187

Preface

1 . The name Singapura first appeared in Sejarah Melayu (“Malay Annals”), which was written in AD 1535. ( Singhain in Sanskrit means “lion” and pura “town”.)

1 Introduction: A Sociolinguistic History of Early Identities in Singapore

1 . Towards the end of the 18th century, scientific models of anatomy, such as craniometry were used to show that Europeans were superior to Asians and Africans.

2 . Another reason for the re-emergence of religion is the fact that most Arab countries are by definition Islamic, since the same clause in many of their respective Constitutions commonly declares Islam the religion and Arabic the national language.

3 . So too, Chairman Mao of the People’s Republic of China wanted to phonetize Chinese as a means of increasing literacy (De Francis, 1984). Then, existing Western efforts such as the Wades-Giles notations were not acceptable to the Chinese leaders for they were identified with Westerners who were more familiar with the sounds of Southern Chinese dialects such as Hokkien and Taiwanese.

4 . The Unfederated Malay States is the term given to the five British protected states of Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis and Trengganu. These states coexist with the Federated Malay States such as Selangor, Perak, Pahang and Negri Sembilan. PAS and UMNO are two major political parties in present-day Malaysia with strong support in the Unfederated and Federated Malay States respectively.

5 . Not surprisingly, proposals for replacing one script with another in writing a language are sometimes perceived as an attack on a group’s identity (Suleiman, 2006 ).

6 . Another example is the Sanskrit word punggawa which used to mean “bull, hero, eminent person, chief of” in Sanskrit but which in 19th century Maccassar had come to mean in the Javanese language: “leader of an army, captain of a ship”(Macknight, 1985 : 219–220).

7 . The “lexical diffusion” (Labov, 1966) among elated words occurs because of the tendency of the brain to use rules as much as possible in producing language, resulting in considerable standardization.

8 . During the 2,000 years of trade in Southeast Asia, at least thirty states and their polyglot ports flourished, of which Singapore is only one example. (Lieberman, 2009 : 772).

Notes

188 Notes

9 . For example, Singapore attracted Jewish businessman and philanthropist, Manasseh Meyer, who was born in India in 1846 (Turnbull, 1989 : 96). For other examples, see the National Archives, Singapore of Felice Isaacs and Frederick Isaacs Jacob Ballas (B 000378/10) and Savi Khafi (A 000389/06).

10 . For example, in the 17th century, there are records that Portuguese and Dutch naval fleets engaged each other in deadly warfare – with battles fought either at the eastern entrance of the Straits of Singapore (near Pulau Tekong) or off the Port of Melaka.

11 . The census is likely to have been taken in a haphazard way. The first system-atic one was only undertaken in 1871 (Hirschman, 1986 , 1987 ).

12 . Its multitude of population may be said to supersede that of Malacca, a sister port where thousands of foreign traders were systematically grouped around four major influential communities – the Gujaratis, Tamils, Javanese and Chinese (Wade, 2010 ).

13 . John Crawfurd (1783–1868) is best known for his work on Asian languages, e.g. his History of the Indian Archipelago (Crawfurd, 1820 ) and his role in the founding of Singapore.

14 . The Europeans comprised not just the British but also the French, the Germans, the Spanish, the Portuguese and the Italians. The 19th century naval competition between the Dutch and British for the “East Indies” may be seen in many English words damming the Dutch such as “Dutch treat”, “Dutch uncle”, “Dutch courage”, “Dutch wife” and “go Dutch” (cf. Khieif, 1979 ).

15 . Colonializers are often followed by their missionaries: for example, in the case of Phoenician colonization, the language and religion survived in Carthage for centuries long after both had died out in the homeland.

16 . Seva Singh (National Archives, Singapore, 1989), who was born in 1920, was a trainee medic in the Tan Tock Seng Hospital. He had an interesting change of career during the Japanese occupation of Singapore. In 1942, he had enrolled in the Hongwanji Nippongo Gakuen and was subsequently offered a job to teach Japanese at the Teachers’ College in Johor during the Japanese occupation. In his memories of the Sikh community in Singapore, he recounts “no conflict with other races except in intermarriages.”

2 Racial Identities: Plurality in the Making

1 . The Hokkiens later expanded to Hokkien Street and the vicinity of China Street. The Teochews settled mainly along Circular Road and South Bridge Road, mostly along the banks of the Singapore River (Savage and Yeoh, 2003 ).

2 . Originally, Sago Street started out as a street specializing in the import and export of sago. In the 20th century, it became specialized as a street of funeral parlours. Today in its “third rebirth”, it is part of a quaint “tourist” thoroughfare with small cafes and shops selling Chinese artifacts.

3 . For example, the Hokkien piece goods traders formed the Singapore Textile Dealers’ Friendly Association , while the Singapore-Malaya Chinese Textile Merchant’s Association was predominantly Hakka (Yen, 2002 ). Another case in point is the commercial banks, which were also organized according to

Notes 189

linguistic groups. The Overseas Chinese Bank founded in 1919 catered to the Hokkiens; the Kwong Yik Bank founded in 1903 and the Lee Wah Bank in 1950 catered to the Cantonese; while the Sze Hai Tong Bank founded in 1907 catered to the Teochews and the Babas began the Chinese Commercial Bank.

4 . The full title of the book is A Padre in Partibus: Being Notes and Impressions of a Brief Holiday Tour Through Java, the Eastern Archipelago and Siam. Padre is a priest who performs religious services in the armed forces, a kind of modern day chaplain. Partibus is the plural of partus , meaning “a bearer” or “bringing forth”.

5 . Robson ( 1894 : 19), a British observer, writes that: “a close friendship between a Chinaman and European is uncommon.”

6 . J.R. Logan was not just a lawyer but also a newspaper proprietor. He was the editor of The Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (1847–1859), known popularly as Logan’s Journal . This was the first ever attempt to promote a scientific periodical in the Straits Settlements.

7 . In India, for instance, where communities of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs have largely lived in harmony, the census conducted by the British colonial authorities had led to a hardening of religious identities (Brass, 2005 ).

8 . The policy of “divide and rule” (from the Latin divide et impera or “divide and conquer”) has existed since the times of the Romans. It was a strategy used by imperial powers to maintain power by breaking up larger concen-trations of power into chunks that would individually have less power.

9 . As a result, Malays in Singapore were outstripped demographically and economically in 19th century Singapore, and never recovered from being the “deprived minority” (Zoohri, 1990 ). It was only in the 1920s that the first collective effort to improve their social status was initiated through the efforts of Mohd. Eunos bin Abdullah, a member of the Straits Settlements Legislative Council, who, realizing that Malay children lacked a “bread-winning language,” urged the Department of Education to shorten vernacular education by two years and to replace it with English.

10 . One recalls Reginald Sanderson’s ( 1908 : 124) account of the Malay popula-tion: “ ... let us mark their rightful inhabitants. They are a kindly and likeable people, but shunning most forms of work, they look on with utter noncha-lance while the alien robs them of their birthright. They are however keen sportsman, expert fisherman and boatmen.”

11 . A supplementary textbook, in the Malayan Readers series entitled “We see the World” by Cheeseman and Gillet (n.d.), shows how a Malay boy taken out from his village was given an overseas scholarship and how amazed and enchanted the boy was in seeing the world of London, Paris, Gibraltar, Niagara Falls, Shanghai and Hong Kong.

12 . Nagata ( 1975 ) argues that the low status and lack of social mobility of the Indians in the plantations of Malaya is not so much a result of race but rather of the vernacular school system.

13 . This practice was confirmed by my interviews with Mrs Hedwig Anuar on 10 January 2010 and Mrs Lim Long on 19 January 2010. Both of them were educated in English-medium schools before the Second World War.

14 . Syed Hussain bin Abdul Gadir Aljunied (National Archives, Singapore A000320/03) who married a Chinese Muslim convert, narrates episodes of his education at Aljunied Islamic School in Singapore.

190 Notes

15 . A close association between Christianity, English and colonial rule existed. For example, Song Hoot Kiam (1830–1900) the father of Song Ong Siang, the author of “One Hundred Years’ History of the Chinese in Singapore” was displayed as “a Christian” and “reported to speak English perfectly” (79). In writing of his father, Song ( 1923 ) wrote rather proudly that his father visited England and was a part of the choir at the Strait Chinese Church (Song, 1923 : 78–79).

16 . Interviews with teachers from Singapore mission schools: Mrs Robert Eu and Mrs Lim Long on 19 January 2010.

17 . Founded by Sir Stamford Raffles in 1823, Raffles Institution provided an English education for the sons of the British residents and the children of local leaders.

18 . The “Straits-born” refers to the inhabitants of the Straits Settlements of which Singapore was a part (the other two being Malacca and Penang). One Straits-born Chinese was Whampoa (also known as Hoo Ah Kay, 1816–1880), a Singapore Chinese merchant known for entertaining guests with lavish dinners: “ ... speaking English with the accent and idiom of a well-bred and well-read English gentleman, he was well acquainted with the literature and science of the West, and had a liking for its customs and manners ... ” ( Straits Times Orbituary, 29 March 1880).

19 . For examples of English language textbooks replete with colonial ideology, see Milne ( 1933 ) and Stowell ( 1933 ). See also Malayan Publishing House’s dramatic readers (1946– 1947 ) series by L. Milne and H.R. Cheeseman, the Singapore and Johore Teachers’ Association.

20 . This book was used in the Convent schools such as the Convent of the Holy Infant Jesus (Sisters, 1936). Interview with Mrs Hedwig Anuar on 10 January 2010.

21 . Source: Chinese Annual Conference: The Methodist Church in Singapore. Retrieved from http://www.cac-singapore.org.sg/index.cfm?GPID=4 on 19 January 2010.

22 . Source : National Archives ( 1989 ) Oral History, Accession No. 001211/20. 23 . Where silent prayer is concerned, 57.1 per cent use Tamil and only 23.8 per

cent use English. 24 . This idea was later internalized by Malay nationalists in Malaysia to claim

the “Malay race” as the “natives” of the country, and therefore entitled to bumiputera (“first inhabitants”) rights (Milne et al , 2007; Shamsul, 2003 ).

3 Regional Identities: Distinct but Undivided

1 . My elderly Malay informants, for example, distinguished themselves according to the categories orang laut (“sea people”), orang darat (“land people”), and orang lama (“people who have resided long in the kampong”) and orang baru (“newcomers”).

2 . Frank Swettenham (cf. Burns and Cowan, 1975 ) made a comparative vocab-ulary study sometime in the 19th century, and on that basis, listed the “wild tribes “ of Malaya as follows: Dusun, Sulus, Nias Islanders, Kian Dayali, Punan Dyak, Melano Dayak, Land Dayak, Tagbenia, Kinta Sakai, Semang of Ijoh, etc. British officials knew there were many regional groups.

Notes 191

3 . There are some scattered observations made by European residents, for example, the surgeon, Dr Robert Little, wrote about a Kampong Java (“Javanese village”) in the 1840s. Oral history accounts in the mid-20th century also tell of active links in the world of the port through a wide range of petty trading or cottage activities, such as the making of songkok, capal (“sandals”) and haj (“dresses”), as well as palm leaf cigarettes, baskets, copper tools, embroidery of tools and goldsmithery, undertaken by many kampong dwellers.

4 . Part of their historical distinctiveness stems from the use of the Lontara script (stemming from the Malay word for the palmyra palm – lontor – the leaves of which are the traditional writing materials for manuscripts in India and Southeast Asia). Today, however, Bugis is often written with the Roman alphabet.

5 . The languages of these areas, with their relatively minor differences, have been largely recognized by linguists as constituting dialects. Recent linguistic research has identified eleven of them, most comprising two or more sub-dialects. There are sub-dialects from Wajo, Sopeng, Sinjai, Wajoq, Luwuq, and Siddenreng, as well as varieties from the areas of Pare-pare, Sinjai and Suppa (Tol, 2001 ).

6 . Maimunah bte Haji Mohd. Ali, (1913– HYPERLINK \l “CBML_BIB_000_364” 2001) whose ancestors came from Sulawesi through Java, Riau, Johor and Singapore, has recounted the use of Bazaar Malay as a means of communi-cation between the different Bugis subgroups. See National Archives (1993) Accession No: A000457/14.

7 . By 1973, it was estimated that there were 200 Minangkabau families in Singapore and almost all of them had adopted Singaporean citizenship (Alatas, Khoo and Kwa, 1997 ).

8 . This migration came to a halt when immigration laws were tightened after the achievement of independence from the British in 1957 for Malaya and in 1959 for Singapore.

9 . After the Second World War, the total number of Javanese coming to Singapore continued to increase. The first wave consisted of conscripted labour that was brought in by the Japanese Occupation (Turnbull, 1989 ). The second wave comprised those who moved to Singapore through Malaya. The 1970 Population Census showed that a total of 21,324 Malays who were born in Malaya (later Malaysia) had moved to Singapore in the years 1946–1955; and as many as 29,679 moved to Singapore during the period 1956–1970 (Department of Statistics 1971: 262–3). Oral interview records showed that the majority of them were young men of Javanese descent who wanted to find a better life in Singapore.

10 . The Melka Undang-Undang Laut (“Maritime Code”) was the key indigenous guide to shipping at the height of the Malacca Sultanate and was the product of the city’s Malay speaking population among whom Javanese were the most numerous (Reid, 2001 ).

11 . Fujian province borders Zhèjiāng to the north, Jiāngxī to the west, Guǎngdōng to the south, and Táiwān to the east. In other accounts, Hokkien has also been referred to as “Hoklo 河洛话” or “Hoklao 福佬话.”

12 . An alternative classification by Hu (2008) and Lin (1998) are as follows:Mǐndōng dialect (with Fúzhōuhuà as representative) Pǔtián dialect

192 Notes

in Pǔtián city Mǐnnán dialect, (with Xiàménhuà as representative) Mǐnběi dialect, (with Jiàn’ōuhuà as representative) Minga dialect, (with Shàowǔhuà as the representative) Mǐnzhōng dialect (with Yǒng’ānhuà as the representa-tive Mike dialect (Hakka) (with Chángtīnghuà as the representative)

13 . Teochews are the majority Chinese linguistic group in Thailand and on the east coast of Sumatra in Riau and in Western Borneo. Notable Teochews include opium and spirit tax-farmer and gunpowder magazine proprietor Tan Seng Poh (1830–79), and businessman and plantation owner, Seah Liang Seah (1850–1925), the son of well-known businessman Seah Eu Chin.

14 . One group of Southern Mǐn speakers who fled to the neighbouring city of Cháozhōu between the 9th and 15th centuries spoke what is today known as Teochew or Cháozhōuhuà. According to Glossika, Teochew has an overall 50.4 per cent mutual intelligibility with Hokkien, 44.3 per cent with Mandarin and 43.5 per cent with Cantonese.

15 . A well-known Singaporean Cantonese is Lee Dai Soh, who worked for Rediffusion, a cable radio company introduced in 1949 in Singapore, which broadcast many programmes in different Chinese languages before the present-day compulsion both in Singapore and elsewhere to learn Mandarin. Another well-known Cantonese speaker is Wong Ah Fook, a native of Taishan in Kwantung province who made his fortune as a building contractor, gambier planter, and banker.

16 . The most famous Hakka in Malaysia was Yap Ah Loy, whose tin mines in Malaysia and Thailand (Phuket) were exclusively worked by his Cantonese Hakka clansmen.

17 . Later, Cantonese women from the province of Canton joined these female labourers and worked alongside them, also adopting the use of their distin-guished headgear (Low, 2009 ).

18 . Migration only resulted after Hankou was made a treaty port in 1870. 19 . The Hainanese are also known for their ability to cook Western food, as

many of them had worked as cooks on European ships. 20 . They are also known as “Hill country Tamils,” “Up-country Tamils” or

simply “Indian Tamils”, Many of them are descended from workers sent from South India to Sri Lanka to work in the tea, coffee and rubber planta-tions in the 19th and 20th centuries.

21 . For example, the public cleansing services were reserved for the lower castes, such as the untouchables, and this group suffered from several social disa-bilities such as discrimination in the use of wells, temples and other public places.

22 . It is discernible in the speech of, for example, Ram Swaraj Dube (born 1927) who came to Singapore at the age of 19 and assumed an orthodox Hindu identity by wearing the dhoti, kola and heavy hair oil. He had lived in a mud house before seeking his fortune in Singapore. Another Telegu speaker, Ellam Govindasamy Naidu (born 1921) is monolingual in Telegu. See National Archives ( 1989 ), Ram Swarath Dube, Accession No. A 000610/15, Ellamh, Govindasamy Naidu, Accession No. A001169/06; and Mrs Soundara Rajan Komalavalee, Accession No. A0001319/04.

23 . Malayalee speaker Sheila Fernandez (National Archives, 1989 , Accession No. 000569) recounted that Malayalees in Singapore usually married outside their caste.

Notes 193

24 . In recent years, Bollywood songs written totally in Punjabi may be observed. Punjabi pop and folk songs are very popular both in India and Pakistan at the national level. A number of television dramas based on Punjabi characters are telecast daily by different television networks (Sridhar and Kachru, 2008 ).

25 . The British intervened in Malaya in 1874 and subsequently administered the states of Perak, Selangor, Sungei Ujong (Negeri Sembilan) and finally Pahang in 1888.

26 . See National Archives, Singapore, oral history tape of retired Sikh school-teacher, Mohinder Singh (National Archives. Accession No: 000546/65). He is a member of the Central Sikh Temple as well as the People’s Action Party and speaks Punjabi, Urdu, English and Malay.

27 . For example, Ceylonese Tamils tended to work as clerks, junior civil servants and in the professions. Christian Malayalees from Kerala were English-educated and worked mainly in the civil service. Punjabi Sikhs were the backbone of the armed forces and the police force and worked as secu-rity guards. Tamil Muslims, Sindhis and Gujaratis were often small traders while the Tamil Chettiar caste from Tamil Nadu were moneylenders and currency changers.

28 . They built the Johor Causeway, Sembawang Dockyard and the Kallang Airport (cf. Buckley, 1984 : 364).

29 . In 1941, Ibrahim Yaccob, a founding member of the Kesatuan Melayu Muda (Young Malay Union), voiced the nationalist sentiment that there were still too many who thought of themselves as Bugis or Boyanese instead of as members of the Malay bangsa (“race”) pure and simple (Milner, 2002).

4 Religious Identities: Syncretic and Inclusive

1 . The language of the Orang Asli belongs to the Malayo-Polynesian or Oceanic or Austronesia family, on par with other large language families such as the Bantu, Indo-European, Afro-Asiatic and Uralic.

2 . Wilkinson ( 1952 ) notes that the Jakuns spoke with an accent of their own, for example, pronouncing the final / k / sound which contemporary Malay suppresses.

3 . Retrieved on 9 February 2010 from: http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/word.php?c=Verbs

4 . Other languages that have been influenced by Sanskrit are Thai, Filipino, old Javanese languages and, to a lesser extent, Cambodian and Vietnamese. The Indonesian airline is described by the Sanskrit word garuda, which means “the eagle of Vishnu.” So, too, Indonesia’s national ideology is described by the Sanskrit loan words of Pantja Sila (“Five Principles”).

5 . Translated by Greek explorers, this became Khryse Khersonesos or the “Golden Peninsula.” It was once believed that the states of Pahang Malacca and Muar had big quantities of gold – thereby accounting for Ptolomy’s biblical “Mount Ophir.”

6 . The Sanskrit equivalent of 1001 Arabian Nights , Somadeva’s Kathasaritsagaram (“Ocean of the Streams of Story”) recounts the quest of a Brahmin setting out for his lost loves in Kanakapuri “the City of Gold” situated somewhere “beyond the islands.” One of the merchants he meets on his way has a father who had returned rich from a long voyage to a faraway island, his ship

194 Notes

loaded specifically with gold. In reality, there was gold to be found. This gold was metaphorical – the gold of trade and the potential for immense profit either in exchanging Indian aromatic resins (including frankincense ( kundura ) and myrrh ( vola ) for Chinese silk, or in obtaining local products such as camphor ( karpura ) from Sumatra, sandalwood ( candana ) from Timor or cloves ( lavanga ) from the Moluccas (cf. Ostler, 2005 : 201).

7 . On Borneo’s east coast, for example, 5th century inscriptions recorded gifts to the Brahmin by a Maharaja, whose grandfather, without Sanskritic dignity would have been a petty chief (Lieberman, 2009 : 772).

8 . Langkasuka was in North Malaya and had an ancient capital in Kedah where there are traditions of a golden age.

9 . So religious were they that a King of the region, Gangaraja (c.420) of Champa, is said to have abdicated his throne so as to have the chance to give up his ghost on the banks of the Ganges (Ostler, 2005 ).

10 . Many traditional performing arts have been frowned on by the Pan Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS) as “un-Islamic” because they are based on Hindu epics and “promote superstition.”

11 . It is more likely that it was the Indian-Buddhist rather than the Indian-Hindu who brought Sanskrit to Southeast Asia since the Brahmins have always regarded the written transmission of language as less valuable than the oral one (Coulmas, 1989 ). Like the Catholic Church, the Brahmins believe in the essential role of the priests in mediating the written word of God, and in a certain period of Indian history, only Brahmins were taught to read at all.

12 . The first religious slabs were found at Bukit Meriam in Kedah, Malaya, and have a Buddhist inscription allegedly from the 4th century (Wheatley, 1964 : 35). There has not been as much archaeological attention and research in Srivijaya (present-day Indonesia) mainly because Srivijaya fell under the Dutch sphere of influence. The British archaeologists concentrated on the archaeological finds in Kedah because it was part of the Malay Peninsula and within their sphere of influence (Andaya, 2001).

13 . Archeological discoveries of silver and gold Buddha images from the 8th century CE found in a riverine environment in the interior of Western Borneo confirms that Vajrayana Buddhism had been securely established in the region by the 8th century (Collins, 1998 ).

14 . The Chinese monk Yi Jing made several lengthy visits to Sumatra on his way to study at the Nalanda University in India in 671 and 695 CE.

15 . Srivijaya has been referred to as Yavadesh in Sanskrit, as Javadeh in Pali, as Zabag in Arabic, as Sanfots i or San Fo Qi by the Chinese and as Melayu by the Khmer (Munoz, 2006 ). Founded in the 3rd century, it dominated the Malay Peninsula and the islands around it, namely, Java, Borneo, the Philippines and Sulawesi until the 13th century. The source of its wealth was the fact that it controlled the two passages between India and China, namely the Malacca Straits from Kedah and the Sunda Straits between Sumatra and Java, a role which Singapore as well as other ports was later to supersede.

16 . Majapahit was an archipelagic empire based on the island of Java from 1293 to around 1500. Its territories used to include present-day Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Brunei, southern Thailand, the Philippines and East Timor. It is relevant to our history not least because Islamic Sultanates, such

Notes 195

as Demak, Pajang and Mataram, established their legitimacy in relation to this ancestral line. The Nagarakretagama (also known as Desawarnana ) contains detailed descriptions of the Majapahit Kingdom and affirms the importance of Hindu-Buddhism in the Empire by describing temples and palaces and several ceremonial observances.

17 . According to the Sejarah Melayu , the annals of the royal court of Melaka, a Sumatran prince, Sri Tri Buana was cruising along Riau Archipelago when he went hunting on Tanjong Bemian. From a summit, he looked across the water and saw an island. Asking for the name, he was told it was called “Temasek.” On reaching its shores, he beheld a strange animal. On being told it was a lion, he gave Temasek a new name – Singhapura (“Lion City”), today’s “Singapore”.

18 . However, some have recently converted into Islam. In East Malaysia, animism is also practiced by an ever decreasing number of tribal groups.

19 . By the 13th century, the Turko-Afghan Muslim had begun to control most of northern India. Three centuries later, the Muslim Mughal Dynasty was to rule all of north India.

20 . Malay speaking Muslims adopted Sanskrit swarga, the abode of Shiva, and naraka for “heaven” and “hell” respectively (Malay surga and neraka ).

21 . There are some 2,750 Indonesian words derived from Arabic (Beg, 1977 ). 22 . Usually, these pilgrims would work in Singapore for several months or years

before or after performing the haj to earn money or pay their debts to their pilgrim brokers. Many of them stayed on in Singapore and became part of the Muslim community in the city.

23 . When James Brooke was the Raja of Sarawak (1841–1868), there was mention that a Eurasian interpreter by the name of Williamson was brought over from Singapore to unravel the languages which were heard in his court; namely, Malay, English, Iban, Bidayuh, obscure tongues of the Baram river, as well as different dialects of Chinese (Barley, 2002 : 68).

24 . The Netherland Indies obliged printers to deposit bonds with the govern-ment, etc. By contrast, a haji or guru in Singapore need not have to do this and could circulate in Malay lands as freely as an Englishman (Proudfoot, 1993 ).

25 . One notes too that the first quasi-Malay nationalist organization, the Kesatuan Melayu Singapura (Singapore Malay Union), formed in 1926, oper-ated from Singapore.

26 . This was a time when all the important trading throughout the Malay Archipelago was at least nominally under Chinese authority (Levathes, 1994 ). In addition, when the Portuguese captured Malacca there was already a significant Chinese settlement, a Chinese Shahbandar and a Kapitan China. If these were connected with the arrival of Zheng He, they were very likely Muslim settlements (Purcell, 1948 ).

27 . Chinese Qurans have a very distinct style of narration, probably because of its relative isolation from the Middle Eastern production centres.

28 . In view of the trading ties between Palembang and China, the Sejarah Melayu (Shellabear, 1961 ; original version, 1612) recounts that a Chinese general was left behind in Palembang with his retinue to beget the subse-quent kings of Palembang. In turn, Sang Sapurba, who Shellabear credits

196 Notes

with the founding of the Melaka and Minangkabau line of kings, was so influential that the Chinese emperor requested a princess in marriage and hence enshrined a Malay descent line for future Chinese emperors.

29 . Linschoten ( 1885 ), the Itinrario showed that the Chinese were the principal authorities of government. Hence, we may assume from this, that rulers such as the Kings of Siam, the Yam Tuan Mudas of Riau, the Sultans of Palembang and Pontianak and the Temenggong of Johor all had close rela-tions with the Chinese.

30 . Paremeswara, a descendant of the Srivijayan royal house, is also known as Iskandar Shah or Sri Majara.

31 . Yet beginning in the 14th century, it ceased advancing, and remained a predominantly agricultural nation until the latter half of the 20th century.

32 . Chapter 325 of The Ming Shi-lu (Chinese 明實錄) also known as the Veritable Records of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) has a comprehensive 150 records or more on Parameswara ( Bai-li-mi-su-la ) and Melaka. The massive translation work was contributed by Dr Geoff Wade, a Senior Researcher in the Asia Research Institute, National University of Singapore.

5 Orthographical Identity: Change and Ideology

1 . Sanskrit is the language of the descendants of Indo-Aryans (fairer skin, orig-inally from Central Asia) who invaded India from the north-west around 1500, driving southwards the Dravidians (the dark-skinned Indians such as the Tamils, Malayalees, Telugus and Kanadas), who previously had inhab-ited all of the Indian sub-continent.

2 . Some Hindu temples may prefer to use texts such as Sahasranama, Chamakam and Rudram and these are also in Sanskrit.

3 . However, despite its achievements, Devanagari never acquired the pan-Indian status it deserved as the parent script of many major languages, probably because of economic and chauvinistic reasons. Today, it coexists with 10 other major scripts in India.

4 . Brahmi has been used for Indo-European languages such as Sanskrit, Hindi, Bengali, Assamese, Rajastani, Punjabi and Sindhi, while Dravidian has been used for languages such as Tamil, Telegu, Kanarese, Malayalam and Tulu.

5 . One early Indianized state is Funan, situated on the coast of Vietnam. It was so powerful that the small states of the Malay Peninsula paid tribute to it as early as the 2nd century AD (Wales, 1976 ).

6 . In the 7th century, the Pallava Dynasty created a new script for Tamil, which was formed by simplifying the Grantha script, which in turn is derived from Southern Brahmi.

7 . Among the Indian traders were the people of Kalinga-Nadu (what is today Andhra Pradesh) and they were called Kelings , once a term of high esteem by the Chinese and Malays.

8 . It recounts how a Malay warrior, Badang, hurled a huge rock from Fort Canning Hill into the estuary of the Singapore River.

9 . For example, in India, Muslims have modified the structure of Hindu Devanagari by introducing a diacritic called the bindi to represent distinc-tive Urdu phonemes (Rizvan, 2011 ).

Notes 197

10 . An abjad is a type of writing system whereby each symbol always stands for a consonant; the reader must then supply the appropriate vowel.

11 . Jawi consists of all the 29 letters of the Arabic alphabet together with five newly invented non-Arabic letters. It is written from right to left and has six sounds not found in Arabic: ca , pa , nga , ga , va and nya .

12 . There is some confusion as to the meaning of “Jawi.” Sir Stamford Raffles’ (Raffles, 1835 ) view was that Jawi originally had the meaning of Creole, notably in anak Jawi, meaning the child of a Malay/Indian marriage. Raffles also referred to bahasa Jawi , a term he translated as “a form of mixed language.” According to Reid ( 2010 : 310), Jawi is more likely to refer to the traders of Jambi, Palembang and the east coast.

13 . In the words of William Marsden ( 1930 : iii), a British official in West Sumatra in the 18th century, who had in his possession letters from all over the Archipelago: “there is a striking consistency in the style of writing not only in prose and verse but also epistolary correspondence.”

14 . Sejarah Melayu (“Malay Annals”) is a Malay literary work that chronicles the genealogies of rulers in the Malay Archipelago and spans a period of over 600 years. It was listed on UNESCO’s Memory of the World Programme International Register in 2001.

15 . Raja Ali Haji who was from Pulau Penyengat in the Riau Archipelago was the most prolific Riau-Lingga writer of his time and his stature equals that of early Malay teacher, Munshi Abdullah.

16 . Syllabaries rather than alphabets comprise of symbols, which represent entire syllables and are arguably significantly easier to use in the process of memorization and reading.

17 . In Perlis, for example, the Malay royal family is descended from the Sayyids of Haudramaut, Arabia. However, by the 1930s, many Arab migrants had begun to bring their womenfolk with them (Kwa et al. 2009: 125).

18 . Like the Arabs, the Indian Muslims built many mosques including the Masjid Fatimah, Masjid Al-Abrar, Masjid Jamae, Masjid Sultan and Masjid Abdul Gafoor, and one keramat (“shrine”), the Nagore Durgha, in Singapore (Jayapal, 1992 : 46).

19 . Turnbull ( 1989 : 98) observed that even at the height of British influence at the beginning of the 20th century, only a few of them knew English. Only those employed in the civil service, such as barrister Syed Esa Alenoar could speak both Malay and English fluently (National Archives, 1989 , Accession No. A 000321/22).

20 . This is quite similar to Vlieland’s ( 1932 : 73–74) “Jawi-Pekan” – which is frequently applied to “an Indian who has in fact no Malayan blood in his veins, but is a Muhammadan who has settled and married in Malaya.”

21 . Its first editor was Munsyi Mohamed Said Bin Dada Mohiddin, a South Indian Muslim who remained as editor for 12 years, from 1876 to 1888 (Majid and Said, 2004 ). It is ironic here that Malay literary activities were first initiated not by the Malays themselves but by the Baba Chinese and the Jawi Peranakans (Majid and Said, 2004 ).

22 . There were seven Malay language journals in Singapore, five in Penang and four in Perak.

198 Notes

23 . It began as the Malay edition of the Singapore Free Press in 1907. Later, under the editorship of Mohd. Eunos Abdullah (1939–1958), the paper was well known for expressing Malay national aspiration.

24 . Traditionally admired for their intelligence and linguistic ability, they were frequently employed by the British administration as clerks, translators, interpreters and munshi (“teachers of the Malay language”) to the Europeans (Majid and Said, 2004 ).

25 . The phenomenal rise of the Riau-Lingga variety (aka Johor Malay or Bazaar Malay) is exemplified in, for example, two letters from the Sultan of the Ternate in north Moluccas to the King of Portugal dated 1521 and 1522, and a word list by Antonio Pigafetta, the Italian companion of the navi-gator, Magelhaens from the same period. When Francis Xavier arrived in Malacca in 1545, he spent his time preparing sermons and prayers in the Riau-Lingga variety because he knew the language was commonly spoken in Ambon and Makassar (Collins, 1980 : 8).

26 . In 1731–3, the Bible was issued in a Malay translation by Melchior Leydekker and Georg Henrik Werndly.

27 . One reason for the choice of the Johor-Riau variety as the “representative” language of the Malays could be due to the fact that it was the language of the Johor Empire of the 17th century, which was then one of the most influential in the region.

28 . Rev. Benjamin Peach Keasberry, who came to Singapore in 1837 as a missionary of the American Board of Mission and who built the Straits Chinese Church in Prinsep Street in 1843, had learnt Malay from Abdullah Munshi (Song, 1923: 57); he realized that success depended on making the Bible readily accessible to all and hence was a strong supporter of Rumi (Makepeace et al., 1991).

29 . Jawi was a relatively late entrant to the world of newspapers and the printing press because, in the initial years, printing was rejected by Muslims due to the perception that it removed the personal interaction between teacher and student. It was only in the late 1880s that this initial resistance was overcome (Laffan, 2003 ).

30 . In a study of Muslim names in 100 families, Haque and Abiddin (2011) found that their respondents were influenced greatly by religious ideology.

31 . Only in Brunei, are the Rumi and Jawi scripts co-official. Even the Javanese alphabet, which was once used to write Balinese and Sudanese, has been Romanized.

32 . A similar dilemma in the same period can be found in Turkey where the Arab-based writing system in use was replaced by a Latin-based writing system in 1928, signifying a “modern” rather than “traditional” Islam.

33 . Most of the Hindu and Buddhist records were deciphered from stone but these were few and rare. Also, even these could be destroyed once a new religious ideology takes over.

6 Individual Identities: The Use of Lingua Francas and Language Choice

1 . Source: National Archives, 1989 , Accession No. B000381/34.

Notes 199

2 . BM comprises a majority of Malay words with a free flow of vocabulary items from English, Chinese and Tamil. It originated as a form of traders’ Malay, used for centuries in the region; hence, the more polite phraseology of literary accomplishments in Malay are not found and few would know the meaning of words such as bonda, adinda, kakanda found only in private correspondences among the literary classes.

3 . Usually the Chinese, Indians, Eurasians, etc. would learn to speak Malay, rather than the other way round. Nonetheless, there were some isolated cases where the Malay may speak Chinese. Carsten (1980) reported that on the fringe of an isolated Chinese settlement in Kelantan, a number of nearby Malay villagers learned to speak Hakka, the language of their Chinese neighbours.

4 . Despite its humble origins, BM may be said to be the parent of Bahasa Malaysia, Bahasa Melayu and Bahasa Indonesia, the national languages of Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia respectively. This is because while the Dutch could have promoted Javanese as the lingua franca, the rela-tive simplicity and/or unpretentiousness of Bazaar Malay are the root of its popularity. On the other hand, Javanese being a courtly language possesses elaborate inflexions and distinct sub-languages marking different levels of politeness. Hence, at the dawn of independence, BM rather than Javanese was elevated to “national language” status. As a result, BM was duly subjected to the processes of “standardization” (codification, elabora-tion and implementation) so as to embellish its capability for literary and scientific use.

5 . In 1613, Emmanuel Godinho De Eredia, the Portuguese explorer, wrote a book dedicated to the King of Spain, which mentioned the prevalent use of Malay in the Archipelago. So too, François Valentyn in his description of Malacca in 1726 AD observed that the Malay language was the lingua franca of the region.

6 . The Indonesian Etymology Project (Jones, 2009 : 12–19) counted 1,050 entries, mostly in the semantic field of food and drink.

7 . In return, Hokkien has adopted many Malay words into its vocabulary such as agak (“guess”), botak (“bald”), chamur (“mix”), gadoh (“fight”), kachia (“disturb”), longkau (“drain”), roti (“bread”), torlong (“help”), gu li (meaning “marble”) and jamban (meaning “latrine”).

8 . In a short story by Chia ( 1898 ) entitled “The Story of the Framed Passage Ticket,” a Chinese by the name of Ng Sam Seng attempts an escape from an arranged marriage with help from a Malay-speaking bomoh (native “spiritual healer”).

9 . My sources were interviews with English-speaking teachers and principals who were employed by the British in the 1950s, for example, Mrs Lim Long, Mrs Robert Eu, Mrs S.K. Goh and Mrs K. Selvarajoo. Banker and scholar Yap Pheng Geck ( 1982 : 18) who attended the Anglo-Chinese School, an American mission school in Singapore in the 1920s, recalled that his teachers were mainly Eurasians, Tamils, American missionaries and Babas.

10 . The fact that BM was essential for survival was confirmed by diplomat Lee Khoon Choy’s ( 1988 : 6) autobiographical account of his father, who migrated to Malaya in the late 19th century. According to Lee, when his father “picked up” BM, it was “the turning point” of his life for BM was “a language which helped him find a job as a customs officer”, and which

200 Notes

ultimately contributed to his subsequent success as an importer of coolies (“labourers”).

11 . So too, in his novel entitled “The Nonya”, Chin ( 1962 : 10) begins the first paragraph in Malay (thereby signifying that the story takes place in Baba Malay). “ Ini chrita saya, Nona Tam Kim Lan. Saya latang dali Nengri china, itsu jam saya blu umur duablas taun. Saya punya bapa dan mama di kampong Nengri China manyak miskin ... ” However, Chin continued the rest of the novel in Standard English, which was the convention at that time.

12 . Carnage was sparked off by a custody battle over 13-year old Maria, between her adoptive Malay family and her Dutch-Eurasian parents. During the Japanese occupation of Java, Maria was handed over to Aminah bte. Mohamed, an Indonesian woman who raised her as a Muslim named Nadra. After the war, the Hertoghs’ learnt that their daughter was in Malaya and launched a legal battle for her custody.

13 . In the first 150 years of its existence, SE was taken very much for granted and went generally unnoticed until Ray Tongue published “The English of Singapore and Malaysia” in 1979.

14 . From 1967, the administration of Singapore was transferred directly from India to the British colonial office in London, and Singapore became a Crown Colony in its own right.

15 . See the Parsis collections at the National Archives ( 1989 ): Teacher Medora Keki, Accession No. A000295/06; Rutton Patel, Accession No. A 000302/06; and Vakil B.R., Accession No. A 000297/22.

16 . One notes here that a form of English had already been present even before the first English schools were established. In contrast, Platt and Weber ( 1980 ) and Gupta ( 1994 : 37) have argued that SE is likely to have developed from the English used in schools, such as by children in the school play-grounds of the 20th century.

17 . Guthrie & Company was established in 1821 by Alexander Guthrie as a trading branch of Thomas Talbot Harrington and Company. It rose to become one of the leading agency houses in Singapore during the 19th and 20th centuries.

18 . English-medium schools were of two types: government schools and the mission schools (also called “grant-in-aid” schools). The Primary schools provided seven years of education – Primary I and Primary II followed by Standard I to V; the Secondary schools provided four years – Standard VI to Standard IX, the final exam, and finally, the Senior School Certificate (Loh, 1975 ).

19 . Ironically, later in life, Lee Khoon Choy ( 1988 : 6) had to beg his father to let him enrol in the Chinese school, which his father himself had founded. In this way, Khoon Choy became the only child of his father who was bilin-gual in both English and Mandarin. The rest of his siblings remained mono-lingual in English.

20 . Hokkien is the term used by the Chinese to refer to Min Nan . Singaporean Hokkien (SH) generally holds Amoy dialect as its standard with its grammar largely based on Minnan and its accent predominantly based on a mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech. SH is close to the Taipei accent so they do not have many problems if they wish to communicate with Taiwanese

Notes 201

speakers. Similarly Taiwanese speakers can understand Hokkien except for the Malay and English loan words (Zhou, 2003 ).

21 . This organization is known today as the Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry.

22 . While Hokkien was the lingua franca for the Chinese in colonial Singapore, in the neighbouring city of Kuala Lumpur, Cantonese became its lingua franca, due to the latter’s economic dominance. Not surprisingly, Cantonese remains the dominant intra-group lingua franca for the Chinese in Kuala Lumpur today.

23 . Indeed, Singapore’s taxi companies conducted their courses in Hokkien right up to the late 1970s. See “Out with dialects, in with Mandarin”, Straits Times , 11 December 2011, p.34.

24 . Interview with former social worker, Dr Ann Wee, on 9 April 2001. 25 . Minnanhua shares striking similarities with Taiwan Hokkien as seen from

the samples below. 26 . See Alfred Benjamin Ponnuthurai, National Archives, 1989 , Accession No. A

000350. 27 . One notes too that two important languages are not mentioned in Figure

6.6 : Standard English and Mandarin. This is because Standard English is used only among a very small elite who were schooled either locally or abroad. As for Mandarin, it is used among the Chinese who were schooled in Mandarin-medium schools. Mandarin-medium schools became popular in Singapore only from the turn of the 20th century with the rise of nation-alism in China.

28 . There was a time when “the tuan besar (‘big boss’) sipped their whiskey stengahs or gin pahits from their personal crystal glasses or beer from mono-grammed silver tankards ... ” (Modder, 1993 : 30). A stengah is a term derived from the Malay word for “half.” It was a popular drink in British Malaya and is a combination of half whisky and half soda water and served over ice.

29 . Interview with Edward Tan, a descendant of Tan Kim Seng.

7 Hybrid Identities: Three Case Studies of Attraction and Engagement

1 . Sailing technology up to the arrival of the steamships in the later 19th century in Singapore meant that it would be many months, even years before these visitors could return to their places of origin. As the Indian, Arab and Chinese traders did not bring their women with them, they were most susceptible to intermarriages with local inhabitants such as the Bugis, the Javanese, the Orang Aslis, etc, (Jürgen, 1998 ).

2 . Betawian Creole is influenced by Javanese, Sundanese, Balinese, Portuguese, Dutch and the early Chinese traders. Menado Malay is based on Ternatean Malay and highly influenced by the Ternatean, Dutch, Minahasa languages and some Spanish and Portuguese words.

3 . Croft’s ( 2000 : 115–19) “theory of utterance selection” postulates that language change results from people’s desire to convey an exact meaning. This tempts them to practice stretching or breaking linguistic conventions.

202 Notes

When two different communities meet, levelling/simplification may occur as in the case of pidgins and Creoles. Prolonged contact often results in a convergence, a compromise, typically a simplification, of two or more communities’ conventions.

4 . Another variety derived from Bazaar Malay (cf. Grijns, 1991 ) is Jakarta Malay (also known as Bahasa Betawi ).

5 . One notes that Freedman ( 1962 ) argues that the primary parent of Baba Malay is Hokkien. For example, the syllable ng, n, or m , which forms the first part of kinship terms in Baba Malay, is a version of ng, the vocative particle in the Zhangzhou sub-dialect of Hokkien.

6 . The word Baba is given in Douglas’ Hokkien dictionary as meaning a half-caste Chinese: “One can see in Malacca Babas who has claimed no connection to China for centuries, clad in long jackets, loose drawers, and black skull caps, the very counterparts of Chinese to be seen any day at Amoy, Chusan, or under the walls of Nanking” (Vaughan, 1985 [1879], p.3).

7 . The term Chetty may also refer to another migrant group of Indians who specialized in moneylending, known as the Nagarathar or Nattukkottai Chettiars.

8 . This phenomenon is also found in the Kelantan dialect of Malay, for example: serambi to serami and sembahyang to semaye ; and in the Kedah dialect, for example, kambing to kamin and lembu to lemu.

9 . The language is also called Cristão or Cristan (“Christian”), Português de Malaca (“Malacca Portuguese”), or simply Papiá .

10 . The Eurasian community had a complex heritage of Portuguese, British or Dutch mixed with Indian, Macanese, Malaccan, Burmese, and Siamese and/or Singhalese origins. Spanish Eurasians are more commonly called mestizos . “Burghers” usually refer to offsprings of Dutch-Javanese descent. French-Vietnamese are called metises .

11 . Some orphan girls of marriageable age were sent out in batches from Lisbon at the expense of the Crown but the numbers were far too few in relation to the men (Boxer, 1965 ).

12 . Taylor ( 1983 : 66) described the Indonesian ladies married to Dutch colonials as “bent on the pursuit of pleasure and lavish consumption.” In the week-days, they would wear the Indonesian sarong and kebaya that reached to their knees. On Sundays when they went to church with their husbands, they would wear European costumes but looked gauche and uncomfortable.

13 . Olivia Raffles was the wife of the celebrated British “founder” of Singapore, Sir Stamford Raffles (1781–1926).

14 . White women were scarce in the tropics. Only a minority of bachelors succeeded in finding brides – export of fiancées from England was consid-ered risky because “she was almost bound to fall for somebody on the ship” (Allen, 1983 : 155).

15 . John Crawfurd was the second British Resident of Singapore who held office from 1823–1826.

16 . In view of the “white supremacy” policy, it was natural for the Eurasians to marry upwards rather than downwards. A Japanese traveller to Singapore, Fujii (1943: 41), commented that the Eurasian ambition was “to marry a European but they usually ended up by marrying one of their own kind.”

Notes 203

17 . Interview with Mrs Hedwig Anuar, who spoke Kristang as a child, on 10th January 2010; and Mr Joe Conceicao on 8th September 2009.

18 . Such nicknames aptly describe the features, character or the superficial characteristics of a person and bear no malice to the addressee (Marbeck, 2004 : 28).

19 . Interview with Mrs Rosie Tan (1915– 2009 ) who remembers her aunties and cousins referred to by such names, on 19 September 2007.

20 . Interview with Eurasian-Chinese Eunice Khoo on 2 May 2002. 21 . The most common example is that of the prefixes and suffixes which are of

Latin or Greek roots such as mono , from the Greek μόνπ ( monos ) meaning “one”; and tele (from the Greek τῆλε ( tēle ) ) meaning “far” and which speaks of past cross-cultural laisons.

8 Intergenerational Identities: Negotiating Solidarity and Plurality

1 . In contrast to accommodation and assimilation, the notion of transplan-tation suggests the transference of a culture en masse from the original sociocultural milieu, rebuilding it in other lands. An example of transplan-tation (rather than assimilation) is seen in the settlement established by the Yunnan Chinese community (comprising Chinese nationalist soldiers who left Yunnan to enter this region) in the Golden Triangle in Thailand. They transplanted their culture en masse from China and rebuilt an ideal-ized Confucian moral order that is characterized by graded interpersonal relationships (Huang, 2010 ).

2 . Names such as Rosie, Mary, Bertie and Charlie were common. European “Christian” names also proved fashionable – this pattern was encouraged by missionary schools, especially convent schools where teachers preferred names they could remember and pronounce, whether or not the bearers were Christians (Reid and Macdonald, 2010 ).

3 . The decline of the status of Malay in relation to English was observed as early as 1937 when the annual report of the Straits Settlements (1937: 85) reported categorically: “Malay is gradually being superseded by English as the language of commerce.”

4 . This model was conceived based on the quite conventional life story of a Bawean migrant, Dzafir Abul Karim. Dzafir is poor but hardworking – he drives a steamroller to flatten roads under construction in the morning and makes traditional herbs to supplement this income in the evening. After saving some money, he is able to marry, in this case a second generation, local-born women. Not understanding Bawean and Madura, they then converse using the lingua franca Bazaar Malay. Their chil-dren absorb the regional cultures of both parents, are native speakers of Bazaar Malay, and by studying in national schools, are further assim-ilated to the values of Singapore society. In the third generation, the income and occupational gap with other local-born Singaporeans are lessened for among them is a civil servant, an educationist, a chemist and an executive in a multinational company (recounted in the Straits Times, 20 March 2010).

204 Notes

5 . Skinner ( 1996 : 73) has recalled how a sinkeh could become suddenly wealthy if he was taken in as a son-in-law of one of the elite Peranakan families.

6 . The shortage of women also enabled prostitutes, who would usually be regarded as suffering under a social stigma, to marry out of their low status, and achieve a family role (Wee, 1996 ).

7 . Interview with K.M. Ravendran, a fourth generation Malayalee from Kerala, India.

8 . While the local people went to cinemas and cabarets, the Europeans frequented the nightclubs and dance restaurants.

9 . The Chinese have a long history in Trengganu, bearing in mind that they were once given the right to issue coins in return for service to the Sultan, a role which was abolished by the British when they took over the state coffers (Goneng, 2007 : 75). In Trengganu, Chinese dressed in the Malay batik sarong and baju kebaya and spoke fluent “Trengganu speak“ as in the following: Guane mung di Teganung? (“How are you in Teganung?”) Ggitulah sokmo! (“As always, for evermore!”) (Ibid.: 7).

10 . Eurasian, Charles William Bennett (National Archives, 1989 , Accession No. A000426/14), recounts a similar experience. Charles’ friends were also mostly Chinese.

11 . “Lupe” is a dramatic literary account of Sultan Mahmud Shah and his love affairs. Information obtained from an interview with Mrs Rose Ong, the daughter of Yan Kee Leong on 11 May 2010 .

12 . Maurice Baker ( 1995 ), the son of an Indian mother and European father, recounted that he was delivered not in hospital but rather by the bidan who cut the umbilical cord with a sharp bamboo knife.

13 . Abisheganaden ( 2005 : 11) describes a typical funeral procession as follows: “Playing ‘Happy Days’ on proceeding outwards from the residence of the deceased, the Sikhs would end their repertoire with the strident and pompous Elgar’s piece ‘Land of Hope and Glory’, originally written for the aggrandizement of the British Raj and Empire but adapted to a multicultural funereal context.”

14 . The 213-acre Bukit Brown Cemetery (Kopi Hill) opened as a public burial ground in 1919.

15 . Like Holmberg ( 2009 ), I agree that a critique of the Furnivallian concept is long overdue.

16 . The keroncong itself is absorbed from the Portuguese. Indigenous Malay music consists basically of bamboo wind instruments, which can be traced back to aboriginal influence.

17 . The pantun is a four-line verse or quatrain that consists of alternate rhyming lines of an a-b-a-b scheme. The first two lines are called the pembayang maksud (“foreshadower”) and the third is the maksud (“purpose”). Natural imagery is used to suggest the meaning, and the form has been described as crisp, colourful and passionate. The poems wrap up with a profound, witty or emotionally true conclusion. There is an example of a pantun in Chapter 7 .

18 . In the bangsawan , there is no script and the performance is highly dependent on the skill and talent of the actors.

19 . Othman Wok on race relations. Source: http://ourstory.asia1.com.sg/inde-pendence/ref/race.html

Notes 205

20 . Interview with Mrs Hedwig Anuar on 10 January 2010. See also Eurasian Charles William Bennett (National Archives, 1989 , Accession No. A000426/14),

21 . This is in contrast to Thailand and Cambodia, where their respective rulers enjoyed undiminished prestige, as their political structures and stratification systems were kept relatively intact in the colonial period of Southeast Asia.

22 . Interview with Baba Mdm. Lee Poh Tin on 4 May 2008 . 23 . Pongteh is traditionally significant because it is a ritual dish, offered to

ancestors during the Hungry Ghost Festival each year (Tan, 2008). 24 . A glutinous rice, dyed yellow with saffron is stuffed into chicken and

prawns; or chicken cooked with curry can be poured over the rice. The chicken is either cut into pieces or left whole. Red ducks’ eggs are used as decorative pieces as well as paper flowers.

25 . This troupe is a parallel to the Chinese opera or wayangs (staged shows along the streets) erected on the birthdays of Chinese deities.

26 . Uxorilocal marital residences can be seen everywhere in Southeast Asia, but mostly in Java and the Philippines.

27 . Childless Malay couples also preferred adopting Chinese babies, as they generally like children. On the other hand, Chinese and Indian families preferred Malay adopters on the grounds that the Malays loved daughters and they had no fear that these girls would end up for sale later in the pros-titution market (Interview with 1950s social worker, Ann Wee).

28 . Bunga rampai is used in many important occasions of the Malay: circumci-sion, shaving a baby’s hair, funerals, weddings, etc.

29 . Resident monk of Mangala Vihara (1913), M.M. Mahaweera Mahanayaka Thera (National Archives, Singapore, 1989, No. B000381/34).

30 . The Sri Lankan Mangala Vihara in Jalan Eunos, built in 1960, was, for example, built on a piece of land donated by a Chinese woman, the late Mdm. Chew Quee Neo.

31 . Sunnis and Shi’ites are the two main sects of Islam (like the Catholics and Protestants in Christianity). However, their differences run deep and intol-erance and violence often shadow the two groups making coexistence diffi-cult in places such as, for example, Iraq and Lebanon.

32 . Literary endeavours continue to the present. Chinese film-maker, Eric Khoo, made history for Singapore by his mostly Tamil-language feature entitled, “My Magic” in 2008 ( Straits Times Singapore , 2 June 2008).

33 . The Straits Chinese Magazine flourished from 1897 to 1907 (Lim, 2004 ). It was edited by later-generational Chinese who had the benefit of an English education, such as Lim Boon Keng, Song Ong Siang, S.C. Yin and Gnoh Lean Tuck. There were 11 volumes altogether (vol x 1906, vol xi 1907). The hybrid identities of their editors are seen by their fondness of topics such as “ Christian view of marriage,” “Mohammedan law of Shafee sect” and “The status of women under the Confucian regime.”

34 . In “Malayan Memories,” Winstedt ( 1916 ) depicts the three kinds of resources that the populace could go to when they were in trouble – namely the Malay pawang or bomoh or the English-educated tuan (“doctor”).

35 . This was because the Chinese had, prior to the Second World War, finan-cially supported the war efforts of the Kuomintang government in China against Japanese imperialism.

206 Notes

36 . Before this time, hospitals were built strictly for different racial groups.

9 Language, Power and Political Identities: The 1959 Singapore Political Elections

1 . This was an ironic situation, for while the British member was champi-oning the right of children to be educated in their mother tongue, which was in line with the “divide and conquer” policy, the Chinese members asked instead for more free Primary English-medium education and schol-arships in English-medium Secondary Schools. Chinese members included later-generational elites such as Sir Han Hoe Lim, Tan Chin Tuan, C.C. Tan and Methodist Church Elder Thio Chan Bee. Both Tan and Thio were leaders of early Singapore, holding membership in the prestigious Legislative Council (see Chapter 8 ). I am grateful to historian Dr Lysa Hong for her insights regarding this period of Singapore history.

2 . Interview with Sum Ping, on 14 December 2006. 3 . Interview with Ong Pang Hwee, an English-speaking clerk in the City

Council, on 15 December 2006. 4 . English was taught as a second language in the Chinese-medium school

curriculum. However, it was not taught effectively for, according to my informant Mrs S.K. Goh, most if not all students could hardly speak beyond two sentences perfectly. See also Leow ( 1996 ) who has the same view.

5 . This is probably true as seen in Terry Tan’s ( 2008 ) social history of Singapore in the 1950s to the 1970s. A Baba, Tan recounted that the “tipping point” which propelled his migration to Britain with his entire family was when he heard the teacher of his son speaking in Singlish:“You there, bring come your book, and take go this ruler”! Tan added that this remark was from a teacher who had previously classified his son as educationally subnormal! Tan also admitted to being disenfranchised with a Singlish that has grown bigger in its Chinese (rather than previously Malay) base such as kiasu, wah leow, dam siong. He recounted how when he asked the receptionist how frequently the airport bus departed, he was confronted with a correction to his English: “Oh she says: ‘You mean, how many times one hour?’ ”(Tan, 2008 : 247).

6 . This war lasted from 1948–1960 and is known as the “Malayan Emergency.”

7 . Of course, there were always the few Oxbridge graduates who were not pro-British. For example, Lim Kean Chye, John Eber and Lim Hong Bee who were members of the Malayan Democratic Union and anti-colonial.

8 . The Chinese-medium stream school Lee attended in his early years was Choon Guan Primary School; the English-streamed school was Telok Kurau Primary School.

9 . The period after the Second World War saw Singapore become a Crown Colony, with Penang and Malacca incorporated into the Malayan Union to become the Federation of Malaya. Malaya gained independence within the Commonwealth in 1957 and Singapore received internal self-government in 1959. In 1963, Singapore was granted independence through its merger with Malaya, Sabah (North Borneo) and Sarawak in the more extensive

Notes 207

nation of Malaysia. In 1965, Singapore left Malaysia and became a separate independent state within the British Commonwealth.

10 . Jumabhoy could not speak Tamil, the language of the majority of Indians in Singapore, as he was a native speaker of Gujarati.

11 . Yap et al. ( 2009 ) reports that Lee spoke in “halting Mandarin.” 12 . This had been the case with “the King’s Chinese” (later-generational

English-educated who were loyal to the colonial power) such as Lim Boon Keng, Song Ong Siang, T.W. Ong, etc.

13 . However, Lee ( 1960 ) asserts that the SCBA was also not as pro-British as was commonly thought. For example, it fought for political education measures for Chinese reforms in the Legislative Council, the Malayan civil service, university and technical education, employment matters as well as the registration of Chinese marriages.

14 . The President of the SCBA in question is Yap Pheng Geck. However, when the British surrendered to the Japanese in 1942, the SCBA, conscious of its own pro-British stance, destroyed most of its records and documents that might be considered dangerous or anti-Japanese (Lee, 1960 ).

15 . Lee was not the only Baba who disassociated himself from the SCBA – another was Tan Cheng Lock, who later formed the Malayan Chinese Association (MCA). Tan was a member of the Legislative Council of the Straits Settlements as well as a member of the SCBA. On leaving the SCBA, he founded the MCA, which later worked with UMNO (United Malay National Organization) towards the integration of the Chinese, Indian and Malay communities in Malaysia.

16 . Led by Lim Yew Hock, the Labour Front later became the Singapore People’s Alliance, to contest the 1959 election. However, in the political election of 1959, Lim’s party won only four seats, with a popular vote of 107,755, making up 20.7 per cent of the total number of votes. The party was later dissolved in 1965.

17 . Marshall claimed to have secured 99 acquittals out of an estimated 100 cases he defended for murder during Singapore’s period of using trial by jury. When Lee Kuan Yew (also Marshall’s political opponent) abolished the jury system in 1969, he quoted Marshall’s reputation to illustrate its inadequacy.

18 . The electorate increased from 53 per cent in the 1955 elections to 90 per cent in the 1959 elections (Ong, 1975 ).

19 . In 1953, the University Socialist Club (USC) was formed by left-leaning undergraduates at the University of Malaya located in Singapore. Their organ, Fajar , came to the attention of the British colonial authorities and they got into trouble for an editorial they wrote on “Aggression in Asia,” which criticized the formation of the Southeast Asian Treaty Organization. The British deemed the article as seditious, arrested and charged the edito-rial team of Fajar for sedition, but in a twist of events, the students were acquitted in court. One of the lawyers for the students was the young Lee Kuan Yew.

20 . According to Barr ( 2000 ), the alliance was between Chinese-educated Communists such as Fong Swee Suan and Chan Chiaw Thor; English-educated Communists and left-wingers such as Devan Nair, Samad Ismail, Sandra Woodhull, Jamit Singh and James Puthucheary; and English-educated

208 Notes

anti-Communists such as Lee Kuan Yew, Toh Chin Chye, K. Byrne, S. Rajaratnam, and Goh Keng Swee.

21 . As the votes received by the SLF were more, it formed the minority coali-tion government while the PAP became the opposition. David Marshall of the SLF became Singapore’s first Chief Minister. Marshall, however, resigned from this post a year later, following a pledge he had made earlier to either achieve self-government or resign. Marshall failed to obtain self-government for Singapore and Lim Yew Hock then took his place. Marshall stayed on the backbenches before quitting the ruling Labour Front party in 1957. He lost his seat in the 1959 general election, but won a by-election in Anson in 1961.

22 . The SPP was badly defeated in the 1955 Legislative Assembly Elections and C.C. Tan, its leader, withdrew from politics thereafter.

23 . The Democratic Party won only two seats. However, the PAP won three seats, having contested only four.

24 . Interview with Mrs Amy Laycock, who was then working as a legal assistant in Ong and Laycock, on 2 December 1992.

25 . Ong, who was then President of the SCBA and who had first offered Lee a job in his firm, felt it was not quite “gentlemanly” for Lee to use the unions for his own ends and “to ride the Communist tiger” – indeed, he felt that it was “an extremely dangerous strategy.” (Interview with Mrs Lim Long, a sister of T.W. Ong).

26 . An article in the Straits Times on “The China Man in the Straits” by F.W. Eddy at the turn of the century described the Babas as having lost their original mother tongues:“He has absolutely given up the speech of his fore-fathers and that a very considerable proportion of China men in Singapore and in the Straits generally are absolutely incapable of speaking Chinese or of understanding it when it is spoke” (quoted in Song, 1923 : 343).

27 . There was also a church for them – the Straits Chinese Methodist Church, which is today renamed the Kampong Kapor Church.

28 . Watercolourist Ong Kim Seng remembers listening to fiery Hokkien-speaking politicians with former PAP minister turned opposition leader Ong Eng Guan in the early 1960s. It seems that Ong “never failed to rouse the crowd” (Interview with Ong Kim Seng).

29 . Up to 1957, in the majority age group of 15–54, as many as “two-thirds declared that they could speak Malay” while only 31 per cent were able to speak English (Department of Statistics, 1957: 76).

30 . According to PAP veteran Lee Khoon Choy ( 1988 : 53), Lee knew no Chinese until he won the 1959 elections. He admitted he found it very difficult but he persevered out of “self-respect” or zi zun xing as an ethnic Chinese.

31 . Before Jurong, Bukit Timah was Singapore’s major industrial estate. Many factories such as Hume Industries, General Electric, Yeo Hiap Seng, Malayan Textiles and Nanyang Shoes were situated there. In the 1950s, this area was often targeted for industrial strikes (Leong, 2010b).

32 . In prison, Lim began to learn English and Malay. Later, he would speak in standard Malay as a means of fraternizing with non-Chinese colleagues in trade union movements, journalists, and so forth. After his release from political detention in 1959, he switched to speaking in Mandarin and in so doing, developed a softer tone, persuasive rather than inflammatory. This

Notes 209

may be because he wanted to make an impact on English-speaking workers who would likely have been put off by his fiery use of Hokkien.

33 . Lee Khoon Choy’s Chinese language ability also resulted in him being placed as the PAP candidate against Ong Eng Guan’s stronghold in Hong Lim in 1961. Lee won 6,398 votes against Ong’s 4,346 votes.

34 . The former Chief Minister of Singapore, Mr Lim Yew Hock, was one of the two former Ministers re-elected to the Assembly and became leader of the opposition (Josey, 1968 ).

35 . They, together with Lim Chin Siong, Poh Soo Kai, James Puthucheary, and S. Woodhull left the PAP to form the Barisan Sosialis (Socialist Front), which is less Chinese in terms of its Central Executive Committee than usually thought (Tan et al. , 2011 ).

36 . As I write this, Lee has decided to retire from the Cabinet after an extraordinary 52 years in government either as Prime Minister, Senior Minister and Minister Mentor. This announcement came after the May 2011 general election, which the PAP won with its least impressive performance since independence, losing six seats and 39.9 per cent of the popular vote to the opposition.

10 National Identities: The Reordering of Pluralities

1 . Frank Swettenham (1850–1946) also created a dictionary Vocabulary of the English and Malay languages, as well as publishing two books Malay Sketches and Unaddressed Letters.

2 . According to Joe Conceicao, PAP member and former Ambassador to Indonesia, the race card has always been a critical factor in electioneering. Conceicao recounts that Lee Kuan Yew was completely astounded as to why a majority Chinese electorate would have elected the opposition Worker’s Party member, J.B. Jayaratnam, who was of Indian origin, in the 1981 Anson by-election (interview with Joe Conceicao on 9 January 2009).

3 . “Official” status means that the language would be used in Parliament, the courts and in the civil service as well as the mass media.

4 . Where Singapore is concerned, there appears to be an unresolved tension between the idealistic desire to unite disparate peoples into a nation and the pragmatics of keeping them separate. Yet it cannot be said that the government is racist since it follows a meritocratic system of “rewards and punishment.”

5 . Some key events in a Singapore school calendar include Total Defence Day (15 February), Racial Harmony Day (21 July), International Friendship Day and National Day – each of them with an entrenched historical meaning and therefore didactic.

6 . In 2009, Lee commented that Singapore was not “a nation”, but “a society in transition” – a comment which provided the rationale that race and reli-gion are “liabilities,” being potential fault lines, and that state policy must necessarily “recognize” such differences and “manage” their potential for disorder (Han et al. , 2011 ).

7 . In 2005, Kishore Mahbubani, the Dean of the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, observed: “Many Singaporeans know no Malay even though

210 Notes

they are surrounded by more than 200 million speakers of the language. It’s like going to live in Latin America and you don’t speak a word of Spanish” ( The Sunday Times Singapore , 20 February 2005: H2)

8 . Ivan Yeo, 62, a member of the National Solidarity Party contesting in Marine Parade in the 2011 Singapore General Elections gave this comment on Hokkien: “One reason why we are speaking less dialect and keeping our dialect speeches short is that they don’t usually get reported in the media, especially on TV and radio.”

9 . Most people believe that Mr Low Thia Khiang was able to wrest the Single Member Constituency (SMC) from the then incumbent PAP Member of Parliament, Tang Guan Seng, in 1991 because he is Teochew and speaks the dialect fluently.

10 . “Chinese dialects set to continue decline” Straits Times , 15 January 2011, p. 16. 11 . A similar policy was applied to the Malay and Indian minorities, with Malay

and Tamil designated as their respective mother tongues. 12 . Dr Abbas bin Shariff, Malay Studies, National Institute of Education,

Singapore, is of the opinion that the divide between the Malay and Chinese in Singapore began with the Speak Mandarin Campaign (interview with Dr Abbas bin Shariff on 10 March 2008).

13 . See Clause 153a of the Singapore Constitution. 14 . In the classroom, exposure to the “second language” in the primary curric-

ulum was increased to 25 per cent from 20 per cent in 1973 and to 40 per cent in 1975 (Mirror Singapore, 1972: 7–8). A related policy gave priority of admission to pre-university classes with those gaining distinctions in the first and second languages and, where a student would otherwise fail to qualify, greater weightage to good first and second language results. Educational streaming began as early as primary school and much of the streaming was based on the weightage of proficiency in two languages (Goh, 1978 ).

15 . Unlike Australia and Canada, which promoted their own national varieties with their own dictionaries, grammar books and teaching materials, this is not the case in Singapore.

16 . Hence, no religious leader has publicly protested about the overt promotion of a materialistic way of life even thought this is in variance with the basic beliefs of major religions.

17 . Quoted in “Malay integration: MM stands corrected”, Straits Times , 8 March 2011 , p. 1.

18 . Many more Muslims are making pilgrimages to Mecca, fasting during the month of Ramadan and are praying five times a day, at dawn, early after-noon, before sunset, and after sunset.

19 . This is gleaned from general observations and in my interviews with several people who have lived in both colonial and post-colonial periods: namely, Mrs Theresa Chee, Mrs Rose Ong, Mrs Hedwig Anuar, Mrs Lim Long and former parliamentarian Mr Joe Conceicao.

20 . Today, post-colonial ports such as Singapore continue with geographical concentrates of related economic activities such as petrochemical refineries and specialized supplying of equipment such as machine tools.

21 . According to the Pew Study on “Rise of Intermarriage”, about 15 per cent of new marriages in 2010 crossed racial or ethnic lines, double the rate from

Notes 211

three decades ago (“Mixed marriages at all-time high in the US”, Straits Times , pp. A 29).

22 . When asked to comment on the CMIO policy, current Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong affirms that “Race and religion are very sensitive matters and they are never going to disappear from Singapore society or indeed from human society” and that “We in Southeast Asia are never going to be able to ignore them” (“Let parents decide ethnicity”, Straits Times , 16 January 2010, p. 1).

23 . The incorporation of Portuguese and Dutch loan words came after the occu-pation of Malacca in 1511 and 1641 respectively; and in Singapore after 1819.

212

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233

Abdul Chaer, Mad’ ie, 119Abdullah, bin Abdul Kadir, 89Abedin, Zainul, 84Abisheganaden, Paul, 136, 138, 204Abu Bakar, 137Abyssinian, 26accent, 26, 40, 95, 97, 99, 179, 190,

193, 201acculturation, xvi, 111, 129, 130, 132,

133, 134, 179acculturation-assimilation cline,

130–2Achenese, 5, 9Adelaar, Karl Alexander, 55Alatas, Syed Hussein, 191Albakry, Mohammed A., 33Aljunied, Syed Muhd Khairudin, 52Allah, 62, 63Allen, Charles, 22, 108, 127, 202alliteration, 56Alsagoff, Lubna, 182Althusser, Louis, 20, 171Amoy, see HokkienAndaya, Barbara, 11, 111Andaya, Leonard, 194Anderson, Benedict, 5Anglicanism, 34Anglo-Chinese School, 97, 199Anglo-Indian, 15, 96, 121, 127animistic identity, 55–6Ansaldo, Umberto, 78, 89, 114Anuar, Hedwig, 140, 189, 203Arab, 12, 13, 15, 20, 21, 25, 26, 35, 36,

41, 42, 63, 78, 80, 83, 84, 98, 127, 130, 134, 187, 198, 201

Arabic, 4, 15, 29, 60, 63, 64, 65, 66, 68, 70, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 80, 82, 84, 85, 105, 109, 139, 146, 179, 185, 187, 194, 195, 197

architecture, 18, 72, 140, 141, 145, 151, 183

Arseculeratne, S. N., 11, 30, 94, 135, 136, 141, 148

Asis, Maruja M. B., 11assimilation, xvi, 29, 35, 38, 39, 40,

46, 68, 77, 124, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 141, 170, 179, 203

Association of Malay Professionals, 172

attraction, 111, 112, 170, 201Austronesian, 55, 56, 57, 71, 181Aye, Khin Khin, 90Azizah, Hashim, 54, 55Azlan Shah, 17

Baba, ix, 11, 30, 32, 35, 47, 77, 80, 81, 93, 94, 96, 97, 98, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 125, 126, 129, 130, 131, 135, 141, 143, 144, 147, 148, 153, 154, 155, 157, 158, 159, 164, 180, 182, 189, 198, 199, 202, 207, 208

see also Straits-bornBaba Malay, 7, 93, 104, 113–15, 117,

127, 128, 133, 142, 158, 174, 200, 202, 213

Baba Malay Creole, 113–17Bahasa Malay, 139Bahasa Malaysia, ix, 1, 5, 118, 199Baker, Maurice, 29, 125, 136,

138, 204Bakker, Peter, 112Baldauf, B. R. Jr., 88Balinese, 23, 38, 198, 201Banda, 11, 121, 166Bao, Zhiming, 90Barley, Nigel, 195Barr, Michael, 162, 168, 208Basa Ugi, see BugisBatavia, 11, 25Baweanese, 37, 39, 42, 184Baxter, Alan N., 123Bazaar Malay, 7, 37, 39, 40, 44, 47, 49,

53, 88–95, 114, 116, 118, 119, 126, 128, 137, 158, 179, 181, 191, 198, 199, 202, 203, 204, 213

Beauvoir, Le Comte de, 97

Index

234 Index

Beck, U., 183Beg, M. A. J., 51, 59, 63, 64, 195Bellwood, Peter, 37Bengali, 38, 48, 50–1, 71, 77, 117, 121,

148, 182, 196see also Indian identity

Bhattacharya, Jayati, 20Birch, D., 174Bird, Isabella, 16, 21Blagden, C. O., 79Bleackley, Horace, 179Block, David, 6Bloodworth, Dennis, 32, 152,

162, 163Bloom, David, 97Boas, Franz, 185Bollywood, 50, 193

see also Indian identityBonfiglio, Thomas Paul, 5Boogaart, E. van den, 89Borneo, 11, 38, 111, 121, 192, 194,

207, 215, 216, 229borrowing, 1, 48, 49, 54, 55, 63, 91,

123, 127, 148, 174, 184, 185Boxer, C.R., 202Boyanese, 13, 37, 38, 42, 78, 104, 193

see also Baweanese; Malay identityBraddell, R. St. J., 223Brahmi, 7, 58, 64, 71, 72, 73, 85,

194, 196Brass, Paul R., 189Brethren, the, 34, 49British Empire, 158, 229British Malaya, 12, 83, 151, 201British Raj, 51, 81, 141, 158, 175, 204Brocheux, Pierre, 25Brooke, G. E., 223Brooke, James, 195Brown, C. C., 13Brown, Wendy, 185Bucholtz, Mary, 1, 6Buckley, Charles Burton, 21, 193Buddhism, 4, 26, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64,

67, 68, 70, 145, 178, 194, 195Mahayana, 4, 59Theravada, 4, 54, 59, 149

Buddhist identity, 59–62Buginese, see Bugis

Bugis, 5, 12, 13, 15, 20, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 75, 79, 80, 104, 184, 191, 193, 201

see also Malay identityBurgher, 15, 121, 202Burns, P. L., 190Butler, J., 6

Cantonese, ix, 7, 20, 21, 22, 29, 31, 33, 34, 38, 43, 45, 46, 51, 66, 92, 98, 99, 100, 104, 105, 131, 161, 162, 166, 174, 180, 181, 189, 192, 201

see also Chinese identityCardona, G., 50Catholic, 30, 33, 49, 68, 80, 93, 129,

146, 194, 205Catholicism, 35Caucasians, 19, 20, 22, 95, 124, 125

settlement areas of, 20census, 13, 14, 15, 18, 20, 25, 26, 34,

36, 37, 48, 75, 112, 117, 121, 129, 177, 178, 188, 189, 191

Ceylon, 15, 48, 97Ceylonese, 13, 22, 121, 193Chan, Heng Chee, 161Chan, Robin, 219Chang, Rachel, 173Chang, T. C., 135Chang, Wen-chin, 67, 183Chaozhou, 43, 45, 51, 179

see also Chinese identityChaozhouhua, see TeochewChasen, Kathleen M., 141Cheeseman, H. R., 189, 190Cheng Hoon Teng Temple, the, 16Chetty Malay, ix, 112, 117, 118, 119,

120, 127, 128, 144Chetty Malay Creoles, 7,

117–20, 126Cheung, Sidney C. H., 143Chew, Ernest, 142Chew, Phyllis G. L., 8, 33, 35, 44, 56,

88, 174, 183Chia, Cheng Sit, 141, 150Chia, Cheng-sit, 80, 106, 115, 116, 150Chia, Felix, 103Chia, Jeannette Hwee Hwee, 39Chin, John M., 200

Index 235

China, 21, 29, 33, 37, 45, 46, 60, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 75, 81, 99, 132, 133, 137, 138, 141, 142, 151, 153, 158, 162, 173, 175, 176, 177, 179, 187, 194, 196, 201, 202, 203, 206

Chinatown, 17, 20, 45Chinchinjoss, Joss, 23Chinese, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 16,

17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 26, 28, 31, 34, 36, 38, 45, 46, 47, 48, 51, 52, 59, 60, 65, 73, 79, 80, 90, 91, 92, 95, 97, 98, 99, 100, 103, 104, 107, 111, 117, 121, 127, 129, 130, 131, 133, 134, 135, 142, 143, 148, 152, 159, 160, 163, 165, 166, 172, 173, 174, 175, 177, 180

Chinese Chamber of Commerce, 98, 163, 201

Chinese Development Assistance Council, 172

Chinese Girls’ School, 97Chinese identity, 43–8Chinese Leong Nam Temple, 145Chinese-Malay fraternity, 65–7Choo, F. S., 46Choo, Suzanne S., 185Christianity, 4, 26, 30, 34, 35, 70, 73,

82, 83, 178, 190, 205Chua, Beng Huat, 184Chua, Jim Neo, 158Chua, Mui Hoon, 179Chua, Mui Hoong, 179Chua, S. C., 214Chua, S. K. C., 88church, 4, 30, 33, 34, 48, 54, 93, 116,

146, 202, 208civilization, 16, 34, 54Clammer, John R., 142, 147Clement, V., 70Clifford, Hugh, 34CMIO model, the, 172, 173, 176, 184,

186, 211code-choice, 14code-mixing, 14, 106–9, 110code-switching, 6, 14, 29, 97, 106–9,

110, 182Cohen, Yehuda, 35collective identity, 19, 37, 170

Collins, James T., 40, 55, 81, 194, 198colonialism, 35, 171, 182colonialization, 4, 37, 76, 83, 96Conceicao, J. F., 20, 22, 135Conceicao, Joe, 125, 135, 203,

209, 211Confucianism, 8, 26, 145, 178consonant, 57, 71, 74, 119, 197Constitution of Malaysia, the, 85constructionist paradigm, the, 2, 87Cooper, F., 86Coppel, Charles, 17cosmopolitanism, 146, 160, 170, 181,

185, 186Cotterrell, Roger, 173Coulmas, Florian, 70, 85, 194Council for the Development of

Muslims in Singapore, 172Coupland, N., 1Cowen, C. D., 190Crawfurd, John, 15, 125, 188, 203Creole, xv, 3, 7, 15, 38, 88, 95, 111,

112–13, 117, 118, 119, 120, 126, 127, 143, 182, 197, 201, 202

Creolization, 112, 113Croft, William, 202Cuenot, Claude, 216Cultural Orientation Model, ix, 181–2culture, 1, 8, 9, 15, 17, 19, 28, 36, 39,

55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 75, 76, 80, 83, 95, 113, 117, 123, 124, 125, 127, 130, 131, 132, 133, 136, 142, 143, 144, 147, 154, 155, 162, 172, 173, 180, 181, 203, 204

Cust, Robert Needham, 15custom, 3, 21, 22, 36, 37, 39, 43, 52,

56, 60, 63, 64, 76, 77, 117, 139, 147, 149, 178, 190, 200

d’Albuquerque, Afonso, 121Daniels, Jeff, 229Daoism, 8, 145David, Maya Khemiani, 125Davison, Julian, 93d’Avity, Pierre, 23De Francis, John, 187De Graaf, H. J., 66de Houtman, Frederick, 79

236 Index

de Silva, G. W., 136de Silva, Patrick, 123DeBernardi, Jean, 148deficit and dominance hypothesis, 55

see also Kachru, B. B.deletion, ix, 114–15, 118, 119Democratic Party, the, 163,

166, 208Department of Statistics, 49, 161, 174,

177, 178, 191, 208Despande, Madhav M., 7, 65Deterding, D., 217Deutscher, Guy, 217Devanagari, 4, 70, 71, 196, 197

see also SanskritDhoraisingam, Samuel S, 119dialect, 2, 6, 29, 39, 40, 42, 45, 48, 49,

66, 112, 114, 115, 137, 166, 167, 169, 170, 174, 179, 191, 192, 201, 202, 210

diglossia, 41discourse, 3, 6, 28, 39, 42, 47, 87,

115, 178Doraisamy, T. R., 29, 153Dorian, N. C., 18Dravidian language family, the, 48

see also Indian identitydress, x, 8, 18, 39, 76, 89, 115, 119,

129, 130, 131, 135, 136, 140, 141, 142, 147, 148, 151, 179, 183

Dube, Ram Swaraji, 192duplication, 56Durkheiman logic, 173Dutch, 15, 25, 26, 41, 42, 65, 78, 79,

89, 95, 119, 121, 123, 124, 131, 141, 181, 185, 188, 194, 199, 200, 201, 202, 211

Eckert, Penelope, 6education, 6, 20, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32,

77, 79, 88, 128, 136, 152, 153, 157, 165, 189, 190, 200, 205, 206, 207

Chinese-medium schools, 28–9English-medium schools, 30–2and identity, 27–32Indian-medium schools, 29Malay-medium schools, 27–8

education divide, 152–7Edwards, John, 2, 9, 84, 170, 173

ellipsis, 119engagement, 111, 112, 170English, 11, 13, 15, 22, 23, 24, 25,

27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 44, 46, 49, 52, 53, 56, 75, 76, 77, 80, 81, 83, 88, 89, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 115, 116, 118, 119, 121, 122, 123, 126, 127, 131, 134, 136, 137, 138, 140, 145, 148, 149, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 174, 175, 176, 179, 180, 181, 182, 184, 185, 188, 189, 190, 193, 195, 197, 199, 200, 201, 203, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209

ascendancy of, 175–6English-knowing bilingualism, 176Erikson, Erik, 2Errington, Joseph, 3, 20, 26, 70ethnic-racial identification, 20Eunos bin Abdullah, 65, 189Eurasian, 10, 13, 24, 62, 104, 118, 121,

124, 125, 126, 135, 136, 140, 146, 148, 195, 200, 202, 203, 204, 205

European, 3, 8, 10, 11, 13, 19, 24, 25, 28, 30, 34, 36, 38, 44, 50, 77, 79, 86, 93, 121, 124, 125, 128, 137, 141, 146, 179, 180, 183, 184, 189, 191, 192, 193, 196, 202, 203, 204

Fairclough, N., 9Farquhar, William, 124Ferguson, Charles A., 73Fernandez, Sheila, 193Ferrao, Tomas, 121Fill, Alwin, 14Finlay, M. H., 34Fishman, Joshua A., 3, 7, 98food, 8, 18, 46, 68, 76, 109, 125, 126,

129, 133, 135, 140, 143–4, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 192, 199

Four Books, The, 153Freedman, Maurice, 132, 146, 202Frost, Mark Ravinder, 16, 183Fujianese

Fujianese linguistic groups, 44see also Hokkien

Index 237

Fujii, Tatsuki, 22, 203Furnivall, J. S., 17, 75, 148, 152

Gair, James, 48Gallop, Annabel The, 65Gard, Richard, 60Gaur, Albertine, 71, 83Geylang, 20, 41, 135, 145Gibson-Hill, C. A., 40Giles, Herbert, 81Gillet, Eric, 214Gioia, D. A., 6globalization, 4, 7, 38, 170, 179, 181,

183, 184Goh, Chok Tong, 176Goh, Daniel P. S., 177, 178, 184Goh, Keng Swee, 164Gonda, J., 56Goneng, Awang Gopinathan, S., 204Gopinathan, S., 30, 156grammatical structure, 46, 83Greek, 4, 82, 83, 127, 193, 203Grijns, C. D., 202Grünendahl, R., 72Guangdong, 45, 46, 65, 158, 191

see also Chinese identityGuangdonghua, see CantoneseGujarati, 48, 71, 182, 207Gumperz, John, 2Gupta, A. F., 93, 200Gwee, Thian Hock, 118

H (High) variety, 6, 9, 87, 117, 156Haikou, 43, 46

see also Chinese identityHainanese, 7, 20, 31, 38, 43, 46–7, 51,

93, 105, 192Hainanhua, see HainaneseHakka, 33, 34, 38, 43, 44, 46, 98, 104,

123, 166, 188, 192, 199see also Chinese identity

Hall, Kira, 214Han, Fook Kwang, 162, 165, 171, 172,

178, 210Han Dynasty, the, 60Haque, Muhammed Sahriar, 84, 198Hardwick, Patrick Ann, 164Haresh Sharma, 180Harper, T. N., 146, 166, 167

Harris, Roxy, 134Hashim, Azizah, 55Hatcher, Lynley, 70HDB (Singapore Housing and

Development Board), 45Hefner, Robert W., 17, 36Heidhues, Mary Somers, 112Hemery, Daniel, 25Heng, Derek, 12Hierarchy of Identities (HOI), 8Hill, A. H., 82, 89Hill, Michael, 163, 173, 176Hindi, 4, 48, 50, 70, 71, 109, 127,

170, 196Hindu identity, 56–9, 67, 71, 83,

117, 192Hindu-Buddhism, 62, 63, 67, 145, 195Hindu-Buddhist identity, 61, 70,

71, 72Hinduism, 4, 26, 59, 60, 63, 65, 68,

70, 147Hirschman, Charles, 19, 26, 35, 38,

129, 188Ho, Mien Lian, 219Ho, Stephenie, 58, 63, 65, 144Hokkien, ix, 7, 10, 15, 21, 22, 29, 31,

33, 38, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 53, 68, 88, 89, 90, 91, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 108, 109, 110, 114, 115, 116, 122, 123, 128, 129, 131, 139, 143, 155, 156, 158, 159, 161, 162, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 174, 175, 178, 179, 180, 181, 187, 188, 191, 192, 199, 201, 202, 208, 209, 210

see also Chinese identityHokkien Huay Kuan, 165Holden, Philip, 177, 184Holliday, Adrian, 183Holm, John, 112Holmberg, Erik, 75, 137, 204Holmes, Janet, 6Hon, Sui Seng, 164Hong, Lysa, 229Hoo, Ah Kay, 190Hoon, Chang-Yau, 26Howell, E. F., 108Hsiau, Ai-Chin, 5Hua, Cecilia, 224

238 Index

Huang, Shu-min, 203Hundred Family Surnames (Bai Jia

Xing), 31Hutnyk, John, 230hybrid identities, xv, 8, 106, 107, 108,

110, 111, 112, 113, 117, 127, 140, 143, 150, 164, 205

Hymes, Dell, 113

Ibrahim Yaccob, 193Ibrahim Zubaidah, 137, 139identity, xi, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 18, 19,

27, 28, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 43, 45, 47, 48, 49, 51, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 83, 84, 85, 87, 88, 92, 93, 98, 99, 103, 109, 110, 113, 115, 117, 119, 124, 125, 128, 129, 131, 140, 141, 144, 151, 156, 157, 159, 160, 164, 165, 167, 168, 170, 171, 173, 176, 178, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 187, 192

construction of, 4see also under individual identities

identity marker, 5, 54, 178ideology, 10, 19, 35, 67, 70, 83, 160,

172, 173, 180, 190, 193, 198idiolect, 2independence, 5, 10, 32, 42, 43, 48, 55,

78, 158, 160, 169, 172, 173, 175, 177, 178, 191, 199, 205, 207, 209

India, 4, 11, 13, 15, 25, 26, 29, 32, 37, 48, 49, 51, 57, 59, 60, 61, 63, 66, 72, 75, 76,77, 89, 96, 113, 123, 124, 127, 132, 140, 151, 158, 170, 173, 176, 188, 189, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 200, 204

Indian, 7, 13, 16, 17, 22, 23, 26, 28, 29, 34, 35, 37, 38, 48, 50, 51, 52, 54, 57, 58, 60, 62, 64, 65, 67, 68, 71, 72, 73, 75, 76, 89, 94, 103, 104, 105, 112, 117, 121, 124, 125, 127, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 140, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 152, 157, 159, 171, 172, 173, 177, 181, 183, 184, 188, 189, 192, 194, 196, 197, 201, 202, 204, 205, 207, 209, 210

Indian identity, 48–51individual identities, xv, 2, 5, 87Indo-Aryan language, 50

see also Indian identityIndo-Iranian family, the, 48

see also Indian identityIndonesia, 5, 8, 11, 15, 26, 40, 42, 54,

58, 65, 72, 74, 78, 81, 84, 94, 120, 124, 128, 158, 174, 194, 195, 199, 209

intelligibility, 38, 44, 46, 105, 173, 192

intergenerational identities, xv, 129, 151

intermarriage, 38, 211intonation, 2Ipoh, 45Irish, 15Islam, 4, 8, 34, 35, 60, 62, 63, 65, 66,

67, 68, 70, 73, 74, 75, 77, 83, 84, 85, 134, 145, 172, 173, 178, 187, 195, 198, 205

Islamic identity, 62–5Ismail, Rahil, 145

Jain, D., 50Jambi, 11, 197Java, 11, 12, 17, 35, 37, 42, 57, 60, 61,

66, 67, 89, 111, 146, 159, 176, 189, 191, 194, 195, 200, 205

Java Sea, the, 12, 42Javanese, 9, 12, 13, 15, 21, 37, 38, 39,

41–2, 61, 63, 65, 66, 72, 80, 89, 105, 117, 118, 141, 150, 187, 188, 191, 193, 198, 199, 201, 202

see also Malay identityJawi, 4, 5, 7, 11, 26, 70, 73–85, 105,

111, 117, 118, 130, 135, 197, 198see also Muslim identity

Jayapal, Maya, 21, 197Jew, 4, 11, 12, 13, 21, 26, 172Jieyang, 43, 45

see also Chinese identityJohor, 1, 11, 38, 39, 40, 45, 73, 74,

78, 81, 137, 187, 188, 191, 193, 196, 198

Johor Bahru, 137Jones, Russell, 199Joo Chiat, 140, 145, 146

Index 239

Joseph, John, 1, 3, 4Josey, Alex, 156, 209Jumabhoy, J. M., 159Jurgen, Rudolph, 93, 96, 114, 160,

164, 201

Kachru, B. B., 55, 193, 220Kachru, Yamuna, 193Kampong Kling Mosque, 145Karim, Wazir Jahan, 68, 134Kaufman, Terence, 128Kaur, Ramider, 214Keasberry, Benjamin Peach, 198Keaughran, T. J., 93Keay, John, 72Kedahese, 38Kejia, see HakkaKelantanese, 38Keppel, Henry, 136Kevi, 70, 72, 74, 85

see also Hindu-Buddhist identityKhanna, Parag, 183Khieif, B. B., 188Khoo, Kay Kim, 191Kiang, Clyde, 46Koh, Adeline, 28, 31Koh, Jaime, 58, 63, 65, 144Koh, Maueen, 166Kong, L., 135Kota Cina, 11Kottak, C. P., 130Kramsch, C., 7Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju, 72Kristang, ix, 7, 10, 15, 33, 96, 104,

110, 112, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 135, 181, 203

Kristang Creole, 120–2Kuala Lumpur, 45, 65, 68, 99, 201Kuo, Pau Kun, 180Kwa, Chong Guan, 11, 75, 76, 159,

191, 197Kwa, Geok Choo, 159

L (Low) variety, 6, 7, 87, 117, 156, 181Labour Front, 161, 163, 207, 208Laffan, Michael Francis, 76, 78,

82, 198language choice, 87language shift, 173–5

Latin, 4, 33, 64, 70, 73, 78, 83, 88, 111, 112, 127, 189, 198, 203, 210

Lau, A., 163Lau, Aileen Guek Lin, 144Lay, Lian Teck, 142Laycock, John, 160Le Page, R., 2, 6, 110Lee, Chin Koon, 158Lee, Chun Chu, xiLee, Dai Soh, 192Lee, Edwin, 29Lee, Geok Boi, 157Lee, Hock Guan, 17Lee, Khoon Choy, 98, 137Lee, Kuan Yew, xvi, 12, 158–69Lee, Yong Hock, 207Leglise, Isabelle, 224Leitner, Gerhard, 54Leon, Madeline, 17Leon, William, 17Leong, Weng Kam, 152, 169,

174, 209Leow, Ngee Fui, 29, 154, 155, 206Levathes, Louise, 65, 195lexical borrowing, 1, 91lexical diffusion, 187lexis, 75, 88, 102, 114, 122,

175, 185Leydekker, M., 79Li, Chung Chu, xiLian, Kwen Fee, 163, 173, 176Lian, Kwen Fen, 176Liang, Ching Ping, 32Lieberman, Victor, 63, 187, 194Liew, Clement, 33, 129Light, Francis, 10Lightfoot, David, 134Lim, Boon Keng, 141Lim, Chin Siong, 166Lim, Hiong Seng, 93Lim, Janet, 34, 93, 181, 205Lim, Lisa, 228Lim, Lu Sia, 75Lim, Pui Huen, P., 21, 131, 137Lim, Rosemary, 15, 222Lim, Yew Hock, 137, 159, 161, 168,

207, 208, 209Lind, Andrew, 29

240 Index

lingua franca, ix, 3, 7, 28, 37, 38, 39, 43, 45, 46, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54, 64, 77, 87, 88, 89, 92, 95, 98, 103, 104, 109, 110, 114, 116, 120, 121, 133, 150, 162, 166, 174, 176, 178, 179, 181, 184, 199, 201, 203

linguistic diversity, 43, 52Linschoten, J. H. van, 89, 196Lion City, xi

see also Singaporeliterary endeavours, 129, 140,

148–50, 151literature, 9, 27, 30, 64, 66, 72, 73, 74,

78, 81, 91, 150, 185, 190loan words, 51, 54, 62, 64, 91, 97, 100,

184, 185, 193, 201, 211Loh, P. F. S., 28, 200London Missionary Society, 83Longan, J. R., 23Lontara script, 191Low, Cheryl-Ann Mei Gek, 72Low, Ee Ling, 110, 181Low, Kelvin E. Y., 192Lust, Barbara, 48

Ma, Huan, 65Macdonald, Charles J. H., 164,

180, 203Mackie, Jamie, 111Macknight, Campbell, 80, 187Mahathir, Mohamad, 67, 68Maimunah bte Haji Mohd. Ali, 191Majid, Zainab Abdul, 77, 197, 198Makepeace, W., 15, 20, 34, 40, 198Malacca, x, 10, 11, 12, 16, 41, 51, 62,

66, 67, 73, 74, 76, 82, 96, 117, 118, 120, 121, 124, 125, 136, 145, 160, 163, 188, 190, 191, 193, 194, 195, 198, 199, 202, 207, 211

Malay, ix, 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 88, 89, 90, 91, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 103, 104,

105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 126, 127, 128, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 161, 162, 165, 166, 167, 168, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 184, 185, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210

see also under individual Malay varieties

Malay Archipelago, the, 11, 59, 65, 195, 197

Malay identity, 38–43Malay Peninsula, 10, 12, 15, 28, 38,

55, 58, 72, 146, 194, 196Malayalam, 38, 48, 49, 196

see also Indian identityMalayalee, see MalayalamMalayo-Polynesian branch, the, 51

see also Indian identityMalaysia, 5, 11, 17, 21, 28, 38, 41,

42, 45, 54, 55, 62, 65, 66, 67, 68, 75, 78, 81, 83, 84, 85, 110, 118, 123, 124, 128, 131, 151, 157, 168, 174, 187, 190, 192, 194, 195, 199, 200, 207

Mandal, Sumit Kumar, 80Mandarin, 5, 44, 46, 48, 90, 91, 104,

105, 110, 131, 153, 154, 155, 156, 158, 159, 163, 164, 165, 166, 168, 169, 173, 174, 175, 176, 178, 179, 180, 181, 192, 201, 207, 209, 210

Manguin, Pierre-Yves, 62Mani, A, 12, 29, 118Mantra, Ida Bagoes, 42, 55Marathi, 48, 71Marbeck, Joan Margaret, 125,

126, 203Maria Hertogh Riots, the, 17, 94Marsden, William, 197Marshall, David, 161Masuri, A. N., 82Matheson, Virginia, 1

Index 241

Matras, Yaron, 112Matthes, Benjamin Frederick, 79Matthew, G., 6Matthews, Stephen, 89Maxwell, George, 27McConnell-Ginet, Sally, 6McLellan, James, 8, 106media, the, 18, 20, 22, 25, 32, 36,

50, 77, 94, 128, 171, 172, 174, 209, 210

Meegasdeniya, Arty, 30Methodist, 30, 33, 93, 159, 190,

206, 208Meyer, Manasseh, 188Meyer, Michael, 9Meyerhoff, Miriam, 6Migge, Bettina, 224migration, 43, 171, 176, 191, 206Miksic, John N., 72Millenary Classics (Qian Zi Wen), 31Mills, R. F., 40Milne, Lu 2007, 26, 190Milne, Lumsden 31, 32, 190Milner, Anthony, 11, 38, 62, 63, 66,

74, 171Minangkabau, 37, 41, 42, 62, 78,

191, 196see also Malay identity

Minde, D. van, 119Minnanhua, see HokkienMitchell, Ron, 94Modder, Ralph, 201modernization, 85, 160Mohamed Shahrom bin Mohamed

Taha, 39Morita, Liang Chua, 132morphology, 95Morris, George, 176mother tongue, 29, 37, 40, 46, 48, 49,

88, 96, 98, 112, 113, 121, 130, 133, 153, 162, 166, 173, 176, 180, 206, 208, 210

Mufwene, Salikoko S., 113Muhd, Ariff Ahmad, 82Muhleisen, Suzanne, 4multiculturalism, 17, 47, 133, 151, 173multilingualism, 4, 38, 163, 171, 173Munoz, Paul Michel, 60, 194Munshi Abdullah, 89

Muslim, 17, 27, 34, 35, 48, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 82, 83, 84, 85, 94, 117, 134, 148, 171, 172, 178, 179, 183, 189, 193, 195, 197, 198, 200, 210

Muslim identify, 70Muzzi, Geraldo Affonso, 121, 123Mydin, Iskandar, 39, 42

Nagata, Judith, 29, 189Naidu, Ellam Govindasamy, 192Nanking, 21, 67, 202Nanyang University, 165Nathan, S. R., 140National Archives, 33, 47, 103, 135,

188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 197, 199, 200, 201, 204, 205

national identities, xvi, 2, 3, 13, 185national language, 5, 54, 70, 81, 85,

173, 175, 178, 187, 199National University of Singapore,

180, 196Nationalist Party, 5Natives, 17, 20

settlement areas of, 20Nazir, A. Mallal, 160Ng, Siew, 93, 146Noor, Faridah Mohd Noor, 125Noor, Farish A., 127Noriah, Mohamed, 119, 128Noss, Richard B., 175

Ofelia, Garcia, 215, 217, 230official language, 60, 85, 172, 176Ofori, D., 33Omar, Asmah Haji, 38, 78, 88Omoniyi, Tope, 2, 8, 110Ong, Aihwa, 183Ong, Chit Chung, 162, 207Ong, Eng Guan, 168onomatopoeia, 56Oon Bin Jaafar, 76Orang Laut, 37, 38, 39–40, 41, 42

see also Malay identityOrientals

settlement areas of, 20Oriya, 71, 72orthographical identity, xv, 70, 71,

73, 75, 77, 79, 81, 83, 85, 196

242 Index

orthography, 4, 5, 70, 71, 72, 85, 86, 124, 185

Ostler, Nicholas, 57, 194Othman Wok, 139

Pakir, Anne, 114, 115, 116, 176Palembang, 11, 60, 67, 140, 150, 184,

196, 197Pallava, 70, 72, 74, 85, 196

see also Hindu-Buddhist identityPan, Lynn, 43Pang, Keng Fong, 150Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party of

Malaysia, the, 84PAP, see People’s Action Partypartialness principle, the, 6Patani, 11, 73patois, see dialectPatterson, George N., 81Peet, George, 93Penang, 10, 11, 16, 51, 77, 82, 96, 99,

117, 124, 125, 133, 138, 148, 160, 190, 198, 207

Guanyin Temple, the, 16Pennycook, Alastair, 29, 184People’s Action Party, 152, 163, 193Peranakan, 35, 75, 76, 77, 117, 118,

119, 138, 139, 158, 204Pereira, Alexius, 17Periasamy, Makeswary, 51, 67Persia, 73Philippines, the, 11, 35, 54, 67, 83,

111, 194, 195, 205phoneme, 118, 119, 128phonetic symbolism, 56phonology, 122pidgin, xv, 37, 88, 112–22pidginization, 112, 113Pigafetta, Antonio, 79Pigeaud, Th. G. Th., 66Pijnappel, J., 80Pillai, Shanthini, 7Plato, 185Platt, John, 200plurality, xiv, 19, 48, 129, 130, 132Png, Poh-seng, 91political identities, xvi, 5, 7, 87, 152Portuguese, 1, 7, 23, 93, 113, 121, 122,

123, 124, 127, 131, 136, 143, 145,

148, 181, 184, 185, 188, 195, 199, 201, 202, 204, 211

Prakrit, 7, 50, 71Presbyterians, the, 34Prevost, Gary, 13pronunciation, 49, 78, 80, 83, 92, 99,

102, 118–19, 120, 134, 168Proudfoot, Ian., 80, 81, 82, 195Punjabi, 13, 29, 48, 50, 51, 71, 98,

104, 193, 196see also Indian identity

Purcell, Victor, 195Purushotam, Nirmala, 36, 51

Qing Dynasty, the, 131, 138Quah, Sy Ren, 180Quanzhou, 43, 44, 98, 201

see also Chinese identityQuran, 66

race, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 26, 28, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 51, 58, 63, 75, 78, 112, 121, 123, 124, 129, 133, 135, 136, 139, 152, 171, 173, 175, 176, 177, 178, 184, 189, 190, 193, 205, 209, 210

racial compartmentalization, 171racial identities, xiv, 25, 140Raffles, Sophia, 197Raffles, Stamford, 10, 20, 21, 34, 52,

96, 121, 190, 197, 202Raffles Institution, 30, 94, 190Raja Ali Haji, 74Rajah-Carrim, 10Rappa, Antonio L., 226regional identities, xiv, 37, 47, 51, 52,

53, 76, 78, 150Reid, Anthony, 7, 37, 54, 65, 66, 111,

164, 180, 191, 197, 203Reith, George Murray, 22, 23, 25, 92religion, 1, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 16, 17, 20, 25,

34, 35, 36, 39, 42, 49, 50, 55, 56, 61, 62, 64, 69, 71, 75, 79, 82, 83, 117, 125, 152, 171, 177, 178, 180, 183, 187, 188, 210, 211

and identity, 32–5religious identities, xv, 54, 61, 67, 68,

69, 150, 189religious rites, 144–8

Index 243

Riau-Lingga Malay, 4, 5, 198Ricklefs, M. C., 62Rizvan, Ahmad, 197Robinson, William, 124Robson, John Henry Matthews,

24, 189Robson, John, 24Robson, Stuart, 79, 93Roff, William R., 27, 28, 42, 65Romanization, 4, 79, 85Roslan, Mardiana, 180Ross, John Dill, 12, 23Rumi, 74, 78–81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 198Rush, James R., 131Rye, Howard, 229

Safran, William, 4Said, Edward, 19Said, Halimah Mohd, 77, 197, 198Saldin, B. D. K., 119Salomon, Richard, 71, 72Samsui, 46, 47

see also Chinese identitySanderson, Reginald, 189Sandhu, K. S., 12, 29, 48, 58, 118Sanskrit, 4, 6, 7, 9, 16, 49, 50, 51, 56,

57, 58, 59, 60, 62, 64, 65, 70, 71–2, 85, 88, 184, 187, 193, 194, 195, 196

Sapir, Edward, 1Sarawakian, 38Savage, Victor R., 188Saxena, Mukul, 227Schiffman, Harold F., 170Schilling-Estes, N., 87Scottish, 15script, 4, 5, 50, 64, 70, 71, 73, 74, 76,

78, 79, 80, 81, 84, 85, 147, 168, 187, 191, 196, 205

Scully, Valerie, 124Semarang, 11, 67SGEM, see Speak Good English

MovementShaffer, Lynda Norene, 67Shamanism, 26Shamsul, A. B., 190Shanghai, 21, 142, 189Shantou, 43, 45

see also Chinese identity

Shariff, Abdul Aziz Mohd, 114, 115, 210

Sharma, Haresh, 227Shellabear, W. G., 117, 131, 134Shellabear, William, 80Sianu (pseudonym), 124, 148Siddique, S., 51Sikh, x, 50, 136, 138, 178, 188, 193

see also PunjabiSim, Kathren, 94simplification, 113, 202Singapore

National Heritage Board, the, 14Thian Hock Kheng, the, 16, 21

Singapore English (SE), 88, 95–8, 110, 180, 181, 182

International Singapore English, 181; see also Alsagoff, Lubna; Cultural Orientation Model

Local Singapore English, 181; see also Alsagoff, Lubna; Cultural Orientation Model

origin of, 96–8Singapore Hokkien, ix, 10, 15, 44, 88,

98–103, 179vs Minnanhua, 99vs Teochew, 100

Singapore Indian Development Association, 172

Singapore Progressive Party, 160Singapore Trade Union Congress, 161Singapura, xi

see also SingaporeSingh, Mohinder, 193Singhalese, 15, 26, 29, 30, 59, 72, 88,

94, 96, 136, 141, 148, 202Singlish, 94, 176, 181, 206Sinhala, 4, 88Siti Hawa, Haji Salleh, 74Skinner, G. William, 89, 131, 132,

133, 204Smith, M. G., 17solidarity, xv, 78, 129, 130, 132,

170, 180solidarity-plurality model, xv, 129see also intergenerational identities

Song, Hoot Kiam, 190Song, Ong Siang, 108, 141, 142, 157,

190, 198, 208

244 Index

Sopher, D. E., 40South China Sea, the, 12, 42, 76Southeast Asia, 4, 11, 16, 19, 22, 37,

41, 54, 57, 59, 60, 61, 62, 65, 66, 67, 68, 71, 72, 73, 75, 76, 78, 85, 89, 111, 114, 120, 121, 127, 144, 157, 187, 191, 194, 205, 211

Southern Chinese dialects, 187Speak Good English Movement, 176Speak Mandarin Campaign, 110,

174, 210Spear, Thomas, 6speech community, 88Spolsky, Bernard, 1, 4Sreedran, Sasidaran, 49Sri Lanka, 4, 48, 96, 120, 192Sri Mariamman Temple, the, 33Sridhar, S. N., 193St Andrew’s Cathedral, 34stamp, x, 172, 177Standard English, 94, 95, 105, 109,

200, 201Standard Malay, ix, 40, 89, 90, 94standardization, 187, 199Steinhauer, Hein, 5, 41Stockwell, A. J., 20, 228Stoud, Christopher, 228Stowell, E., 190Straits Chinese British Association,

160Straits of Malaca, the, 12Straits Times, The, 13, 95, 176, 190,

201, 204, 205, 208, 210, 211Straits-born, 30, 32, 117, 129, 141,

159, 190see also Baba

stress, 2Stretton, Gordon, 229Stubbe, Maria, 6style-shifting, 182Su, Dong Po, 46Suleiman, Yasir, 83, 187Sumatra, 11, 37, 41, 52, 57, 60, 62, 67,

72, 111, 146, 192, 194, 197Sumatran, 13, 16, 38, 40, 195Sunda, 11, 194Suprajitno, Setefanus, 8, 145Suryadinata Leo, 130, 216, 226,

229, 232Suwannathat-Pian, Kobkua, 132

Sweeney, Amin, 74Swettenham, Frank, 23, 24, 28, 109,

171, 190, 209Syed, M. Khairudin Aljunied, 12Syed Hussain bin Abdul Gadir

Aljunied, 189symbolic behaviour, 6, 88syntax, 89, 90, 95, 114, 175Sznaider, N., 183

Tabouret-Keller, A., 2, 6, 110Tagalog, 9Tagliacosso, Eric, 183Takakusu, J., 61Talalle, Frederick, 30Tamiang, 11Tamil, 4, 13, 21, 27, 29, 30, 33, 35, 38,

48, 49, 50, 53, 77, 97, 103, 104, 105, 106, 109, 110, 117, 119, 131, 141, 148, 156, 162, 173, 176, 178, 180, 181, 190, 193, 196, 199, 205, 207, 210

see also Indian identityTan, Bonnie, 89Tan, Chee Beng, 138, 143Tan, Chew Neo, 142Tan, Chye Ching, 160Tan, Eugene, 168Tan, Jason, 178Tan, Jing Quee, 153Tan, Kok Chiang, 229Tan, Tai Yong, 221Tan, Terry, 205Tan, Tock Seng, 151Tan, Teck Neo, 142Tang Dynasty, the, 44, 60Tanjong Pinang, 11Taoism, 26

see also DaoismTatsuki, Fujii, 93, 218Taylor, Jean Gelman, 62, 123, 124, 202Teixeira, Manuel, 122Telegu, 29, 38, 48, 49, 50, 104, 105,

192, 196see also Indian identity

Temasek, xi, 61, 195Teo, Jaclyn, 16Teo, Peter, 174Teochew, ix, 44–5

see also Chinese identity

Index 245

Tham, Seong Chee, 56, 63Thiyagaraj, Sarah, 144, 147Thomas, J. B., 6Thomason, Sarah G., 9, 112, 128Thomson, J. T., 42, 89three Rs, the, 30three-generation model, ix, 132–6Tibetan, 4, 71Tol, Roger, 191town planning, 18, 19, 20treaty port, 192Tregonning, K. G., 11, 12, 17, 133Trimetrical Classics (San Zi Jing),

30–1Trocki, Carl, 12Turnbull, C. M., 13, 17, 52, 76, 96,

121, 163, 188, 191, 197

Unfederated Malay States, the, 5, 187United Malays National Organization,

the, 84Unseth, Peter, 70, 74Urdu, 4, 29, 48, 71, 77, 193, 197

Vaish, Viniti, 35, 180van Linschoten, Jan Huyghen, 89van Ophuijsen, 81Vanden, Harry E., 13Vaughan, J. D., 99, 129, 133, 202vernacular, 29, 30, 31, 49, 60, 105,

116, 145, 153, 159, 189Vickery, G. J., 34Vietnamese, 9, 25, 193, 202Virinder, S.,127Vlieland, C. A., 34vocabulary, 41, 46, 50, 55, 61, 68, 91,

95, 98, 112, 113, 123, 190, 199von de Wall, Herman, 69vowel, 72, 115, 118, 119, 120, 197

Waas, M., 120Wade, Geoff, 188, 196Wades-Giles notations, 81, 187Wales, H. G. Quaritch, 196Wallace, Alfred Russell, 13Waller, Richard, 6Warnford-Lock, Charles George, 23Weber, Heidi, 200Wee, Ann, 204Wee, Desmond, 29

Wee, Lionel, 184Wee, Tong Poh, 109Weinreich, Uriel, 127Welsh, 15Wenchang, 43, 46

see also Chinese identityWerndly, G. G., 79Westernization, 85, 174Wheatley, P., 61, 66, 72, 194Wheeler, L. R., 27White, Goodith, 2Widodo, Johannes, 12, 20, 144Wilkinson, R. J., 80, 83, 193Winstedt, Richard, 13, 41, 55, 60, 72,

83, 206Wodak, Ruth, 9Wolffram, W., 231Wolters, O. W., 60Wong, Ah Fook, 137Wong, Siew Qui, 141, 142Woods, R., 34World Wide Web, 183Wright, Clifton, 50

Xiamen, 21, 43, 44, 99see also Chinese identity

Yan, Kee Leong, 136Yap, Ah Loy, 192Yap, Pheng Geck, 30, 97Yen, Ching-hwang, 47, 188Yeo, K. W., 163Yeoh, Brenda S. A., 188Yin, Mabel, 141Young, Robert, 127Young, Robert J. C., 127Yue, 45

see also Chinese identity

Zaba, Pendita, 57Zainal Abidin bin Ahmad, 80Zhangzhou, 43, 44, 89, 98,

201, 202see also Chinese identity

Zheng, He, 65, 66, 67, 195Zhou, Changji, 201Zhou, Daguan, 111Zoohri, Wan Hussin, 189Zubaidah Ibrahim, 137, 139Zuzarte, Catherine, 124