notes on political philosophy from plato to burke
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8/8/2019 Notes on Political Philosophy From Plato to Burke
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Notes on Political Philosophy from Plato to Burke Plato Key Ideas
Plato’s version of the origins of political society is Marx’s ‘materialist conception of history’; his picture of self ‐interest governing economic
relations is both Hobbes’ social contract and Smith’s Invisible Hand; there is liberalism in the strategy of mitigating the effects of either extreme
wealth or extreme poverty; and there is even a type of utilitarianism at work in ascribing to the ruler the task of maximizing happiness (and the
‘Good’).
But Plato’s most important influence comes from the suggestion that the natural and most ‘efficient’ form of social organization is one in which
individuals and
classes
have
different
roles
and
specializations.
Plato
justifies
using
this
to
create
both
an
educational
and
a social
hierarchy.
That
hierarchy is the factor that, above all others, determines the practical reality of society.
• People come together naturally and start to specialize.
• The state is like an individual – with a head, a heart and a body. It is most successful when the parts can fulfill their different functions.
Machiavelli Key Ideas
Machiavelli is often narrowly portrayed as simply promoting the use of force and duplicity, even though his intention was highly moral: to protect
the state against internal and external threats and ultimately to promote the welfare of the citizens, not simply the interests of the prince.
Machiavelli advocates ‘civic virtue’, putting the common good ahead of selfish interests, and identifies that curious feature of collective decision
making – that the judgment of the masses may be sounder than that of even enlightened individuals.
• People are all a mixture, none much superior to any other, and no system is perfect either. As even a good Prince can become corrupt, so it is
best to design the state with series of checks and balances.
• The
state
is
only
as
good
as
its
citizens
–
the
rulers
must
be
aware
of
the
dangers
of
allowing
civic
spirit
to
wane.
• Although there are many routes to power, only a few of them are worth following.
Hobbes Key Ideas
Thomas Hobbes provides an antidote to the high‐minded reasoning of the schoolmen and indeed the Ancients. Starting from a pragmatic
assessment of human nature, he strengthens the case for a powerful political and social apparatus organizing our lives. And with his interest in the
methods of geometry and the natural sciences, he brings a new style of argument to political theorizing that is both more persuasive and more
effective. But from Hobbes we also obtain a reminder that social organization, however committed to fairness and equality it may be intended to
be, being motivated by a struggle between its members, is also inevitably both authoritarian and not egalitarian.
• People are motivated by selfishness. Left to their own devices they always come into conflict.
• Self ‐preservation is the highest law. Not even the state can overstep this mark.
Hobbes’ political thought contains the key features of classical liberal political theory. They may be summarized as follows;
1 The
individual
is
the
basis
of
human
society.
This
is
true
in
the
state
of
nature
and
civil
society.
2 Entering civil society is a rational choice. It is an act of individuals freely willing and constructing this form of society.
3 Political communities are artificial associations.
4 Political obligations arise as a consequence of the social contract that individuals voluntarily enter into. This contract obligates each individual to
preserve the sovereign authority and abide by the law.
5 Government gives a large degree of personal freedom. Government ought to be strong but minimal.
6 Civil authority must guarantee individuals freedom to form voluntary associations of their choosing (religious, economic or otherwise).
7 The state provides and maintains a set of rules that enable subjects to pursue their own various ends.
Locke Key Ideas
Locke creates a picture of the world in which ‘rationality’ is the ultimate authority, not God, and certainly not, as Hobbes had insisted, brute force.
He insists that people all have certain fundamental ‘rights’ and also attempts to return the other half of the human race, the female part, to their
proper, equal, place in history, the family and in government. Locke’s legacy is the first, essentially practical, even legalistic, framework and analysis
of the
workings
of
society.
That
is
his
own
particular
contribution
to
its
evolution.
• Property is the key to ‘civil’ society, and the key to property is labor. The more you work, the more you own.
• The powers of government must be strictly limited, in particular by separating the ability to make laws from the ability to make policy.
1 Locke is writing about the key political issues of a time when the British Isles were disunited by conflict between monarchy and Parliament, and
overlapping conflict between Catholicism and Protestantism. The key points of contention that derived from this context were: (a) the legitimacy o
monarchic rule, (b) religious intolerance, and (c) the legitimacy of state imposition of religion on the populace.
2 Locke’s conceptions of private property and the individual as the primary unit of moral responsibility and practical action have become bedrock
principles of liberalism and are strongly associated with capitalism, but it is not accurate to present Locke as an advocate of liberalism or capitalism
Liberalism was not a recognized political category. It was not possible for Locke to perceive the development of capitalism, since key features of its
development, such as steam power and electricity, lay in an unimaginable future.
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Locke and Hobbes Similarities
1 Hobbes and Locke both see the state as the necessary agency for the maintenance of civil society.
2 Both theorists draw the legitimacy of government from the covenant of the people made in a social contract.
3 Both theorists see the function of the state limited to service of civil society.
Differences
1 Locke sees the state of nature as a coherent social organization, whereas Hobbes sees it as a formless state of chaos.
2 Hobbes sees the state as the only possible location for order and therefore for legitimate power. Locke sees the all‐powerful state as a threat to
the social order which precedes it and which it ought to serve.
3 Hobbes
seeks
to
show
that
the
power
to
exercise
decisive
government
is
best
placed
in
a single
sovereign
body.
Locke
seeks
to
build
defenses
against concentrations of power within the state through the separation of powers and democratic accountability.
Rousseau Key Ideas
Rousseau’s recipe for human society can be expressed in just one word: ‘Freedom’. Rousseau offers us a fairly implausible idea of what this might
be, and supposes it to be in conflict and opposition to the structures of modern societies. But Rousseau’s legacy is still important as a reminder of
non‐material values, and a more optimistic if romanticized notion of humanity. What he offers us may be largely false and often is hopelessly
impractical, but it is also always an important, alternative understanding of ourselves.
• People are happy and satisfied in the ’state of nature’, but the invention of property brings about competition, inequality and conflict.
• Most of the desires and wants of modern society are artificial, pointless and ultimately self ‐destructive.
1 Rousseau saw small communities in which the mutual recognition of the natural equality of each member shaped the communal discourse of
collective and individual goals as the seat of humans’ ethical being.
2 For
Rousseau,
eighteenth
‐century
civilization
was
the
end
result
of
centuries
of
corruption
of
ethical
social
organizations
by
larger
powerful
organizations, each expressing in institutional form the vices of vanity and the lust for power.
3 An ethical political life could be achieved only by the formation of small republics expressing their sovereignty through fully participatory
democracy.
4 Equality of political status and full commitment to the common cause are essential requirements of citizenship.
Burke Key Ideas
1 Burke is often seen as a conservative thinker. However, it may be better to regard this as a starting place rather than a conclusion and to examine
the exact content of his conservatism.
2 Burke is a bridge between traditional thinking about political practice and more modern ideas. This gives him both a singular place in the
conversation of modern political theory and also a rather weak position regarding the methods he uses to justify his arguments.
3 A key part of Burke’s work that is often underrated is his theory of rights. This may be taken as a central focus point. It leads into the examination
of other areas of his work such as his notion of liberty.
4 What
Burke
has
to
say
about
revolution
needs
to
be
thought
through
for
its
contemporary
relevance.
If
what
he
says
may
be
said
to
hold
for
his
own time, then it may be said to hold for our own times.