to a host of animal and insect species, vegetal growth, and single cell organisms. (1)

12 . Fonteles specifically cites the work of the Assuar á Advisory Center, an NGO coordinated by the sociologist and environmentalist Adriano Martins, “deeply rooted in the region and partnered with community associations, unions, cooperatives, and parishes” ( Aus ê ncia 46).

13 . The exhibit included Aldemir Martins, Carlos Scliar, Carlos Vergara, Emanuel Ara ú jo, Franz Krajcberg, Humberto Esp í ndola, Adir Sodr é , Iber é Camargo, Jo ã o C â mara, Jos é Roberto Aguilar, M á rio Cravo J ú nior, M á rio Cravo Neto, Regina Silveira, Rubem Valentim, Tomie Ohtake, and Wladimir Dias Pinto.

Notes 171

14 . Viveiros de Castro explains: And so I turn the question around. The problem isn’t about who is an Indian. The problem is about who isn’t an Indian. (This assertion is informed by a theory of minorities that mer-its further explanation, beyond the scope of this here. But this is how I’m able to assert that in Brazil everyone is Indian except those that aren’t.) Darcy Ribeiro, after all . . . was elo-quently insistent about the fact that the “Brazilian people” is much more Indigenous than is suspected or supposed. (I’m not in this way, it shouldn’t even be necessary to say, minimiz-ing the obvious and enormous influence of African populations brought here by force.) The man free of the slavocratic order, to use Maria Silvia Carvalho Franco’s language, is an Indian. The caipira is an Indian, the cai ç ara is an Indian, the caboclo is an Indian, the campon ê s from the Northeast interior is an Indian. ( No Brasil n. pag.)

15 . Among those accompanying Fonteles was Bishop Luiz Fl á vio Cappio, who has since staged two hunger strikes to draw attention to the environmental and social effects of the “transposition” project.

5 Lia do Rio and Nuno Ramos: The Art of Nature Estranged

1 . Her work was included in the exhibit “Eco-Arte 92: Express ã o,” at the Espa ç o Cultural Petrobras in Rio de Janeiro, curated by Maria da Gra ç a Fortes. The exhibit included another five Brazilian artists: Xico Chaves, Celeida Tostes, Astr é a El-Jaick, Rubem Valentim, and Franz Krajcberg. Her work was subsequently included in an international group exhibit, “Cosmic-Maternal,” including the American landscape designer Patricia Johanson and the Japanese textile artist and sculp-tor Mariyo Yagi. This exhibit, which traveled from Rio de Janeiro to New York, San Francisco, and Tokyo, is documented in two catalogs, Tr ê s cantos da Terra (Three Corners of the Earth, 1993) and Cosmic-Maternal: To the New Mythology (1994).

2 . Details of her professional trajectory, including her numerous insti-tutional affiliations in and beyond Rio de Janeiro, as teacher, cura-tor, and exhibiter, are available at the artist’s website, www.liadorio.com .

3 . Lia do Rio more directly pays homage to Duchamp as an inspiration for her work with the 2003 sculpture, “Cumplicidade” (Cumplicity), for which she filled with fallen leaves a working, signed urinal, above which was hung a garland of flowers around a Man Ray portrait of Duchamp dressed as his alter-ego, Rose S é lavy.

4 . Works from 1988 to 1995, as organized by the chronological links on the artist’s website.

Notes172

5 . It is, indeed, tempting to read this work in the light of a gendered cri-tique of monumental Land Art, including “Spiral Jetty.” As Kastner notes,

It is often said that Land Art is—perhaps along with the brawling days of Abstract Expressionism—the most macho of post-war art programmes. In its first manifestations, the genre was one of diesel and dust, populated by hard-hat-minded men, finding their identities away from the comforts of the cultural centre, digging holes and blasting cuts through cliff sides, recasting the land with “masculine” disregard for the longer term. (15)

6 . Another two works, “Sinfonia” (1992) and “Trajeto” (Trajectory, 1998), further develop the aesthetic and symbolic possibilities of the leaf. The first as an installation piece, and the second as an artist’s book. “Sinfonia” includes a shallow rectangle of piled leaves on the gallery floor above which hang seven long sheets of paper. On those sheets of paper, each reaching down into the pile of leaves, is drawn in ink the line of flight downward of a leaf, or, as the artist describes it, “the graphic memory of falling leaves.” “Trajeto” contains a series of cut-out silhouettes of the lines of a single leaf that the artist photo-graphed every day of its existence, from its appearance to its fall from its branch.

7 . For a recent study of the intersection of art and politics during the height of the military dictatorship in Brazil, see Calirman (2012).

8 . Ramos is also highly accomplished and regarded as a writer. He has published five books of prose and poetry and was awarded the Portugal Telecom Prize for Literature in 2009 and was a finalist for the 2012 Jabuti Prize for poetry. Though a more sustained and systematic reflec-tion on the relationship between his writing and his art is beyond the scope of this chapter, it is worth pausing here to note their intimate proximity, as exemplified in the “Vidrotexto” series’s incorporation of passages from Cujo . Ramos describes Cujo as a book of fragments that emerged as an attempt to mimetically document in writing his experi-ence with and perception of the materials he was working with in his art, registering “corporality” and “alchemy.” The selections transcribed as part of “Vidrotexto 3” mirror the work in their sharp juxtaposi-tion or even collision of elements and corporeal and ambient imagery (armadillo shells, the sound of rain, tatooed skin, the continuity of sky, etc.). See the interview by Marques (2010) for more on the relation-ship between Ramos’s practice as a writer and as an artist.

9 . The affinities in this regard with the poetics of Manoel de Barros and S é rgio Medeiros are immediately evident in Ramos’s assertively animistic writing. Consider, for example, the following passage from his “Mon ó logo para um tronco podre” (Monologue for a rotten tree trunk) (2007):

The gathering of humid creatures confabulated about the fallen trunk into which they stuck their claws. “The sky has died for

Notes 173

him,” said the slugs. “The ground is preparing itself, in a long drawn-out meal, to bite him.” “But what will become of him?” responded the foliage. “Ground of soil? Of sand? Or submerged ground?” The trunk listened to everything, pretending to be asleep. (qtd. in Jorge: n. pag.)

Epilogue: Notes from the Creative Margins of Rio+20

1 . This assessment is based upon a cursory review of media coverage during the event in Brazil and observations from parallel events orga-nized by civil society organizations and social movements. Even UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon stated that the summit had been dis-appointing, “not having lived up to the measure of the challenge” (Prada and Volcovici n. pag.), though he quickly backtracked on his statement, reportedly following complaints from the Brazilian dele-gation, among others (Escobar n. pag.). For a substantial journalistic wrap-up of the summit outcomes, see Watts and Ford (2012).

2 . According to the Grassroots Global Justice Alliance, a US-based coali-tion of grassroots movements that sent a delegation to the Rio+20 parallel “People’s Summit,” the US delegation failed to show up for some of its own scheduled side events, including, ironically, one titled, “U.S. priorities for Rio+20” (Grogan-Brown n. pag.).

3 . Here, I’m thinking specifically of much of what was programmed as part of a “Vig í lia Cultural” for Rio+20 organized by the SESC Rio Casa da G á vea as well as Ministry of Culture events such as the Musical Havana Caf é and the Drive-in Rio, cabaret-style venues installed in the port zone that is currently undergoing a controversial redevelop-ment that has dislocated long-term, lower-income residents. In the more corporate, greenwashing vein, we might note the Monsanto and Confedera çã o Nacional de Agricultura sponsored exhibit that included a “Biomes” sensory tunnel and an exhibit on the history of agriculture in Brazil; an exhibit that was ransacked by Landless Movement and Via Campesina activists in protest against policies promoting the continued expansion of the agribusiness, monocul-ture model of rural development in Brazil.

4 . Scarano (2010) notes that the Cerrado is the second largest Brazilian biome, after the Amazon, yet of its original expanse it is estimated that just 20 percent remains free of substantial human degradation. He argues that the region should be of particular focus for conserva-tion efforts given its high levels of species diversity, including a large proportion of endemic plant and animal species, and the intensity of agricultural expansion and resulting loss of habitat.

5 . A good selection of images of the pavilion was published by the Web-based design magazine “Designboom.” See in bibliography

Notes174

“Carla Jua ç aba” (2012). See also the exhibit website, www.humanidade2012.net , for virtual tours and description of its various galleries and components.

6 . With an originally projected budget of 44 million reais, and spon-sored by the Federations of Industry of Rio de Janeiro and S ã o Paulo (FIRJAN and FIESP), the Funda çã o Roberto Marinho, the city of Rio, and Servi ç o Brasileiro de Apoio à s Micro e Pequenas Empresas (SEBRAE), the pavilion was also designed as a site for a number of Rio+20 parallel debates and conferences, including the TedXRio+20, Energy Day, which focused on the energy sector in Brazil, the Forum on Social Entrepreneurship in the New Economy, and the Forum on Aviation Fuels (Milhorance, n. pag). Shattering expectations and cre-ating massive lines in which people waited for up to four hours, the exhibit received an estimated 210,000 visitors during its twelve-day run (Haroldo Castro n.pag.).

7 . As described in the exhibit website, the donated books were then to be transferred to public libraries newly established in a series of Rio de Janeiro favelas recently “pacified” by police operations to expel criminal gangs. The website also lists the public figures and the titles they selected and donated.

8 . For example, one gallery represented the development of the Centro de Opera çõ es Rio (Rio Operations Center), a panoptical and posi-tivist vision of a state-of-the-art command center able to constantly monitor the city and quality-of-life issues such as traffic, security, and pollution.

9 . Featured writers included primarily figures from Brazil’s twentieth-century modernist canon—M á rio de Andrade, Manoel de Barros, Carlos Drummond de Andrade, Jo ã o Cabral de Melo Neto, Gilberto Freyre, Jo ã o Guimar ã es Rosa, Augusto dos Anjos—and popular music lyricists such as Jorge Mautner, Gilberto Gil, and Caetano Veloso. I noticed no women writers included in this dimension of the exhibit. This, along with the “Chapel” and library donations project, was the only really substantial engagement with the summit and its themes from the literary field, from what I’ve been able to ascertain, though poet and art critic Ferreira Gullar contributed to a UNESCO project developed for the occasion, “20 projects to rotate the world,” involving a series of twenty short video testimonials in which individuals presented their ideas on defining and achieving sus-tainability. Without speculating too much as to why, it seems that the major protagonists of what is largely seen to be a particularly vibrant moment for Brazilian literature sat out or were left out of the cultural programming around the summit.

10 . Inaugurated in 2008, it is, according to its website, the first museum in Latin America entirely dedicated to “socio-environmental” issues.

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abject/abjection, 16, 25, 41–2, 44, 48, 77, 78, 119

abstract expressionism, 103, 172n5abstraction, 5, 8, 11–12, 15, 17,

23–8, 35, 44, 55–6, 69, 71, 97, 108–10, 140, 154, 162n8

Adorno, Theodor, 16Afonso, Albano, 33–5agriculture, 44, 94, 116, 151,

158n6Indigenous agriculture, 96,

168n8Ajuricaba, 63–4Alencar, José de, 3allegory, 20, 44, 53, 134, 166n8Allevato, Sérgio, 29, 165n10Amapá, 33Amazon region, 8, 29, 30, 37,

55–6, 59–66, 69, 72, 84, 89, 97, 104, 108–12, 116, 118, 127, 150, 158n7, 160n6, 167n2, 169n5, 169n7, 173n4

Amazon River, 33ambient aesthetics/ambient poetics,

8–9, 14–19, 23, 26, 37, 44, 61, 68, 71, 73, 80, 87–91, 97, 116, 122, 131, 140. See also Earth art; ecopoetry

Amerindian (Amazonian) perspectivism, 7, 21–3, 72–3, 84, 161n7

Andrade, Carlos Drummond de, 5, 174n9

Andrade, Mário de, 3, 78, 174n9Andrade, Oswald de, 78, 83, 85

animals/animality, 2, 9, 13, 21–2, 25, 30, 33, 34, 38, 45–7, 53–5, 59–60, 63–7, 79–86, 120, 127, 152, 167n6, 170n11, 173n4

animism, 73, 76, 84–5Anjos, Augusto dos, 56, 166n13Anjos, Moacir dos, 164n8Anthropocene, 6, 152, 156anthropocentrism/

anti-anthropocentrism, 7, 21–3, 69, 80

anthropomorphism, 21–3, 67, 84anti-art, 99, 105, 122, 133, 140,

163n8Asikainen, Henna, 160n6avant-garde, 3, 40, 71–3, 83, 85–6,

99, 101, 103, 109, 122–3, 126, 140, 145, 161–4n8

Avelar, Idelber, 22, 158n6Ávila, Myriam, 12, 73, 78, 158n1

Baendereck, Sepp, 104, 108, 110, 169n7

Bahia, 1, 104, 112, 114, 119, 120–2, 166n6

Bakairi, 126Baltar, Brígida, 31–3Baptista, Josely Vianna, 7–8, 71,

86–97, 154, 158n7, 168n8, 168n9

Barbosa, Luiz Guilherme, 95Barbosa, Luiz Henrique, 38–9, 44baroque/neo-baroque, 44, 53, 71,

86, 88, 90–4, 121, 158n7, 162n8, 166n8, 168n8

Index

Index186

Barros, Manoel de, 7–8, 37–58, 61, 64, 65, 67, 68–9, 71, 73, 78, 80, 85, 93, 97, 109, 116, 119, 121, 126, 135, 140, 144, 158n7, 165–6n1–12, 172n9, 174n9

Baudelaire, Charles, 88Baumeister, Willi, 102Belo Monte dam, 156, 157n6Benjamin, Walter, 20, 44, 53,

134, 166n8Beuttenmüller, Alberto, 126Berry, Wendell, 17Beuys, Joseph, 19, 123Bianchi, Raymond, 78, 158n7,

167n3Boetzkes, Amanda, 7, 18–20, 28,

33, 105, 118, 155, 160n4, 170n11

Bonifácio, José, 5Borges, Sofia, 13, 28, 34, 159n2Bororo Indians, 126Bosi, Alfredo, 2botanical illustration, 29biodiversity, 30, 100, 151, 152,

157n4Brasília, 55, 82, 116, 118, 119,

127, 128, 166n6Briot, Marie Odile, 107, 169n2Bryant, Levi, 53Bryson, J. Scott, 7, 16–17, 37, 165n9Buck-Morss, Susan, 166n8Buell, Lawrence, 28

Cabral, Astrid, 7–8, 37–8, 54–69, 71, 73, 80, 93, 97, 158n7, 167n14–17

Cacaso (Antônio Carlos de Brito), 161n8

Cadogan, León, 93Caeiro, Alberto. See Fernando PessoaCage, John, 72Camargo, Iberê, 127Caminha, Pêro Vaz de, 1, 4, 5Candido, Antonio, 38Cappio, Bishop Luiz Flávio, 171n15

Cardim, Fernão, 2Carroll, Lewis, 72, 167n1Castro, Eduardo Viveiros de, 7,

21–3, 72, 84–5, 128, 143, 156, 161n7, 171n14

Cazé, Wladimir, 25–6Ceará, 120Cerrado, 116, 124, 126, 151–2,

159n3, 173n4Chagall, Marc, 102Chapada dos Guimarães, 124–5Chaves, Xico, 171n1Chiappini, Lígia, 162n8Climate Change, 149, 160n6Clube da Madrugada, 55Coelho, José Teixeira, 163n8Coimbra, Eduardo, 13–14, 28, 154colonial period/colonial discourse,

1–3, 5, 33, 53, 61–3, 86, 91–7, 110, 126, 158n7, 168n8

coloniality, 6, 95conceptualism, 5–8, 14, 18, 23, 26,

28, 56, 73, 86, 96–103, 106, 113–17, 129, 131–5, 137–47, 151, 154, 156, 163n8

concrete poetry, 55, 86, 158n7, 162n8

conservation, environmental, 28, 39, 49, 54, 95, 99–100, 110, 115–16, 122, 129, 154, 166n12, 169n5, 173n4

Corrêa, Marcos Sá, 4Corrêa, Walmor, 29–31cosmology (cosmogony,

cosmovision), 21–2, 25, 39, 48, 54, 56, 72, 79, 81–6, 90, 95–7, 118, 124, 127, 129

cosmopolitanism, 6, 23, 26–7, 83, 85, 103, 151, 164n8

Costa, Marcus de Lontra, 113Costa, Maria de Fátima, 126Cravo Jr., Mário, 117, 170n13Cravo Neto, Mário, 127, 170n13

Dada, 40, 163n8Daniel, Cláudio, 162n8

Index 187

D’Annunzio, Gabrielle, 82De Maria, Walter, 19, 160n4decay, decomposition, 13, 19, 31,

33, 41–6, 49, 53, 56–9, 77, 80, 85, 114–20, 137–9, 143, 145, 166n13, 170n11

deforestation, 4–5, 9, 96, 100–1, 103, 108–13, 122, 124, 129, 150, 157n6, 166n12, 168n8, 169n5

Dérrida, Jacques, 15–16development/developmentalism,

4, 39, 54, 69, 108–10, 124, 129, 149–52, 155–6, 158n6, 169n5, 173n3

Dion, Mark, 115, 160n6Donne, John, 88Duchamp, Marcel, 133, 136, 171n3

Earth art, 6–7, 9, 14, 16, 18–21, 23, 28–35, 99–101, 105–6, 113–15, 118, 129, 131–40, 144–7, 151, 160n4, 170n10. See also land art

Earth Summit (1992) (Eco 92; U.N. Conference on Environment and Development), 8, 112, 115, 132, 149–50, 169n8, 170n10

earthworks. See land artEckhout, Albert, 2ecocriticism, 6–7, 14–23, 28, 35,

37, 53–4ecology/ecological thinking, 6–9,

14–18, 23, 25, 28, 35, 38–41, 46, 49, 54, 61–2, 69, 81, 86, 97, 101, 105, 109–10, 114–15, 123, 128–9, 131, 153, 156, 158n6–7, 166n13

ecopoetry, 7–8, 14–18, 23, 35, 37, 97, 147, 165n9. See also ambient aesthetics/ambient poetics

elegy, 49, 69, 121–2El-Jaick, Astréa, 171n1enchantment/disenchantment, 1,

9, 39, 48–51, 54, 58, 71, 78, 86, 134, 141–2

Engel, Deborah, 159n3Engelhardt, James, 17–18environment (as concept), 6–9,

14–15, 17–19, 28, 31, 33, 38, 41, 44–5, 47, 49, 53, 55, 68–9, 72, 90, 99, 109, 115–16, 129, 139, 151, 159n2

environmental aesthetics/environmental poetics. See ambient aesthetics/ambient poetics

environmental and ecological crisis/environmental and ecological degradation, 4–6, 8, 9, 22, 49, 69, 97, 100–1, 109, 111–14, 116, 122, 129, 131, 150, 173n4

environmental justice, 53, 95, 100, 122, 149

environmental movement, global, 108, 114, 125, 173n1

in Brazil, 150, 157n6, 169n5Instituto Socioambiental, 168n9Movimento Arte e Pensamento

Ecológico, 123Movimento de Artistas pela

Natureza, 8, 124, 126environmental philosophy, 7, 21,

35, 81, 83environmental policy, global, 149

in Brazil, 151, 169n5environmentalist engagement, 4–5,

8, 28–9, 85, 97, 99–101, 108, 113–15, 122, 131, 152, 165n9, 170n8

estrangement, 7, 9, 69, 71, 78, 131, 144, 154, 167n6

ethno-biodiversity. See sociobiodiversity

extinction, 30, 152

Fagundes, Ígor, 68Farias, Agnaldo, 164n8Feldmann, Fábio, 149–50, 169n5Fernández, Macedonio, 82Ferreira, Glória, 13

Index188

Fisher-Wirth, Ann, 18Fluxus, 122–3, 126Fonteles, Bené, 8–9, 99–100,

115–29, 132, 139, 158n6, 170n12, 171n15

Fortes, Maria da Graça, 171n1Franco, Siron, 151–2, 154Freyre, Gilberto, 174n9Furtado, Celso, 152

Gândavo, Pêro de Magalhães, 1–2

Garrard, Greg, 69Generation of 1945, 40Gil, Gilberto, 174n9Gilcrest, David, 17, 37, 44Goiás, 117Góngora, Luís de, 88Gouveia, Antônio de, 91Graça, Antônio Paulo, 56, 61Gray-Street, Laura, 18Groissman, Martin, 163n8Guaíra, Seven Falls of, 5Guanás, 51Guarani, 51, 72, 86, 93, 96Guató Indians, 51Guattari, Félix, 54, 109Guimarães, Sérgio, 125Gullar, Ferreira, 174n9

Handley, George, 62, 68, 167n17Heise, Ursula, 137Helena, Lucia, 56Herkenhoff, Paulo, 33Hesse-Honeger, Cornelia, 160n6Holanda, Sérgio Buarque de, 1–2,

157n3Hollanda, Heloísa Buarque de,

161n8Holt, Nancy, 160n4Huggan, Graham, 54human/nonhuman duality/alterity,

7, 15–17, 21–3, 28, 38, 45, 48–56, 61, 64, 69, 72–3, 76, 79–86, 100–1, 116, 119, 129, 144, 153, 156

Indigeneity, 94, 111, 125–6, 128Indigenous (Amerindian,

Native American) cultures, 1–3, 7–8, 21–3, 40, 51, 53, 62, 63, 71–2, 78–9, 81, 83–6, 91–5, 97, 111, 116–17, 122–3, 125–8, 143, 157n6, 161n7, 167n2, 168n8, 169n5, 171n14. See also Bakairi; Bororo; Guanás; Guarani; Guató; Irnaxi Pareci; Karajás; Mbyá-Guarani; Nhambiquara; Tupi; Tupinambá; Umutina; Xavante

intersubjectivity/interdependence, 14, 38–9, 41, 45–7, 54–6, 64, 69, 166n13. See also ecology/ecological thinking

Irnaxi Pareci Indians, 126Itaipu dam. See Guaíra, Seven

Falls of

Jesuit order and missions, 91–2Johanson, Patricia, 171n1Jorge, Eduardo, 140, 143, 173n9Joyce, James, 72Juaçaba, Carla, 152, 174n5Justino, Maria José, 106–8

Kapoor, Anish, 72, 79Karajás Indians, 119Ki-moon, Ban, 173n1Knickerbocker, Scott, 8Krajcberg, Frans, 8–9, 99–115,

118, 122, 124, 129, 132, 135, 139, 150, 152, 160n6, 168–70n1–9, 170n13, 171n1

Kristeva, Julia, 41

Ladeira, Maria Inês, 168n9land art, 19, 124, 138, 160n4,

172n5. See also Earth art; earthworks

Landless Movement, 44, 173n3

Index 189

landscape as form/post-landscape (meta-landscape), 6–9, 11–14, 16–19, 23, 28, 33–5, 71, 73–9, 87–91, 133, 137–8, 154–5, 159n3

Latour, Bruno, 156Léger, Fernand, 102Leirner, Sheila, 101Léry, Jean de, 2Lessa, Bia, 152–3Lévi-Strauss, Claude, 81, 167n4Levitin, Alexis, 55, 67, 158n7,

167n16Lezama Lima, José, 86, 88Librandi-Rocha, Marília, 161n7Lima, Luiz Costa, 24, 161n7, 162n8Lima, Sueli, 117Linnaeus, Carl, 11, 30linguistic skepticism, 11–13, 17–18,

37, 44, 63, 71–2Lyra, Edgar, 134

Macêdo, Silvana, 7, 20–1, 28, 160n6

Machado, Duda, 12, 73, 87, 154, 158n1

Maciel, Maria Esther, 65, 167n6Mammi, Lorenzo, 144Manaus, 54–5, 58“Manifesto of Integral Naturalism,”

108–11, 169n6–7Marcgraf, Georg, 2Martins, Adriano, 170n12Martius, Carl Friedrich Philipp

von, 30Matarazzo, Francisco, 102Mato Grosso, 108, 109, 112, 116,

117, 119, 124, 126Mato Grosso do Sul, 23, 39, 72, 82Mautner, Jorge, 174n9Mbyá Guarani, 86, 91–7, 168n9Medeiros, Sérgio, 7–8, 23, 71–86,

97, 142–3, 158n7, 167n1–6Mee, Margaret, 29Meireles, Cildo, 160n5Melo Neto, João Cabral, 174n9

Mendes, Chico, 113, 150metamorphosis. See transfigurationModernism, 40, 72, 101

Brazilian Modernism, 3, 40, 55, 72–3, 78–9, 162n8, 174n9

Michaux, Henri, 82migration, rural to urban, 44, 121military dictatorship (1964–1985),

5, 55, 108, 111, 140, 169n5, 172n7

Minas Gerais, 104, 112, 114modernity, 18, 39, 97, 111, 121,

128, 163n8Morais, Frederico, 101, 105, 111Moriconi, Ítalo, 26–7Morton, Timothy, 7, 14–17, 25,

41, 53, 131Mosquera, Gerardo, 163n8Müller, Adalberto, 165n2multinaturalism, 7, 22–3, 72–3, 84mythopoetics, 8, 71–2, 91, 97,

126. See also cosmology

Nader, Carlos, 155natural history, 13, 28–30, 44,

52–3, 55, 67–9, 90, 115–16, 159n3, 166n8

museum of, 13, 19, 30, 34, 154, 159n2, 160n6

nature as concept, nature/culture duality, 6–7, 14–21, 29, 38, 48–9, 53–5, 64, 68, 72, 84, 97, 99–101, 109–11, 114–16, 119, 122, 125, 134, 137, 141, 146–7, 151, 155–6

Navas, Adolfo Montejo, 127–8Naves, Rodrigo, 143Neo-concretism, 145New Objectivism, 113, 145New World, 1–2, 8, 33, 69, 86,

88, 91–2, 94, 97, 110–11Nhambiquara Indians, 126Nixon, Rob, 53Nóbrega, Manuel de, 91, 96Nouveau Réalisme, 103, 109, 113Novey, Idra, 40, 43, 158n7, 165n1

Index190

Ohtake, Tomie, 127, 170n13Oiticica, Hélio, 142Oliveira, Solange Ribeiro de, 162n8Oppenheim, Dennis, 136, 160n4Ornellas, Sandro, 26Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso), 45

Pádua, José Augusto, 3–5, 157n2Pantanal, 8, 37–41, 46, 49, 53–4,

61, 68–9, 97, 104, 165n2, 166n12

Pape, Lygia, 127Pará, 116, 170n10Paraná, 5, 86, 88, 91, 102–3parks, 33, 35, 82, 133, 138, 155

national parks in Brazil, 5, 122, 124–5

Partido dos Trabalhadores (PT), 129, 158n6

pastoral mode, 8, 12, 49, 54, 59, 62–3, 95, 122

Pedrosa, Mário, 126Perniola, Mario, 82Perrone, Charles, 161n8Pessoa, Fernando, 44, 166n9Piauí, 33Pinto, Manuel da Costa, 162n8Pires, Miriam, 117Piso, Willem, 2Pita, Sebastião Rocha, 2place/place-making, 6–8, 11, 14,

17, 23, 26, 32, 35, 37–9, 49, 53–6, 71, 82, 85, 87, 89, 91, 116, 120–1, 123, 131, 133, 137, 156, 159n3

poesia marginal, 27, 162n8Ponge, Francis, 82Portinari, Cândido, 102positivism, 15, 69, 73, 174n8postcolonialism, 40, 53, 83, 93–5Prestes, Luiz Carlos, 165n5primitivism, 3, 4, 49, 123, 128

Ramos, Nuno, 9, 131, 139–47, 172n8–9

Rebouças, André, 5

regionalism, 26, 38, 64Restany, Pierre, 103–4, 108–9,

169n7Ribeiro, Dora, 11–12, 23–4, 25,

73, 88Rimbaud, Arthur, 89Rio, Lia do, 9, 131–9, 144, 147,

154, 171n1–6Rio+20 (2012, UN Summit on

Sustainable Development), 149–55, 173n1–3

Rio de Janeiro, 2, 5, 8, 13, 23, 24, 29, 33, 39, 55, 103, 132, 138, 154, 159n3, 171n1, 174n6–7

Museum of Modern Art of, 107, 112

Rio Negro, 30, 33, 61Manifesto of (see Manifesto of

Integral Naturalism)Romanticism, 8, 15–16, 18–20,

49, 78, 125, 159n2Brazilian Romanticism, 2, 3,

76, 94Roquette-Pinto, Cláudia, 24–5,

73, 88Rosa, João Guimarães, 38, 40,

161n7, 174n9ruins/ruination, 33, 41, 43–6,

49, 52–3, 55–7, 67, 69, 80, 93, 96, 113, 115, 116, 121, 134, 166n8. See also decay, decomposition

Ruiz de Montoya, Antonio, 96Rymer, Russ, 157n5

Salomão, Waly, 26–8Salvador, Friar Vicente, 5São Francisco River, 117, 122, 128

Transposition of, 129, 158n6São Paulo, 13, 33, 82, 102, 116,

120, 123, 132, 140, 142, 144, 160n5, 166n6, 167n2, 169n3, 174n6

Biennale, 102–3, 116Santa Catarina, 20, 30, 86

Index 191

Scarano, Fábio, 157n4, 166n12, 173n4

Scherpenberg, Katie von, 31, 33science, 11, 13, 15, 18, 21, 24,

28–30, 49–50, 128, 150, 151, 154, 166n13, 167n6, 170n9

science and art, 20–1, 35, 160n6scientific expeditions, 30

Segall, Lasar, 102Sergipe, 117Serres, Michel, 81, 167n4sertão, 26–8, 38, 120, 158n6,

159n3site/non-site, 13, 20, 33, 115,

119, 124, 132–9, 145, 160n4Smithson, Robert, 19, 133, 136,

160n4socio-biodiversity, 100, 116, 129,

155socio-environmentalism, 100, 115,

122, 126–9, 155–6, 168n9, 174n10

Soper, Kate, 21Souza Elton Luiz Leite de, 40space/space-consciousness/

spaciousness, 8, 17, 35–8, 46, 49, 54, 56, 69, 71–2, 97, 156

Spix, Johann Baptist von, 30Staden, Hans, 2Suárez Araúz, Nicomedes, 64sublime, 16, 41, 56, 77–8, 90,

155, 159n2sustainability, 122, 149–52, 155–6,

169n8, 170n9, 174n9symbolism/neo-symbolism, 23,

56, 68–9, 76, 88, 166n13

Tassinari, Alberto, 141technology

biotechnology, 30, 48, 111, 154, 165n9

tekoha, 96, 168n9terra sem males, 93, 96, 168n8

territorial signification, 6, 8, 11, 35, 38, 46, 54–5, 64–5, 68–9, 71, 73, 86, 91, 96–7, 118–19, 165n8. See also place/place-making

Thoreau, Henry David, 55Tiffin, Helen, 54time/timelessness, 13, 31, 33,

39, 44, 46, 49, 53–8, 61, 64, 93–4, 114, 121, 132, 135, 137–42

Tostes, Celeida, 171n1transfiguration, 13, 38, 41, 45–6,

56, 61, 65, 85, 95, 97, 161n7trash/detritus, 41–2, 49, 76,

119–20, 124, 132–3, 135, 170n9

Tupi, Tupinambá Indians, 1–2

Umutina Indians, 126

Valentim, Rubem, 116, 127, 170n13, 171n1

Vargas, Getúlio, 165n5Veloso, Caetano, 174n9Venice Biennale, 105, 142Venosa, Ângelo, 154–5Volpi, Alfredo, 102

Waldmann, Berta, 46, 51Wallis, Brian, 19, 28, 170n10Walters, Roberta Lenese, 110–12,

169n2, 169n4weather, 49, 139wilderness, 55–6, 69, 94, 122,

155, 159n2, 168n8Williams, Raymond, 6Wordsworth, William, 67, 78

Xavante Indians, 72, 126, 167n2

Yagi, Mariyo, 171n1

Zanini, Mário, 102, 104Zilberman, Regina, 2