Notes

1 FENIANISM RECONSIDERED

1. F.L. Crilly, The Fenian Movement: the Story of the Manchester Martyrs (London, 1908) 59.

2. The Whiggish Illustrated London News reported on 25 May 1854 that the American consul in London, G.N. Sanders, had given a dinner on the eve of Washington's birthday to what amounted to a who's who of European revolutionists, including: Kossuth, Mazzini, Ledru-Rollin, Garibaldi, Orsini, Pulksy and Hertzen. All were at that time living in exile in the English capital.

3. John Newsinger, Fenianism in Mid-Victorian Britain (London, 1994) 1-3.

4. The Irishman, 16 Mar. 1867, 592. 5. T.W. Moody,Davitt and the Irish Revolution, 1846-82 (Oxford, 1981) 41. 6. Paul Bew, Land and the National Question in Ireland, 1858-82 (Dublin,

1978) 40. 7. R. Pigott, Personal Recollections of an Irish Nationalist Journalist

(Dublin, 1882) 133-4. 8. David Thornley, Isaac Butt and Home Rule (London, 1964) 13. 9. Quoted in Thomas Frost, The Secret Societies of the European

Revolution, 1776-1876 ii (London, 1876) 282. 10. John Neville Figgs and Reginald Vere Laurence (eds) Selections from

the Correspondence of the First Lord Acton (London, 1917), Gladstone to Acton 1 Mar. 1870, 106.

11. R.V. Comerford, The Fenians in Context: Irish Politics and Society 1848-82 (Dublin, 1985) 79 and 153.

12. Bodleian Library, Oxford Clarendon Papers Irish deposit 99, Wodehouse to Clarendon 14 May 1865.

13. Irish People, 16 April 1864, 328. A point which was also given promi-nence in The Fenian Catechism: from the Vulgate of Sf Laurence O'Toole (New York, 1867) 11.

14. APF Scritture 35, Leahy to Barnabo, 10 Aug. 1865. 15. W.J. Lowe has convincingly argued that in terms of growing nationalist

consciousness in the mid-nineteenth century, that Fenianism rather than the Church was the most important component. 'The Lancashire Irish and the Catholic Church 1846-71', IHS xx (1976-77) 155.

16. Edward Lucas, The Life of Frederick Lucas M.P. (London, 1886) i 287. 17. John Denvir, The Irish in Britain (London, 1892) 182. 18. Pol. Moran (ed.), The Pastoral Letters and other Wi"itings of Cardinal

Cullen (3 vols, Dublin, 1882) here ii 292. 19. Matthew Arnold, Irish Essays and Others (London, 1882) 37. Arnold's

sentiments here would be worthy of those of any Ultramontane clergy-man.

160

Notes 161

20. Laurence Kehoe (ed.), The Complete Works of the Most Reverend John Hughes D.D. (2 vols, New York, 1864-5) here ii 359-60.

2l. The Times, 24 Sept. 1875, 9. 22. The Tablet, 8 Mar. 1862, 169. By this time The Tablet was under the

editorship of the Catholic Tory John Wallis. 23. John Devoy, Recollections of an Irish Rebel (New York, 1929) 217.

Devoy was also concerned to emphasize that the Church's opposition to the Fenians was not because it was an oath-bound society, but because it wanted independence from the Empire. Desmond Ryan, The Phoenix Flame: a Study of Fenianism and John Devoy (London, 1937) 66-7.

24. Thomas Bell, 'The Reverend David Bell', Clogher Record vi (1967) No.2, 265.

25. John O'Leary, Recollections of Fenian and Fenianism (2 vols, London, 1896) ii 114-15.

26. See, for example, The Irish People, 18 Feb. 1865, 201. The paper also wryly contrasted the attitude of the Irish clergy to revolution in Ireland with their attitude to revolution in Poland. The Irish People, 12 Mar. 1864, 249 and 17 Dec. 1864, 109.

27. William D'Arcy, The Fenian Movement in the United States, 1858-1886 (Washington, 1947) 203.

28. CUADMA D6-2 7 Fenian material John O'Mahony to John Mitchel 10 Nov. 1865.

29. David Thornley, 'The Irish Conservatives and Home Rule, 1869-73', IHS xi (1958-9) 205.

30. T. Moody, Davitt and Irish Revolution, xv. 31. The papers of the prominent Fenian Charles Doran indicate that the

Supreme Council of the IRB was deeply divided between the oppo-nents and supporters of the policy of cooperation with the Home Rule movement. T.W. Moody and Leon O'Brion, 'The IRB Supreme Council, 1868-78' IHS xix (1974-75) 293.

32. Emmet Larkin, The Roman Catholic Church and the Home Rule Movement in Ireland, 1870-74 (Dublin, 1990) 191.

33. Michael Davitt, The Fall of Feudalism in Ireland (New York, 1904) 74. 34. John Dcnvir, The Life StOlY of an Old Rebel (Dublin, 1910) 148. Denvir

confesses that he was driven into Fenianism in the first place because 'constitutional agitation' seemed hopeless. Ibid.

35. The Irishman, 14 Feb. 1874, 515. 36. Maurice Cowling, 1867, Disraeli, Gladstone and Revolution: the Passing

of the Second Reform Bill (Cambridge, 1976) 322. 37. Hansard 3 series cxcvi, 1049. 38. The Tablet, 30 Sept. 1865, 1. 39. Blackwoods Magazine c (1866) 119. 40. Recollections i 148. 41. John Rutherford, The Secret HistOlY of the Fenian Conspiracy: its Origin,

Objects and Ramifications (2 vols, London, 1877) here i 37. 42. William O'Brien, 'Was Fenianism ever Formidable?' The

Confempormy Review lxxi (1897) 681. 43. T.D. Sullivan, Recollections of Troubled Times in Irish Politics (Dublin,

1905) 90.

162 Notes

44. William Dillon, Life of John Mitchel (2 vols, New York, 1888) here ii 296. The phrase is taken from Mitchel's address in the Tipperary elec-tion of 1875. Mitchel had made clear that if elected he had no intention of taking his seat in the London parliament.

45. Sheridan Gilley, 'The Garibaldi riots of 1862', The Historical Journal xvi No.4 (1973) 701. Gilley is herc drawing on Sullivan's New Ireland.

46. Charles J. Kickham: A Study in Irish Nationalism and Literature (Portmarnock, 1979) 52. This is a clever, if inadequate riposte to those who maintained that the English had a blind spot for Italian revolu-tionaries. Sullivan, New Ireland (25th edn Dublin, 1887) 570.

47. E.R. Norman, The Catholic Church in Ireland in the Age of Rebellion, 1859-73 (London, 1965) 89, argues that it was exactly because they had been disillusioned with papal service that they volunteered for the Fenians.

48. As Cardinal Giacomo Antonelli, the papal Secretary of State, told the British Minister in Rome, Odo Russell. PRO FO 43/77, Russell to Foreign Office, 10 July 1860.

49. A.M. Sullivan, StOlY of Ireland (25th edn Glasgow, 1880) 568. 50. Moriarty to Charles Gavan Duffy, 11 Nov. 1872, in Duffy, My Life in

Two Hemispheres (2 vols, London, 1898) here ii 344. Duffy thought that Moriarty 'judged the Fcnians too hardly'. Ibid. 343.

51. The Times, 7 Aug. 1875,9. 52. Charles Gavan Duffy, Conversations with Carlyle (London, 1892) 4. 53. News Letter, 19 Sept. 1865. 54. Comerford, Fenians in Context 137. A curious interpretation givcn its

stated aim of bringing about change in Irish society by means of revo-lution.

55. Ibid. 9. Equally and pcrhaps more accurately, one might argue that the foundational motif of Fenianism was that it wanted to transform social, religious and political circumstances in Irish Victorian society.

56. Comerford, 'Patriotism as Pastime: the Appeal of Fenianism in the mid-1860s', lHS xxii (1980-81) 244.

57. Paul Rosc, The Manchester Martyrs: the StOlY of a Fenian Tragedy (London, 1970) 13.

58. Patrick Quinlivan and Paul Rose, The Fenians in England, 1865-1872 (London and New York, 1982) 11, draw attention to the large numbers of English-born Irish who swelled thc ranks of the movcmcnt.

59. Moody, Davitt and Irish Revolution 42. Cf. R. Barry O'Brien, Fifty-years of Concessions to Ireland 1831-1881 (2 vols, London, 1883) ii 217.

60. Comerford, 'Gladstone's First Irish Enterprise, 1864-70', in W.E. Vaughan (cd.) A New HistOlY of Ireland v (Oxford, 1989) 436.

61. Dillon, Life of Mitchel ii 257. 62. Desmond Ryan, The Fenian Chief" a Biography of James Stephens

(Dublin, 1967) 164. 63. As is painfully demonstrated in an exchange with John Newsinger,

'Comprehending the Fenians', Saothar vol. xvii (1992) 46-56. 64. Takagami, 'The Fenian Rising in Dublin, March 1867' IHS xxix (1995)

362. 65. D' Arcy, in writing Fenianism in America, did not have the resources of

Notes 163

the Vatican archives available to him, and the position of the Church in relation to Fenianism in North America has not been seriously looked at since the 1940s. D'Arcy's use of North American Catholic archives is far from exhaustive.

2 CHURCH AND STATE REACTIONS TO FENIANISM, 1861-65

1. J.L. Altholz, 'The Political Behaviour of English Catholics, 1850-1867', Journal of British Studies, iv (1964-5) 99.

2. Disraeli, however, always made a distinction between his Catholic and his Irish policies. He regarded English Roman Catholics as 'a most powerful body, and natural Tories'. Bodleian Library, Oxford Disraeli papers B/xx/D/22.

3. Donald Southgate, 'From Disraeli to Law' in R. Butler (ed.), The Conselvatives: a HistOlY of their Origins to 1965 (London, 1977) 136.

4. The attempt on Napoleon III's life in 1857 was planned by Italian exiles in London, owing to the Emperor's failure to fulfil his promise over Italian unification. His protests forced Palmerston to introduce the Conspiracy Bill over which he was defeated. Wilbur D. Jones, Lord Derby and Victorian Conse/vatism (Oxford, 1956) 226.

5. AICR Kirby Papers, Archbishop Paul Cullen to Rev Tobias Kirby, Rector Irish College, Rome, 11 Mar. 1863; The Dublin Review, Iii 104, 294, which alleged that Italian policy was simply the result of hostility to Catholicism; The Tablet, 31 May 1862, 344.

6. As in September 1862, in the anti-Garibaldi riots staged in Hyde Park by Irish Catholics. The story is told by Sheridan Gilley, 'The Garibaldi Riots of 1862' in The HistoricalJolirnal, xvi 4 (1973) 697-732.

7. The Irish Question, 1840-1921 (3rd edn, London, 1975) 66. 8. AICR Kirby Papers, Moriarty to Kirby, 1 May 1864. 'Some of us by our

abuse of Govt, drive the people into disaffection and the spirit of rebel-lion. We cannot blame them if they are more logical than canonical in their conclusions.'

9. Jasper Ridley, Lord Palmerston (London, 1970) 501. 10. Bodleian Library Oxford, Clarendon Deposit Irish Box 50, Lord

Clarendon to Archbishop John MacHale, 5 Dec. 1847; PRO FO 918 71, George Errington to Lord Ampthill, 5 Mar. 1883; Sir Robert Peel, March 1863 in Sir Robert Anderson MS The Fenian Conspiracy, 14. NAICSO Fenian Police Reports box 4.

11. James Stephens, though, rejected the notion if it implied that a rebel-lion would have to be delayed until such a contingency arose. Stephens to John O'Mahony, 25 Nov. 1861 in Joseph Deniffe, A Personal Narrative of the Irish RevolutionGlY Brotherhood (Shannon, 1969) Appendix, 176.

12. NAI CSO Letterbook 264, Sir Robert Peel to Foreign Office, 28 Sept. 1861, 180. Peel informed the Foreign Office that many Irish immi-grants could not afford the two-dollar fee for an exit permit. These are some of the immigrant 'losers' described by R.V. Comerford, 'Ireland 1850-70: Post-famine and Mid-Victorian', in W.E. Vaughan (ed.), A

164 Notes

New HistOlY of Ireland (Oxford, 1989), v 385; see also Jim Smyth, "'An Entirely Exceptional Case": Ireland and the British Problem', The Historical Journal, 34 (1991) 1000.

13. NAI Fenian Police Reports box 1. Sub-Inspector Thomas Doyle to Dublin Castle, 16 Aug. 1859.

14. NAI CSORP 1861113821, Henry Waddington (Home Office) to Chief Secretary Edward Cardwell, 31 Dec. 1860.

15. The possibility of such an attack had been drawn to the government's attention by Lord Lyons in Washington. NLI Larcom papers MS 7697, Edward Cardwell to Lord Carlisle, 5 June 1861. Cardwell recom-mended that Lyons brief the cabinet on the matter.

16. Ridley, Palmaston, 551. 17. NLI Monsell Papers, Cullen to Monsell, 10 Mar. 1855. 18. There is some suggestion that O'Donoghue realised nothing would

come of this, and had determined upon a less constitutional approach to politics. John Mitchel to John O'Mahony, 6 May 1861, Denieffe, Recollections, Appendix, 165.

19. DDA Cullen Papers, O'Donoghue to Cullen, 27 Jan. 1861. 20. DDA Cullen Papers 340/2/II/16, emphasis in original. Cullen had

written to Abbot Bernard Smith in March 1852 that Ireland needed a party which would look after religious matters and the Church's inde-pendence, 'without selling themselves to the ministry to obtain some wretched temporal advantages'. Peadar MacSuibhne, Paul Cullen and his Contemporaries with their Letters, iii, (Nass, 1968) 113. In stark contrast to his support of Sadlier, Monsell, and Keogh all of whom took office in Lord Aberdeen's government. John Whyte, The Independent Irish Party, 1850-59 (Oxford, 1958) 111-14.

21. E.D. Steele, 'Cardinal Cullen and Irish Nationality', IHS, xix 1974-15, 256; Desmond Bowen, Paul Cullen and the Shaping of Modern Irish Catholicism (Dublin, 1983) 255-9. Bowen is also anxious to stress what he sees as Cullen's bigotry.

22. The Catholic Church in Ireland in the Age of Revolution (London, 1965), 10. A view which finds support from P.J. Corish 'The Radical Face of Paul Cardinal Cullen', in Corish (ed.), Radicals, Rebels and Establishments (Belfast, 1985) 175.

23. Cullen told Cardinal Barnabo that if the Fenians gained influence, reli-gion would suffer and Fenianism's 'Mazzinian doctrines will achieve more than that which the Anglican heresy will ever achieve'. Cullen to Barnabo, 6 Jan 1865. Norman, Catholic Church and Ireland, 86 n.1.

24. Norman, The Catholic Church and Irish Politics in the 1860s (Dundalk, 1965) 3.

25. See, for example, Irish People, 27 Feb. 1864, 'Ireland cannot possibly be saved if the people are not taught to draw a clear line of demarcation between ecclesiastical authority in spiritual matters, and ecclesiastical authority in matters which are not spiritual', 217.

26. Larkin, 'Church, State, and Nation in Modern Ireland', American Historical Review, lxxx (1975) 1276.

27. Irish People, 9 Apr. 1864, 312; 7 May 1864, 377; 14 May 1864, 392-3, where it was asserted that 'submission to certain Irish bishops in pol it-

Notes 165

ical matters is equivalent to slavery', 4 June 1864,441; etc. 28. Such thinking was anathema to much contemporary Catholic outlook.

In 1868 Cardinal Antonelli told Odo Russell that the Holy See could never sanction the principle of the separation of church and state. Norman, The Catholic Church and Irish Politics 5-6.

29. F.S.L. Lyons, Ireland since the Famine (revised edition London, 1973) 133.

30. As Cormac 0 Grada, Ireland Before and After the Famine (2nd edn, Manchester, 1993) 152 has pointed out that the period 1854-76 was on the whole one of relative prosperity and innovation in Irish agriculture. Most of the pre-Land War gains in production and income improve-ment occurred in these decades. The years 1861-63 are therefore an exception to this gcneral trend.

31. Sir Robert Peel accused Cullen of attacking him because he had shown that clerical 'reports of a famine have been exaggerated'. The Tablet 23 Nov. 1861,742.

32. Paul Bew, Land and the National Question in Ireland, 1858-82 (Dublin, 1978) 36.

33. Bew, Land and the National Question, 5. 34. Hansard, 3rd series clxi, 335. 35. Hansard 3rd series clxvi 1953-55. Sir John Grey, William Monsell and

Vincent Scully were among those who spoke against the measure. By July Sir George Bowyer was complaining that Co. Louth was still under proclamation. Ibid. clxvii 500.

36. Hansard, 3rd series clxvi 1952. James Whiteside to Sir Robert Peel. 37. Patrick O'Farrell, Ireland's English Question (London, 1971) 2, and

Townshend, Political Violence in Ireland 47. 38. Hence Stephens' comment that the Fenians tried to destroy Ribbonism

wherever they encountered it. Cf. Desmond Ryan, The Fenian Chief (Dublin, 1967) 328; Michael Davitt, The Fall of Feudalism in Ireland (Shannon, 1970) 42 & 77; and John Newsinger, 'Old Chartists, Fenians and New Socialists', Eire-Ireland 17 1982, 23.

39. One of the aims of government policy was to prevent (iii) merging with (ii). I should like to thank Professor Colin Matthew of St Hugh's College, Oxford, for help in clarifying this point.

40. Lee, The Modernisation of Irish Society, 1848-1918 (Dublin, 1973),55. 41. 'Party politics, as much as seaside excursions or commercial football,

was one of the first activities the town artisans turned to as their condi-tions improved ... .' John Vincent, The Formation of the Liberal Party, 88. My emphasis.

42. Vincent Comerford, 'Patriotism as Pastime: the Appeal of Fenianism in the Mid-1860s' IHS xxii (1980-81), 242 & 244, and The Fenians in Context (Dublin, 1985) passim. More recently Comerford has stressed that his analysis of the social pastime reasons for engaging in Fenian activity applies to the mid-1860s only and that he is not making a general point about Fenian recruitment. Nonetheless he does empha-sise the need to relate levels of recruitment to wider social and economic factors. 'Comprehending the Fenians' Saothar 17 (1992) 52-6.

166 Notes

43. Quoted in Ryan, The Fenian Chief' 80. As Owen Dudley Edwards has observed, 'To make the Irish republican insurrectionary movement dependent on lower-class support was an ideal from which Stephens never deviated, and which gave ... the IRB ... the strength and endurance that made Young Ireland by comparison, seem insubstantial and frothy ... '. Celtic Nationalism (London, 1968) 149-50.

44. NAI CSO Letterbook 264, 20 Sept 1858, 20 Sept. 1860 and passim. In each case the amount remitted was in excess of £1150.

45. Rossa's Recollections, 209; and Sub-Inspector Bernard Potter's report 4 June 1860 NLI Larcom Papers MS 7697. Potter indicates that Rossa's weapons were of a fairly rudimentary nature including pikes. He also mentions several associates of Rossa, including two women, Mary O'Brien, the wife of William O'Brien, and Lucy Davis as co-conspira-tors.

46. NLI Larcom Papers MS 7697. Precis of Information respecting [an] Association of Irishmen in the United States entertaining designs hostile to the British Government (June, 1861) f.1. This summary of Doyle's reports is indicative of the general concern by the early summer of 1861 for a deteriorating security situation. Inspector Doyle's early accounts from the US appear to be missing from the NAI. The summary in the Larcom papers is our only source for his dispatches between 22 February and 22 July 1859.

47. On the other hand, there was about it what Malcom Brown has described as 'The classless ideal of Fenianism'. The Politics of Irish Literature: from Thomas Davis to W.B. Yeats (London, 1972) 156.

48. Thomas Frost, The Secret Societies of the European Revolution, 1776-1876 vol. ii (London, 1876) 278.

49. John O'Leary, Recollections of Fenians and Fen ian ism (2 vols, London, 1896) here ii 44.

50. NAI Fenian Police Reports box 1 Doyle report, 23 Nov. 1859, and also NLI Larcom Papers MS 7697 Precis, which quotes a report from Doyle in June 1859 to the effect that the contents of the New York Fenian newspaper The Phoenix were 'a continued incitement to rebellion with the object of ridding Ireland of British rule & institutions & confiscat-ing the property of landlords'. f.12.

51. The Nation, 7 Oct. 1865, 99. 52. 24 Nov. 1863, 9. 53. 19 Dec. 1863, 57. 54. 23 Jan. 1864, 137. 55. 20 Aug. 1864, 616. 56. 30 July 1864,568. 57. 13 Aug. 1864, 601. 58. 24 Sept. 1864, 697. 59. 26 Dec. 1863, 73. 60. 30 July 1864, 569. 61. The earliest government use of the term 'Fenian', apart from Doyle's

reports, occurs in a copy of a letter in Larcom's hand dated 25 June 1861, and addressed 'Dear Sir'. He outlines the case that in the event of war with the US 'the Fenians will do their worst against us'. The

Notes 167

letter was intended to accompany a copy of the summary of Doyle's papers drawn up earlier that month. NLI Larcom Papers MS 7697.

62. NA1 Fenian Briefs box 1. Undated letter in James Stcphens's hand to The O'Donoghue MP. This letter is especially significant as indicating a direct link between the two men.

63. DDA Cullen Papers 340/4/30 7 Mar. 1862. The presence of a copy of this letter in Cullen's archives might lead one to speculate that Cullen himself was perhaps the inspiration for it.

64. Larkin, The Consolidation of the Roman Catholic Church, 92 takes O'Donoghue's absence completely at face-value.

65. The Tablet, 5 Apr. 1862,219, emphasis in the original. 66. The Irish People, 10 Sept. 1864, 665. 67. DDA Cullen Papers Letterbook No.3, Cullen to Ullathome 13 Nov.

1861. 68. Comerford, Fenians in Context 77-8. 69. NLI mf p7622 series B f.51-2 Gillooly Papers, Cullen to Gillooly,

12 Nov. 1861. 70. A1CR Kirby Papers, Cullen to Kirby, 31 Oct. 1861. 71. DDA Cullen Papers Letterbook No.3, Cullen to Ullathome 13 Nov.

1861. 72. The Freeman's Journal, 6 Nov. 1861. 73. DDA Cullen Papers, MacManus to Cullen, 13 Oct. 1861. 74. DDA Cullen Papers, Letterbook No.3, 29 Nov. 1861. 75. Comerford, Fenians in Context 78. His source is NLI MS 447 O'Brien

Papers, Underwood to O'Brien 1 Jan. 1862. 76. DDA 340/1/1 Cullen Papers, Delany to Murray. It is also clear that

Lavelle's role at the graveside was not as impromptu or unexpected as has been suggested. Cf. O'Leary, Recollections i 160, Ryan, Fenian Chief 177, Larkin, Consolidation 72.

77. DDA Cullen Papers, Letterbook No.3, Cullen to Kirby, 12 Nov. 1861. 78. NA1 CSORP 1877/3591. 79. Denieffe, Recollections Appendix 167. 80. Comerford, Fenians in Context 77. This must be regarded as a minimum

since the police reports, assuming they are accurate, cover only the days of 4-8 November and show a growing number from 1000 on Monday to 11 700 on Friday NA1 CSOPR 1877/3591.

81. Comerford, Fenians in Context 78, is dismissive of the idea. 82. NA1 CSORP 1861/9168. 83. NA1 CSOPR 1861/12486. Quite who the 'all' refers to is anyone's guess. 84. DDA Cullen Papers, Cardinal Bamabo to Cullen, 31 Dec. 1861. 85. DDA Cullen Papers, Letterbook No.3, Cullen to Fr Stephen Bruno (in

Cardiff). 86. The Tablet 14 Dec. 1861,791. 87. The Trent, an English-registered ship, had been intercepted by the

United States navy while carrying two confederate representatives to England. The agents were arrested and taken to the United States. A similar incident had sparked the Anglo-American war of 1812.

88. 'Ireland and England' lii, 104 (1863) 297. This was a quotation from the Dublin Evening Post, 7 Dec. 1861.

168 Notes

89. The Tablet, 21 Dec 1861, 822. 90. This was a feature of the 'General Rules' of the Brotherhood which

asserted as a 'General Maxim' that 'A member of the National Brotherhood of St. Patrick by learning the use of arms does not forgo any of his social rights.' A copy of the rules is preserved in the DDA Cullen Papers.

91. The Tablet, 15 Mar. 1862, 167 & 172. 92. Both Corish, Political Problems, 10, and Larkin, Consolidation of the

Roman Catholic Church, 96-7, confuse the chronology of Cullen's denunciation of the Brotherhood. He mentions them first in the Lenten pastoral and then in a second towards the end of April.

93. The Tablet, 29 Mar. 1862,203. This was a fairly common theme in his correspondence. He told Fr Bruno in January 1862 that the head of the Brotherhood 'is a Mr Underwood a Presbyterian or Calvinist ... several other Protestants appear to be the principal managers of it ... in Cork the head is a Mr Varion, a Unitarian'. DDA Cullen papers, Letterbook No.3. In the pastoral he mentioned, in an attempt to provoke horror among the faithful, that 'Men known to have been infidels, and to have died without any religion, have been held up to our people as models for their imitation, and pilgrimages to their graves have been proposed, and honours decreed to their memory.' Ireland and the Holy See, 11.

94. DDA Cullen Papers, Underwood to Cullen, 10 Mar. 1862. 95. An undated letter but written after the appearance of the public letter.

See DDA Cullen Papers 340/6/III/72. 96. DDA Cullen Papers, Resolutions adopted by the Archbishops and

Bishops of Ireland at a meeting held in Dublin on the 6th, 7th, 8th, and 9th of May, 1862,3.

97. Rankin was also the General Secretary for Britain. 98. The Tablet, 22 Mar. 1862, 187 and 188. See also The Tablet, 15 Mar.

1862,172. 99. It is difficult to be absolutely precise about the exact strength of the

organization and the degree of its infiltration in the police and military. A police estimate in December 1863 suggests that even at that stage there were 80000 Fenians in Ireland and a large support group in America. Captain J. Petrie to Sir Robert Peel, 16 Dec. 1863, NAI CSORP 1863/10783. Another contemporary source, the British Consul in Philadelphia, reported in November that to his knowledge there were 70 000 Fenians in Ireland; Lord Lyons to Lord Russell 20 Nov. 1863, copy in CSORP 1864/12151. William O'Brien, 'Was Fenianism ever Formidable?', The Contemporary Review 71 (1897) 681, gives the general recruitment figure indicated above. Kevin B. Nowlan, 'The Fenians at Home' in T. Desmond Williams (ed.), Secret Societies in Ireland (Dublin & New York, 1973) 96, estimates that by 1864 there were 80 000 Fenians in the country, and restricts himself to saying that there were 'several thousands in British Army regiments'. Similarly Marcus Bourke, John O'Lemy: a Study in Irish Separatism (Tralee, 1967), 47 is convinced that by mid-1863 there were 80000 Fenians in Britain and Ireland and a further 15 000 in the British army. Comerford, Fenians in Context 124ff., is inclined to think that there is

Notes 169

little evidence for more than 50000 Fenians in Ireland. Of the numbers of Fenians in the army he comes to the lame conclusion that it can only be said that there were 'hundreds or thousands'. For the latter judge-ment he draws on AJ. Semple, 'The Fenian Infiltration of thc British Army in Ireland, 1864-7', (M. Litt. thesis T.C.D .. 1971) 170. AM. Sullivan, a somewhat suspect source, The StOlY of Ireland (25th edn, Dublin, 1887) 570 was of the opinion that beforc 1864 Fenianism had madc little progress in Ireland. Detective Constable Thomas Talbot of Carrick-on-Siur expressed his fears to Dublin Castle towards the end of March 1865 that even that citadel was filled with Fenian spies in addi-tion to their presence in telegraph offices, banks, post offices and railways. Talbot to S.P. Crawford, Assistant Inspector-General of policc 24 Mar. 1865, NAI SPO Fenian Police Reports box 2, 133. As late as 1868 thc army commander in Ireland, Lord Strathnairn, complained that the extent of Fenian infiltration in these utilities was such that he was compclled to send important communications by special messen-gcr. BL Add MS 42825 Rose Papers, Strathnairn to Sir Hcnry Storks, 2 Oct. 1868, ff. 78-9.

100. T.W. Moody, 'The Fenian Movement in Irish HistOly' in Moody (ed.) The Fenian Movement (Cork and Dublin, 1968 & 1978), 103.

101. NAI CSORP 1863/10951. Larcom's response scrawled on Pennefather's letter reads ' ... I am to assert that the attention of thc government is fully directed to thc circumstances to which he adverts.'

102. Comerford, Charles 1. Kickham 60. 103. NAI CSORP 1864/12151. 104. NAI CSORP 1864/12151 2 Feb. 1864. This opinion was duly passed on

to the Home Secretary, Sir George Grey, in London. 105. Ironically, three months later the wife of the editor of the Connaught

Patriot, Elizabeth O'Brennan, wrote to O'Hagan pleading with him to find a job in 'London or one of the colonies' for her husband. 20 June 1863. PRONI D 2777/7/l!A/l04 O'Hagan Papers. O'Brennan was even-tually brought for trial in connection with Fenianism in 1865.

106. PRONI O'Hagan Papers D.2777!7/1/N83. 107. NAI CSORP 1864/12151 'Opinion of thc Solicitor General D.C.

22 Feb. 1864'. 108. PRONI O'Hagan Papers D.2777!7/1/A/78 24 Feb. 1864. 109. NAI CSORP 1864/11941 23 Dec. 1863. 110. Neither Legg, 'Newspapers and Nationalism', 236-55, nor Maurice

Johnson, 'The Fenian Amnesty Movement, 1868-79', M.A Thesis Maynooth 1980, 312ff, gives a satisfactory explanation for the press clausc in the Cocrcion Act. If the common law allowed the suppression of the Irish People in 1865 why did this not suffice as a precedcnt subse-quently?

111. NAI Fenian Briefs box 2 envelope 1. 112. Shane Leslie, The Irish Tangle, 114. See also The Oxford Book of English

Verse, 1250-1900 (Oxford, 1924), 1010, and The Oxford Book of Victorian Verse (Oxford, 1912 & 1955) 691-2.

113. R.B. O'Brien, The Life of Charles Stewart Parnell (London, 1898) i 203-4.

170 Notes

114. The Gaelic American, 16 January 1907. A scepticism shared by R.F. Foster, Paddy & Mr Punch: Connections in Irish and English HistOlY (London, 1993) 44, but not entirely by Robert Kee, The Laurel and the Ivy: the StOlY of Charles Stewart Parnell and Irish Nationalism (London, 1993) 31-2. Of course, one must keep in mind that Anna was writing in the aftermath of her brother's bitter experiences and premature death, which may have coloured her judgement of the family motivation of some four decades earlier. In any case, as Jane MeL. Cote, Fanny and Anna Parnell (London 1991) 276 n.ll, indicates, the 'necessaries of life' Anna talks of are hardly to be taken to be food, clothing and so on. They are more likely to be the small luxuries deemed essential for bour-geois adolescent girls in the Victorian era.

115. NAI Fenian Briefs box 3 envelope 5. 116. Cullen complained to the archbishop of Baltimore that visitors to

Ireland express surprise that 'our rulers s[ oul]d allow the Fenian broth-ers, in the "Irish People" to publish treasonable writings ... without trying to restrain them'. DDA Cullen Papers, Letterbook 4, Cullen to Archbishop Spalding, 12 Nov. 1864, f. 75.

117. T.D. Sullivan, A.M. Sullivan: a Memoir (Dublin, 1885) 72. 118. NAI Fenian Police Reports box 2 22 (1). 119. NAI Fenian Briefs box 6, Mullen to J. McDonnell, General Secretary of

the NBSP, 15 Mar. 1864. 120. Ibid. Mullen to McDonnell, 11 Nov. 1864. Many of Mullen's letters are

undated and though the chronology is often clear from the context it makes citation somewhat difficult.

121. Larkin, The Consolidation of the Roman Catholic Church, 438 n36. 122. Irish People, 2 April 1864, 300. The letter here printed from 'a country

priest', is in all probability by Mullen. See NAI Fenian Briefs box 6, Mullen to McDonnell, 15 Mar. 1864 'If you think fit you might get my letter published in the Irish People.'

123. Moran, The Pastoral Letters, ii 250 and 253. 124. In fact, in the period 1858-66 the total contributions from America

amount to only £30000. In all, in the period here surveyed the total funds arriving in Ireland from North America probably did not exceed £100000, about £5000000 at today's values. O'Leary, Recollections of Fenians and Fenianism i 153 n.1.

125. TCD Stephens Papers MS 9656d/13, 11 Mar. 1864. 126. NAI CSORP 10783 Petrie to Peel, 16 Dec. 1863. 127. BL Add MS 42821 Rose Papers, Straithnairn to Duke of Cambridge,

30 Aug. 1865, f.23. 128. Ibid. Rose to Wodehouse, 20 Oct. 1865, f.63. 129. BL Add. MS. 42821 Rose Papers, 30 Aug. 1865 f.22. 130. PRO 30/22/15F Russell Papers, Bruce to Lord John Russell 3 Oct. 1865,

f.20. Cf. Wodehouse to Russell, ibid. 1 Oct. 1865 f.S; Grey to Russell 30/22/16A, 5 Feb. 1866, f.291 and Strathnairn to Cambridge BL Add. MS. 42821, Rose Papers, 30 Aug. 1865, f.56. The following year in the light of Congressional resolutions in favour of the Fenians, and the impending Congressional elections, Bruce wrote to Clarendon: 'I beg Her Majesty's government not to disregard this symptom and above all

Notes 171

not to be misled by the notion that this Fenian movement is a tempo-rary madness which may be considered extinguished by the late failures. On the contrary I dread its influence far more at the polls than I do in the field .. .' PRO FO 115/453, 18 June 1866.

131. 16 Jan 1864,5. 132. 'Wanted: a policy for Ireland' Dublin Review N.S. (1865) viii 4, 425. 133. Edinburgh Review (1864) cxix 287 and 295. 134. Townsend, Political Violence in Ireland 45 tends to see all collective

violence as an essentially 'pre-modern' phenomenon. Townsend is here indebtcd to H.D. Graham and T.R.Gurr (cds) Violence in America (New York, 1969).

135. O'Leary, Recollections of Fenianism ii 227 & 243. 136. NLI MS 7517 Larcom Papers, 'The Fenian conspiracy' ii 457-8. 137. Moran (cd.) The Pastoral Letters and Other Writings of Cardinal Cullen

ii 249. 138. DDA Cullen Papers, Letterbook No.5, Cullen to Kirby, 27 Sept. 1865,

f.333. 139. BL Add. MS. 42821 Rose Papers, Strathnairn to Wodehouse, 20 Oct.

1865, f.63, and Strathnairn to Lord Paget, ibid., 23 Sept. 1865, f.51. 140. NAI Fenian Police Reports box 2, Cronin to Dublin Castle, 27 May

1865, 163. 141. NAI Fenian Police Reports box 2, Detective Constable Thomas Talbot

to Dublin Castle, 3 April 1865, 144. 142. NAI Fenian Police Reports box 2, report of Superintendent Ryan, 10

April 1865, 140(1). 143. NAI Fenian Police Reports box 2 115 (1) James Downing (RM

Maryborough) to Dublin Castle, 10 Mar. 1865. 144. Ibid. 141, report of Superintcndent Ryan, 11 April 1865. 145. Larcom wrote to Archibald after the trials, saying how vital Schoffield's

evidence had been. NAI CSO Letterbook 265 Larcom to Archibald, 28 Dec. 186580.

146. The Nation, 7 Oct. 1865, 101. 147. The Nation, 7 Oct. 1865. 148. Mr Justice Keogh said this document formed the backbone of the case

against the Fcnian prisoners. T.D. Sullivan, Recollections of Troubled Times in Irish Politics (Dublin, 1905) 60.

149. T.D., A.M., and D.B. Sullivan, Speeches from the Dock (Dublin, 1868) 134.

150. Moran, (cd.) The Pastoral Letters ii 391. 151. DDA Cullen Papers, Letterbook No 5, Cullen to Moran, 15 Nov. 1865,

f.339. 152. The Nation 11 Oct. 1865, 181. 153. NAI Fenian Police Reports box 3, 13 Nov. 1865, 344. 154. All the Fcnian literature is silent on this point - whether through guilt

or ignorance it is impossible to determine. 155. All thc documentation both for the defence and the Crown on the

application for the certiorari, including an affidavit from the doctor who examincd Doyle and Hughes, is kept at NAI Fenian Briefs box 4.

156. The Nation, 2 Dec. 1865,235.

172 Notes

157. The Nation, 23 Dec. 1865,276-7 and 283. 158. PRONI D.2777/8/149 O'Hagan Papers, Spencer to O'Hagan, 23 Mar.

1871. 159. And this despite the fact, as he saw it, that the trials proved the

'conspiracy was against Catholicity'. DDA Cullen Papers, Letterbook No.5, Cullen to Kirby, 17 Dec. 1865, f.356.

160. cf. NLI MS 7687 Larcom Papers, Attorney-General to Wodehouse 29 Nov. 1865, advising Wodehouse that he could dismiss the governor. His replacement Lieutenant Richard Boyd, formerly the governor of Derry gaol was recommended by the Church of Ireland Bishop of Derry. NLI MS 7593 15 Dec. 1865, perhaps giving some support to Cullen's other-wise near-paranoid views on the exclusion of Catholics from the public service.

161. NLI MS 7593 Larcom Papers, Wodehouse to Larcom, 4 Dec. 1865. The Home Secretary had already agreed that the more dangerous Fenian prisoners could be transferred to English gaols upon conviction. Wodehouse to Larcom, 3 Dec. 1865.

162. BL Add MS 42808 Rose Papers, Wodehouse to Strathnairn, 10 Dec. 1865.

163. NLI MS 7688 Larcom Papers, Larcom to McCanice, 8 Nov. 1865. 164. NAI Fenian Police Reports box 3, 1.1. Greig to Mayor of Liverpool,

26 Sept. 1865. 165. NAI Fenian Police Reports box 3,19 Oct. 1865319(1). 166. NLI MS 7688 Larcom Papers, 9 Oct. 1865. 167. It must be noted, however, that Cullen and his nephew both expressed

relief that no priests were arrested in the autumn of 1865 in connection with the conspiracy. Both believed that Patrick Lavelle, and other Tuam priests, might well have compromised themselves. AICR Kirby Papers, Moran to Kirby, 17 Sept. 1865 and Cullen to Kirby, 8 Oct. 1865.

168. BL Add MS 42821 Rose Papers, Strathnairn to Wodehouse, 20 Oct. 1865, f.63.

169. He told Kirby that the Fenians were the Church's 'most dangerous enemies'. AICR Kirby Papers, Cullen to Kirby, 30 Nov. 1865.

170. O'Leary's elder brother died just after completing his studies at Cork, and refused the last rites, for Cullen a shocking and blasphemous expedient. DDA Cullen Papers, Letterbook No 4 Cullen to Archbishop Manning, 22 Nov. 1865, f.174.

171. Claudia Carlen (ed.), The Papal Encyclicals 1740-1878 (Raleigh, 1981) 381.

172. As Owen Chadwick comments, 'Historians of the twentieth century have minimized or neglected the Syllabus .... The Syllabus was a symbol of something bigger, namely, the stance of the pope in the age of Garibaldi and the Risorgimento. But no one ought to neglect the conse-quences in European opinion of that stance.' The Secularization of the European Mind in the Nineteenth CentUlY (Cambridge, 1975) 111.

173. Pastoral letter on the Jubilee 17 Mar. 1865. A copy of this is preserved in DDA Cullen Papers.

174. Archives of the Archdiocese of Armagh Dixon Papers, Dorrian to Dixon, 25 May 1865.

Notes 173

175. AICR Kirby Papers, O'Beirne to Kirby, 8 Oct. 1865. 176. AICR Kirby Papers, Leahy to Kirby, 11 Oct. 1865. 177. AICR Kirby Papers, Powcr to Kirby, 23 July 1865. 178. DDA Cullen Papers, Letterbook No.5, Cullen to Moran, 29 Dec. 1865

ff. 371 and 374. 179. BLAdd MS 42808 Rose Papers, Wodehouse to Strathnairn, 4 Dec. 1865,

ff. 97-8. This was also Judge Keogh's view, who shared the general opinion that no rising could take place without American aid. BL Add MS 42821 Rose Papers, Wodehouse to Strathnairn, 11 Dec. 1865, f.135.

180. NLI MS 7688 Larcom Papers, Wodehouse to Larcom, 11 Nov. 1865. 181. NAI Fenian Police Reports, Doyle to Dublin Castle, 3 Oct. 1865, 315a

(2).

3 FENIANISM IN NORTH AMERICA

1. PRO FO 5/640, dispatches for 4 and 12 February 1856, John Crampton to Lord Palmerston. Sec also HO 45/0S 6039.

2. Thomas N. Brown, 'The Origin and Character of Irish American Nationalism', The Review of Politics xvi (1953) 331.

3. Lawrcnce J. McCaffrey, 'Irish Nationalism and Irish Catholicism: a Study in Cultural Identity', Church HistOlY, 42 No.4 (1973) 7.

4. John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New Brunswick, 1988), 19. Higham also points out that by 1870 the Order of the American Union had been founded in New York, incorporating many of the features of pre-war Know-Nothingism. Ibid. 30.

5. Thomas J. Curran, Xenophobia and Immigration, 1820-1930 (Boston, 1975),59 & 67.

6. Robert Francis Hueston, The Catholic Press and Nativism 1840-1860 (New York, 1976) ii.

7. Hueston, The Catholic Press, 234. 8. William Lenord Joyce, Editors and Ethnicity: a HistOlY of the Irish-

American Press, 1848-1883 (New York, 1974) 75. 9. A role which certain clerics yielded themselves up to with gusto. One

such was Fr Edward O'Flaherty, pastor of Crawfordsville, Indiana. O'Flaherty was the Fenian head centre for the State. Such were his exertions that during his life Indiana was known as 'the banner state of Fenianism'. John Savage, Fenian Heros and Martyrs (Boston, 1868) 56.

10. John Mitchel fervently wished that the samc attitude would in time pervade the Church in Ireland. He also hoped that given time, Irish nationalism and Irish Catholicism would be reconciled. William Dillon, Life of John Mitchel ii (New York, 1888) 247-8.

11. The Irish American 21 Nov. 1863. 12. AAB 3303 Spalding Papers, Cullen to Spalding, 17 Sept. 1864. 13. D' Arcy, op. cit. 109. It must also be said that even bishops themselves

could demonstrate, owing to domestic considerations, great hostility towards Britain, and offer, as in the case of Bishop Josue Young of Erie an analysis of Anglo-American relations not unlike that of the Fenians.

174 Notes

Writing to Archbishop Purcell concerning the 'accursed British govern-ment' he adds, 'one of the most inexplicable of wonders to me is, how Catholics and Irish Catholics can, in sympathizing with the South & slavery in our troubles, sympathize also with that hateful govern-ment. ... Who knows but our martial spirit may become an element in effecting the liberation of Ireland and the downfall of Britain, when we shall have fairly settled our own domestic troubles.' AUND II-5-b, Purcell Papers, Young to Purcell, 17 May 1864.

14. PAHRC 51.204 d Aso. Wood Papers, Wood to Moriarty, 14 May 1864. 15. PAHRC Wood Papers, Frenaye to Wood, 25 May 1864. 16. PAHRC 51.206 Aso. Wood Papers, Moriarty to Wood, 5 Dec. 1864. 17. AAB 36 S 1 Spalding Papers, Wood to Spalding, 5 Dec. 1864. 18. AAB 42 U 43 Bayley Papers, Wood to Bayley, 8 Dec. 1864. 19. Augustinian General Archives Dd 261, 89,98, 111. 20. ASHU 1.34 Bayley Papers, 'Letters from Rome', 13 July 1865. 21. He did so under the terms of decree nineteen of the Chicago diocesan

synod of 1860. Duggan regarded the Fenians as a secret society and hence they fell under the general ban of the Church. cf APF Scritture Riferite nei Congressi America Centrale 20, 888. He confirmed this view in a letter to Spalding in late 1864 in which he remarked that 'I never doubted after the first examination of the Fenian Brotherhood that it is a secret society directly coming under the censures of the Pontifical Constitutions.' AAB 33-S-12 Spalding Papers.

22. The Catholic Telegraph 22 Feb. 1865. Purcell had condemned the Brotherhood the previous year.

23. AAB 41-0-6 Bayley Papers, Spalding to Bayley, 3 Mar. 1865. 24. AAB 35-D-1O Spalding Papers, McCloskey to Spalding, 25 Aug. 1864.

One issue, at least as far as Spalding was concerned, was whether or not in the light of the Chicago convention the Fenians were to be 'regarded as a secret society under the law of the Church?' AUND II-5-b Purcell Papers, Spalding to Purcell, 13 Sept. 1864.

25. APF Scritture, Domenec to Barnabo, 20 ff. 1117-19. 26. APF Lettere 355 f. 237 Barnabo to Duggan and Kenrick 23 April 1864. 27. See, for example, AAB 35-D-13 Spalding Papers, McCloskey-Spalding

24 Oct 1864, in which the Archbishop of New York comments, 'I like both the substance & form of the petition very well.' By this time Duggan of Chicago was claiming that as far as his diocese was concerned the Brotherhood was 'dead and gives us no trouble what-ever'. AAB 33-S-13 Duggan-Spalding.

28. AAB Litterarum Registrum 1862-68, 61. Spalding to Bayley, 3 Oct. 1865 See also the letter to Purcell in which he said the petition had been forwarded by Barnabo to the Holy Office and there it would probably 'rest in peace' for some time. Ibid. 37.

29. APF Lettere 356, f. 719 16 Mar. 1865. 30. AAB 35-R-16 Spalding Papers, Purcell to Spalding, 17 Aug. 1865. 31. AUND VI-2-j Odin Papers, Spalding to Odin, 11 Aug. 1865. 32. AAB Spalding Papers Litterarum Registrum (1862-68) 158, Spalding to

Early, 10 Oct. 1865. 33. AAB 34-G-12 Spalding Papers, Juncker to Spalding, 6 July 1864.

Notes 175

34. Bishop John Luers of Fort Wayne estimated that as many as three-quarters of all the Irish in his diocese were sympathetic to it, AUND Purcell Papers II-5-b.

35. AAB Spalding Papers, Litterarum Registrum (1862-68) 734. 36. AAB Spalding Diary 1860-64, 97. 37. Hughes to Secretary of State Seward, 1 Mar. 1862 in John R.G.

Hassard, Life of the Most Reverend John Hughes D.D., First Archbishop of New York with Extracts from his Private Corre~pondence (New York, 1866) 474.

38. Ibid. 471-2. 39. Both Barnabo and Pius IX had criticized Purcell and Hughes for their

too-active political pronouncements. Cf. AAB 34-S-6 Spalding Papers, Luers to Spalding, 10 July 1864; AUND Vi-2-h Odin Papers, Rev Thomas Alleau to Archbishop John M. Odin, 8 Dec. 1864. By March 1866 even Archbishop McCloskey of New York acknowledged that the Church's attempt to curb Fenian activity might indeed seem like direct ecclesiastical interference in a political matter. However, he explained that priests and bishops held aloof from Fenianism precisely because 'the movement has nothing to do with religion', and implied that all good Catholics ought to take the same attitude. The New York Times, 6 Mar. 1866, 4.

40. AAB Spalding Papers, Literarum Registrum (1862-68) 720, 18 Nov. 1865.

41. Mann to Benjamin, in James D. Richardson (ed.),A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Confederacy including the Diplomatic Correspondence 1861-1865, (Nashville, 1905) Series 2, 31057. See also LOC MS division Papers of the Confederate States of America (Pickett papers) 4 rccl4, Mann to Bcnjamin, 12 Aug. 1864.

42. LOC MS Division Pickett Papers 7 pt 1 reel 6. 43. LOC MS Division Pickett Papers 7 pt 1 reel 6; Bannon to Benjamin, 17

Nov. 1863,22 Nov. 1863, 19 Nov. 1864. 44. LOC Pickett Papers, Lynch to Benjamin, 20 June 1864. 45. The Irish People, 21 May 1864 409. 46. ARCAT LAB 0 703 Lynch Papers, 9 June 1864. 47. ARCAT LAB 07 06 Lynch Papers, Lynch to Barnabo, 28 Sept. 1864.

Lynch distributed hand-written copies of this document to many bishops in the United States and Canada.

48. The Irish People 12 Nov. 1864 777. 49. The Irish People 29 Nov. 1864809. 50. Gerald J. Stortz, John Joseph Lynch, Archbishop of Toronto: a

Biographical Study of Religious, Political and Social Commitment, unpublished Ph. D. thesis, University of Guelph (1980) 205. Cf. ARCAT Lynch Papers LAB 06 04 Rev. John Walsh to Lynch 18 Nov. 1864 who in relating the details of one particular incident where thc priests in Toronto tried to head off a clash between Orange men and the Hibernians observed that the Irishmen were not susceptible to the arguments put fOlward by the clergy.

51. The Daily Globe 12 Dec. 1864. 52. ARCAT LAE 02 04 Lynch Papers, Magee to Northgraves, 27 Dec. 1864.

176 Notes

53. Freeman's Journal, 13 Feb. 1864. 54. Freeman's Journal, 20 Jan. 1866. Cf. Mary Canisus Minahan, 'James A.

McMaster: a Pioneer Catholic Journalist',American Catholic Historical Society Records, xlvii 2 (1936), 113. Minahan's view is that McMaster approved of the aim but not of all the methods of the Fenians, which is perhaps nearer the mark than William L. Joyce's judgement that after the condemnations of Duggan and Wood, McMaster and the Freeman's Journal opposed the Fenians. Editors and Ethnicity 85.

55. AAB 35-R-13 Spalding Papers, Purcell to Spalding, 20 Feb. 1865. 56. AAB 33-0-6 Spalding Papers, Cullen to Spalding, 18 Oct. 1865. 57. AAB 33-0-8 Spalding Papers, Cullen to Spalding, 16 Jan. 1866. 58. AAB 36A-R-8 Spalding Papers, Purcell to Spalding, 19 Jan. 1869. 59. ASHU Bayley Papers, Weizfcld to Bayley, 21 Sept. 1865. 60. AUND 1-2-a Brownson Papers, Hilton to Brownson (undated). 61. AUND 1-4-f Brownson Papers, Hipelins to Brownson, 7 April 1873. 62. AAB Spalding Papers, Litterarum Registrum 1862-68,276,25 Feb. 1867. 63. Edwin Vose Sullivan, An Annotated Copy of the Dimy of Bishop James

Roosevelt Bayley First Bishop of Newark, New Jersey, 1853-72, unpub-lished Ph.D. thesis, University of Ottawa (1956) i 149.

64. Joyce, Editors and Ethnicity, 112, a view also shared by Bishop Bayley of Newark. 'The more I hear of them and their proceedings the more I am convinced that in its aims it is the most pernicious association we have ever had amongst us in this country.' AAB 33-D-2 Spalding Papers, Bayley to Spalding, 2 Mar. 1864.

65. The American Consul in Dublin saw this in slightly melodramatic terms. When writing to Seward he suggested that the relative freedom in America loosened 'the bonds of mental slavery by which their faith enthrals them in this land of ignorance and superstition'. ANA United States Consul Dispatches, Dublin T199 (Roll 4), William B. West to Secretary of State, 6 Oct. 1864.

66. The New York Times, 4 Mar. 1866,4. 67. Irish Canadian, 24 Feb. 1864,4. 68. AUND I-1-N McMaster Papers, Longnemare to McMaster, 27 June

1866. 69. Hugh J. Nolan (ed.), Pastoral Letters of the United States Catholic

Bishops, i 1792-1940 (Huntington, Indiana 1984) 190. Joan M. Donohoe, is quite wrong in her judgement that 'Before the Civil War ecclesiastical authority offered the layman no guiding principles in the form of a joint statement regarding the status of secret societies', The Irish Catholic Benevolent Union (Washington, 1953) 3. Secret societies had been condemned as early as the fifth provincial council of Baltimore in 1843. Cf. Nolan, Pastoral Letters 109-110, and Peter Guilday,A HistOlY of the Councils of Baltimore (1791-1884) (New York, 1932) 146.

70. D'Arey, The Fenian Movement in the United States 48. 71. John Rothensteiner, HistOlY of the Archdiocese of St Louis (St Louis,

1928) ii 460. 72. Another significant element in Quanta Cura and the Syllabus, at least

for the Church in the United States, was highlighted by Archbishop

Notes 177

McCloskey of New York. Not only did he think that the encyclical was ill-timed but that 'it places us in a state of apparent antagonism, as far as our principles are concerned, to the institutions under which we live ... '. McCloskey to Spalding, 17 Feb. 1865, AAB Spalding Papers 35-E-1. Spalding himself may well have shared McCloskey's reserve since he records in his Acta Episcopa/ia, 13, that he urged a strong defence of the encyclical and syllabus 'at least in so far as this condition of affairs shall be thought to be existing here'.

73. ARCAT LAD-02-22 Lynch Papers (pastoral letter), Publishing the Jubilee 6 Aug. 1865.

74. ARCAT LAE-06-08 Lynch Papers, Lynch to Farrell, 12 Aug. 1865. 75. ARCAT LAE-06-14 Lynch Papers, Connolly to Lynch, 12 Mar. 1865. 76. ARCAT LAE-02-09 Lynch Papers, 1 Feb. 1866. 77. AAB 33-0-5 Spalding Papers, Cullen to Spalding, 2 Feb. 1865. 78. AAB 33-0-12 Spalding Papers, Cullen to Spalding, 29 Feb. 1868. 79. AAB 36A-B-13 Spalding Papers, Brophy to Spalding, 28 April 1869,

emphasis in original. There is no record of Spalding's reply to this long and intriguing letter.

80. AUND I-I-N McMaster Papers, James F. Cooper to McMaster, 22 Mar. 1870.

81. AUND II-5-dPurcell Papers, Barnabo to Purcell, 24 Aug. 1870, sec also APF, Lettere 364 f. 725-6.

82. AUND II-5-d Purcell Papers, Borgess to Purcell, 19 Sept. 1870. 83. APF Lettere 365 f. 104-5. 84. APF Scritture 23 f. 437-8. 85. APF Scritture 25 f. 402-3. 86. All the particulars of this dispute are preserved at APF Scritture 25 ff.

630-8. 87. APF Scritture 24 f. 1015-16. 88. Arch. Generale O.P. Rome II,5. I am grateful to the Reverend

Nicholas Ingham, archivist of the Dominican Province of Saint Joseph, Providence Rhode Island, for drawing this letter to my attention, and providing me with a transcript of it.

89. Bishop Bayley to Rev. Michael A. Corrigan: 'You may see something in the papers of a decree of the Holy Office condemning the Fenians. Please take no notice of it until you hear from me. It was issued at the request of some of the Irish Bishops, without a word being said to any of the American Prelates - and we are endeavouring to have it modified - at any rate ... we defer recognizing it.' Archives of the Archdiocese of New York, C-2 Corrigan Papers, Bayley to Corrigan, 30 Jan. 1870 C-2.

90. ANA Records of the Department of State Diplomatic Instructions M77 roll 79 1709, Seward to Charles Francis Adams, American Minister in London, 10 Mar. 1866.

91. If Fenian activity led to an American attack on Canada Disraeli believed that 'it can never be our practice or policy to defend the Canadian frontier against the United States .... What is the use of these colonial deadweights which we do not govern?' Disraeli to Derby, 30 Sept. 1866. G.E. Buckle and W.F. Moneypenny The Life of Benjamin Disraeli (London, 1910) iv 276.

178 Notes

92. NAC MG27 IBI mf. A.755 Monck Papers Bruce to Monck 11 Mar. 1866.

93. This exchange of letters is reproduced in James Stephens and the Fenian Brotherhood (New York, 1866) 98-9. It is impossible at this distance to determine who drew up this document but Stephens did write an intro-duction to the work, and it clearly represents his views of the development of the Fenian movement between 1858 and 1866, even if he did not guarantee the veracity of all the comments made in the book.

94. NAC MG 27 IBI mf A 756 Monck Papers, Bruce to Monck, 16 Mar. 1866.

95. Henri Le Caron, Twenty-Five Years in the Secret Selvice: the Recollections of a Spy (London, 1892) 59.

96. ANA Records of the Department of State Diplomatic Instructions M77 mf 80, Seward to Adams, 30 Aug. 1867, No. 2049 256, and same-same, 30 Oct. 1867, No. 2069, 279.

97. NAC MG 27 I Bl mf A 756 Monck Papers, MacDonald to Monck, 3 Oct. 1866, and NAC MG 26 A vol. 58 mf C-1508 MacDonald Papers, 4 Oct. 1866 and three telegrams all dated 6 Oct. 1866.

98. Lord Norton had told Monck in June that the fear of losing the Irish vote was the decisive factor in determining the American government's responses during the Fenian crisis. NAC MG27 IBI mf A-756 Monck Papers, Norton to Monck, 6 June 1866.

99. NAC MG27 IB1 mf A-755 Monck Papers, Carnarvon to Monck, 23 Nov. 1866.

100. In appointing him to the position MacDonald told Crieghton that 'My only fear is that your natural kindness ... may lead you to forget that the primary object of the penitentiary is punishment; and the incidental one reformation ... there is such a thing as making prisons too comfort-able and prisoners too happy.' NAC MG29 E12 Creighton Papers, MacDonald to Creighton, 31 Oct. 1871. The Creighton papers contain many letters of thanks from former Fenian prisoners, testifying to Creighton's kindness to them.

101. As is clear from the correspondence between John Wilkinson, secre-tary of the Hamilton Fenian circle and Frank B. Gallagher, Fenian senator. PAHRC Gallagher Papers RG 14 FB 237, 299, 303 and 304. These letters all date from the years 1868-69.

102. W.S. Neidhart, Fenianism in North America 62. 103. D'Arcy McGee estimated that up to one million electors in the United

States were influenced by Fenian considerations. Isabel Skelton, Life of Thomas DArcy McGee (Quebec, 1925) 442. Magec, though, shared Cullen's view that Fenianism was primarily a religious rather than a political threat. Archives of Ontario, MU 2116 #5 Miscellaneous collections Moylan Papers, Magee to Moylan, 27 Oct. 1865. J.G. Moylan was the editor of the Toronto Freeman.

104. This at least was the opinion of Sir Frederick Bruce. CNA MG27 IB1 mf A-755 Monck Papers, Bruce to Monck, 25 April 1866. On the other hand, Seward could talk of an 'extensive and profound alienation of the two countries'. Seward to Adams, 20 July 1868 in George E. Baker

Notes 179

(ed.), The Works of William H. Seward v (Boston, 1884) 479. 105. NAC Monck Papers MG27 IBl mf A-756, Bruce to Lord Stanley, 30

Oct. 1866. 106. New York Times 11 Jan. 1866,4. 107. New York Times 19 Mar. 1866,4. 108. Tilden, 1814-86, chairman of the Democratic Party State Committee

New York 1868. Electcd governor of New York 1874. Nominated for thc presidency in 1876 and was actually elected with a majority of 250000 ovcr his Republican rival, Rutherford B. Hayes. However, he was deprived of the office by an electoral commission; he always main-tained that the presidency had been stolen from him.

109. Wood, 1812-81, elected Mayor of New York in 1854, 1856 and 1859. Member of the House of Representatives 1863-65 and 1867-81.

110. Colfax, 1823-85, former Speaker of the House of Representatives, Vice President, to Ulysses S. Grant 1868-74.

111. This information is contained in an undated memo of Lord Strathnairn. Cf Fenian Papers PRO HO 144/1538 pt 4.

112. LOC MS 17634 Fish Papers, Fish diary mf 311 14 Jan. 1870. 113. Mitchel to Michael Moynahan, 19 Feb. 1867 and 17 Nov. 1868, see The

Gael, Novembcr 1904, 371. 114. PAHRC FB/159/4 Gallagher Papers, P. O'Day (District Centre, Buffalo)

to the Scnate of the Fenian Brotherhood, 20 Mar. 1867. Of this amount the Rochester Fenians gave $74 000 and the Buffalo Fenians the rest.

115. PAHRC RG 14-1-6 Gallagher Papers FB210 4, Roberts to Gallagher, 20 Nov. 1866.

116. CUADAM D6-2 19 O'Donovan Rossa Papers, O'Mahony to John McCafferty, 13 June 1873.

117. CUADAM D6-2-7 O'Donovan Rossa Papers, O'Mahony to Mitchel, 10 Nov. 1865.

118. CUADAM D6-2 15 0' Donovan Rossa Papers, Millen to O'Mahony, 1 Aug. 1868.

119. BCA Cahill Papers box 5/11 Millen to Cahill, 16 Jan. 1871 and box 5125, Richard J. Morrison to Cahill, 26 Sept. 1870, where Morrison, the acting executive secretary, complains that many circles had by then become disheartened and had disbanded.

120. BCA Cahill Papers box 5/52 O'Mahony-Cahill, 22 Sept. 1873. 121. PAHRC MS RG 14-1-8 Gallagher Papers, Gibbons to Gallagher,

28 Mar. 1870. 122. BCA John Boyle O'Reilly Collection box 1 series 1, 31 July 1871, and

O'Reilly to Rossa, 2 Mar. 1872. 123. NYPL Maloney Collection, O'Donovan Rossa Papers box 4, Thomas

Kelly to O'Mahony, 1 May 1865. 124. The Irish Canadian, 2 Mar. 1864 3. 125. NAC MG27 IB1 Monck Papers mf A-756 Bruce to Monck, 24 June

1866. 126. Irish Canadian, 1 Feb. 18653. 127. 12 June 1866 1. 128. The Leader, 8 June 1866 1. At the same time the newspaper declared

that it published this intelligence 'with no desire to create religious

180 Notes

feeling ... but to correct what certainly seems to be an error .... ' 129. 3 June 1866 5. John Mitchel's wifc detectcd similar ecumenical

harmony in Australia more than a decade earlier, declaring that even the ministers of religions were 'not so bigotted here as at home'. NYPL Mitchel Papers, Jane Mitchel to Mary Thompson, 15 June 1852.

130. D'Arcy Magee feared that Fr McMahon's trial in Canada for his part in the 1866 raid might be the occasion of a renewal of Protestant hostil-ity for Catholicism. NAC MG 29 DIS Moylan Papers, Magec-Moylan, 30 Oct. 1866.

131. NAC MS MG27 181 Monck Papers mf A-756, Archibald to Monck, 6 June 1866.

132. Slattery, The Assassination of D'Arcy Magee 280.

4 FENIAN ISM SUBDUED AND AUTHORITY UPHELD?

1. H.C.G. Matthew, The Gladstone Diaries vi 1861-1868 (Oxford, 1978), 473, 22 Oct. 1866.

2. PRO FO 43/96a f.57 Russell to Clarendon, 22 Jan. 1866. 3. PRO HO 45/7799 pt 1 pouch 2 f.720. 4. PRO FO 43/96a ff. 166-9. 5. PRO FO 918/9 Russell to Odo Russell, 26 Nov. 1866. 6. PRONI VR 85/1 Abercom Papers, Naas to Duke of Abercorn, 1 Nov.

1866. 7. BL Add MS 43622 ff. 50-52, Ripon Papers, Strathnairn to Marquis of

Ripon, 12 Oct. 1866. 8. NLI MS 22196 Mahon Papers, Martin to Mahon, 10 Mar. 1866. Cullen

was also of the opinion that the Orangcmen were spoiling for a fight, and that they would 'massacre the poor people like sheep'. AICR Kirby Papers, Cullen to Kirby, 23 Feb. 1866.

9. PRO Russell Papers PRO 30/22/16a, Woodehouse-Russell, 6 Jan. 1866. The Irishman the same day doubted that the Fenians contemplated any move which would bring them into collision with thc authorities. 6 Jan. 1866437.

10. Hansard clxxxi 25. 11. 6 PRO HO 45/7799 pt 1 pouch 2 f.579, Ryan to Commissioner of

Police, Dublin, 28 Feb. 1866. 12. AICR Kirby Papers, Cullen to Kirby, 20 Feb. 1866. 13. Marquis of Dufferin, Contributions to an lnquily into the State of Ireland

(London, 1866) 11; ct. also PRONI Dufferin Papm D/1071H/T/7. 14. AICR Kirby Papers, Bishop William Keane to Kirby, 6 Feb. 1866. 15. DDA Cullen Papers, Redmond to Cullen, 14 Jan. 1866. 16. AAA Dixon Papers, Pastoralletler, 5 Feb. 1866. 17. ABSPR Smith Papers, Irlanda E-F 12 Sept. 1867. 18. DDA Cullen Papers, Gillolly to Cullen, 15 Feb. 1866. 19. NAI Fenian Papers F series box 2 F1127, Barry to Commissioner of

Police, 1 June 1866. 20. PRO HO 45/7799 ptl pouch 2, John L. O'Farrell to Larcom, 20 Mar.

1866, ff. 668-9.

Notes 181

2]. At the same time, the paper opined that Fenianism must fail, as did the agitation of 1848. The Nation, ] 7 Mar. 1866472.

22. PRO HO 45/7799 pt] pouch 3 f. 935. 23. PRO HO 45/7799 ptl pouch 3, Williamson to Sir Richard Mayne

(Commissioner Metropolitan Police), 15 Sept. 1866 f. 863. John Papworth, The Irish in Live/Jlool 1835-71 (PhD thesis Liverpool, 1981) has found evidence for 21 Fenian meeting-places in Liverpool at this time. He concludes, however, that because the IRB meet in public houses 'the Brotherhood performed a social rather than a political function'. 171.

24. PRO HO 45/7799 ptl pouch 3 8 Dec. 1866 ff. 1080-81. He regarded an outbreak as inevitable 'if the strongest possible measures are not at once taken to check it'.

25. TCD MS 9659d/16 Stephens Papers, Stephens to Thomas Davis (Salem) circle, 11 July 1866.

26. DDA Cullen Papers, Letter book No.4, to Kenrick, Manning, Spalding, and Lady Herbert of Lea December 1866, ff. 353-8.

27. NAI Fenian Papers F Series box 2, Constable David C. Jennings to County Inspector, Ennis, 22 Dec. 1866 and 31 Dcc. 1866.

28. Matthcw Arnold, On the Study of Celtic Literature (London, 1867) xi. Emphasis in the original.

29. Corydon gave Chief Constable McHale a very convoluted account of the London directory which McHale reported on 1 February. PRO HO 144/1537 pt 1 Robert Anderson Papers 'Precis of some of the more important police reports for 1867', 1. Anderson had scribbled in the margin that he did not believe Corydon's account of the London Directory.

30. It may also have been indebted to the ideas of Finton Lalor, one of the leaders of the 1848 rising. For the proclamation, see The Morning Star 7 Mar. 1867; The Irishman, 9 Mar. 1867; The Tablet, 9 Mar. 1867.

31. PRO HO 144/1537/pt 1, report of Head Constable McHalc, Liverpool, 1 Feb. 1867.

32. NAI Fenian Papers F series box 3 F2240, F2246, F2281, F2298, and F2302.

33. AICR Kirby Papers, Cullen to Kirby, 2 Jan. 1867. 34. PRO HO 144/1537 pt 1 Anderson Papers, Brownrigg report, 27 Feb.

1867. 35. NAI Fenian Papers F series box 3 F2412. 36. PRONI 0.1821/3/3 McKee Papers, 13 Feb. 1867. 37. NAI Fenian Pape/:~ F series box 3 F2444 Thomas Welby to Inspector-

General, 14 Feb. 1867. A marginal note against this point reads 'of course this has always been expected'.

38. The Tablet, 23 Feb. 1867. 39. Joseph Denieffe, A Personal Nan'ative of the Irish Revolutionmy

Brotherhood (New York, 1906) 140-1. 40. AICR Kirby Papers, Cullen to Kirby, 18 Mar. 1867. Cullen also

remarked that 'Dr Moriarty was first an ardent Young Irelander, now he has gone into the opposite extreme.'

41. DDA Cullen Papers, Archdeacon Redmond to Cullen, 21 Feb. 1867. 42. Hansard 3rd series clxxxv 734 and 738.

182 Notes

43. Delane to Arthur 1. Dasent 18 Mar. 1867, quoted in Dasent, John Thadeaus Delane: editor of The Times, his life and correspondence ii London, 1908) 213.

44. NAI Fenian Papers F series box 3 F2652 4 Mar. 1867. 45. NAI Fenian Police Reports 3/714 box 4 21 Feb. 1867. 46. PRO HO 45/7799 pt 1 poueh 4 f.1342. The accounts of the

Mountmellick incidents may be exaggerated. The Irishman 16 Mar. 1867, was to claim that the insurgents were 'a tipsy individual armed with an unloaded revolver ... and in addition a sober warehouse porter, returning to his dinner after a day's work was over'.

47. John Devoy, Recollections of an Irish Rebel (New York, 1929) 214. 48. AICR Kirby Papers, Cullen to Kirby, 12 Mar. 1867. 49. DDA Cullen Papers, Leahy to Cullen, 15 Mar. 1867. 50. AAW U64 and U66 Manning Papers, 31 Jan. 1867 and 6 Feb. 1867. 51. PRONI T.2541 V.R. 145 Abercorn Papers, Shannon to Abercorn,

9 Mar. 1867. 52. NAI Fenian Papers F series box 3 F.3520, Chatterton to Larcom,

2 April 1867. 53. Ibid. Lake to Larcom, 4 April 1867. J. Stewart Wood, the Inspector

General of police, wrote in a similar vein that he had read the Attorney General's letter 'with pain'. Wood to Larcom, 6 April 1867. It must be a matter of deep regret to all historians of the period that between this date and 2 Dec. 1867 the Fenian papers in NAI, although catalogued, are nonetheless missing.

54. PRO HO 144/1537/pt 1 8 May 1867. 55. PRO HO 45/7799 box 2 pouch 6 Ryan report 31 Oct. 1867, f.1951. The

following month, Superintendent Daniel Ryan reported that the assas-sination circle consisting of 30 men had been set up by Col. Kelly, who had advocated such methods since 1865. One of the reasons for shoot-ing the police was that when the Fenians spared the police hostages in March, some of the officers subsequently gave evidence against the Fenians in the state trials, 'hence their determination to shoot as many police as they can'. Ibid. 4 Nov. 1867 f. 1963.

56. By September 1867, following an unsigned article by Butt in the Irishman, the government had begun to regard him as a fellow traveller with Fenianism. PRO HO 144/1537/pt 1 Superintendent Daniel Ryan, report 23 Sept. 1867.

57. NLI MS 820 Butt Papers, typescript 'Personal Reminiscences of Isaac Butt', 3. Joseph Spence argues that Butt's nationalist disposition had been awakened in the late 1840s. 'Isaac Butt, Nationality and Irish Toryism, 1833-1852', Bul/an: all Irish Studies Journal vol. ii 1 (1995) 56. The article is a somewhat condensed treatment of what appears in Spence's 'The Philosophy of Irish Toryism 1833-1852', Ph. D. University of London, 1991. By September 1867, following an unsigned article by Butt in the Irishman, the government had begun to regard Butt as a fellow-traveller with Fenianism. PRO HO 144/1537 pt.

58. Corish, 'Political Problems' 28; Norman, The Catholic Church in Ireland, 126, and Larkin, The Consolidation of the Roman Catholic Church, 428.

Notes 183

59. The Marquis of Downshire told the Viceroy that if Bourke was not hanged 'L[ or]d Strathnairn need not think of sending even a sub-divison of men out of Ireland this year ... '. PRONI VR 166 Abercorn Papers, Downshire to Abereorn, 26 May 1867.

60. NLl MS 11146 Mayo Papers, F. Petrie to Naas, 25 May 1867. 61. The exchange of letters is preserved at HO 45/9331/19461d. 62. PRONI VR 82/24 Abercorn Papers, Naas to Abercorn, 27 May 1867. 63. PRO HO 144/15371/ pt 1 24-5 1 June 1867. 64. PRO HO 144/1537/pt 1 40. 65. 'Precis of some of the more important police reports for 1867' 38-9

PRO HO 144/1538. 66. Gerard Moran, Fr Patrick Lavelle: a Radical Mayo Priest (Dublin, 1994). 67. Shin-ichi Takagami, The Dublin Fenians after the Rising, 1867-79

(Tokyo, 1992) 9-14, gives a good summary of these events. See also his The Dublin Fenians 1858-79 (PhD Trinity College, Dublin, 1990), espe-cially Chapter 3.

68. The Times, 19 Sept. 1867, 6. 69. PRO HO 45/9348/25943, Adams to Lord Stanley, 20 Nov. 1867. The

Times, 23 Nov. 1867, 8, declared this move fully justified. 70. HO 45/9348/25943 Memo to the Home Secretary, 15 Nov. 1867.

Gathorne Hardy scribbled on the back of this long and fascinating memo on 20 November, 'It has been decided in the cases of Allen, Gould lie O'Brien] & Larkin the law shall take its course'.

71. R.AJ. Walling, The Diaries of John Bright (London, 1930) 312. 72. Hansard 3 series cxc 114. 73. The Lighter Side of My Official Life 15. 74. PRONI D.1821/3/3 McKee Dimy 23 Oct. 1867. McKee was obviously an

active Catholic, and involved in the Armagh cathederal committee. He records, for example, a visit to his house of the Archbishop of Armagh, Michael Kieran, on 11 October 1867.

75. Glasgow Free Press 30 Nov. 1867, 4. 76. PRO HO 45/9349/25943, B J. Thompson to Gathorne Hardy, undated

but received at the Home Office 12 Nov. 1867. 77. PRO HO 45/7799 box 2 pouch 6 f.l985. 78. Bodleian Library B/xii/D/13a Disraeli Papers, Lambert to Disraeli,

26 Dec. 1867. Lambert was an official of the Poor Law Board who along with Disraeli's secretary Montagu Corry (Lord Rowton) was charged with administering relief after the bombing. He told Corry in a similar vein that 'The owners of the miserable houses which were damaged will continue to swindle the public purse unless they arc very considerably watched.' Disraeli Papers 28 Dec. 1867.

79. Viscount Llandaff who won Dungarvan for the Tories in 1868, at the cost of '800 bottles of whiskey'. He was the first Catholic to obtain cabinet rank. Michael Bentley, Politics without Democracy, 1815-1914 (London, 1984) 384.

80. Bodleian Library B/xii/D/6 Disraeli Papers B/xii/D/6 Matthews to Corry 18 Dec. 1867. Matthews was the sort of Catholic Disraeli liked and doubtless had his type in mind when he wrote to Corry in October 1866, 'My Roman Catholic policy as distinguished from my Irish policy, has

184 Notes

always been shaped with reference to the English R.C.'s, a most power-ful body, and naturally Tories'. Ibid. B/xx/D/22.

81. PRO HO 45/7799 pt 2 pouch 5 f.1603. Home Office circular, 28 Sept. 1867.

82. The play, performed at the Princess Theatre London, occasioned quite an amount of correspondence between government departments. cf. PRO HO 45/7799 pt 2 pouch 7 ft. 2587 and 2590-1.

83. NAI Fenian Papers F series box 3 F4994. Cf. The Times, 2 Dec. 1867,8, which remarked that while the magistrates decided not to ban the demonstration, they nevertheless took the precaution of having all the pubs closed.

84. AICR Kirby Papers, Cullen to Kirby, 7 Feb. 1868. 85. AICR Kirby Papers, McGettigan to Kirby, 31 Dec. 1867. 86. NAI Fenian Papers F series box 3 F4930, Sub-Inspector of Police,

Killarney to Inspector General, 10 Dec. 1867, reporting a conversation between the local RM Daniel Cruise and Moriarty. Norman, The Catholic Church in Ireland, 121, is mistaken in his assertion that The O'Donoghue headed the procession in Killarney since in fact none took place, as it was proclaimed. The O'Donoghue did attend 'a sort of meeting' on the 11 th possibly to prepare for the procession due to take place on Sunday 15 December. One must also question Norman's view, following Charles Gavan Duffy, My Life in Two Hemispheres, ii, 256, that The O'Donoghue was no Fenian. He certainly kept very odd company with, as the Sub-Inspector reported, 'the lowest class most of them Fenians'. This report is dated 11 Dec. 1867.

87. DDA Cullen Papers, Martin to Cullen, 6 Dec. 1867. 88. NLI MS 11156 Mayo Papers, Moriarty to Mayo, 14 Dec. 1867. 89. DDA Cullen Papers, Letterbook No.4, Cullen to Naas, 23 April 1868,

f.459. 90. Strathclyde Regional Archives Town Clerk's Office Miscellaneous Prints

xvii (D-TC.14.1.17) A. Turner to Lord Provost, 4 Mar. 1866. 91. Strathclyde Regional Archives City of Glasgow Police, Chief

Constable's Letterbooks No. 13 1865-66 ft. 539-40. 92. SCA OL2/109 Bishop Murdoch's Reply to the Address of the Clergy of the

Western District 26 Feb. 1864. 93. AICR Kirby Papers, Cullen to Kirby, 10 Sept. 1866, and MacEvilly to

Kirby, 6 Oct. 1866. Cf. AICR Manly Papers 133, Cullen to Kirby, undated, Cullen to Kirby, 29 April 1869 and Cullen to Kirby, 7 May 1869.

94. AAG WD/12 Gray Papers Miscellaneous letters envelope 6. 95. PRO HO 45/7799 box 2 pouch 6 f.2044, Gordon to Hardy, 11 Dec. 1867. 96. SCA OL 2/115 Circular of Bishop John Gray Addressed to the Clergy of

the District 12 Dec. 1867. 97. AAG WDI0/4/25, Allan Doud to Henry Edward Manning, 13 Dec.

1867. Doud wrote the same day in similar terms to Cullen. DDA Cullen Papers.

98. AAG WD/1O/4/26, Doud to Manning, 16 Dec. 1867. 99. AAG WD/10/11/1 Gray Papers undated memorial Gray to Manning,

but written after January 1868.

Notes 185

100. SCA ED 3/52 Strain Papers, Lynch to Strain, 11 Feb. 1868. 101. William Bernard Ullathorne, A Pastoral Letter on Fenianism, 26 Jan.

1869, 5. 102. NAI CSORP 2008/1865 'Extract from Chief Constable of

Staffordshire's report 28 Feb. 1865'. 103. NAI Fenian Papers F series F4771, Head constable Thomas Welby

(Manchester) to Inspector General of Constabulary, 1 Dec. 1867. 104. The Times, 2 Jan. 1868. 105. DDA Cullen Papers, Letterbook No.4, Cullen to O'Brien, 9 Jan. 1868,

f.437. 106. DDA Cullen Papers, Manning to Cullen, 22 April 1868. 107. The document marked 'confidential' is initialled JL, but it is clear from

internal evidence that it is from Lambert's pen. Bodleian Library B/ix/39a Disraeli Papers.

108. The Diaries of John Bright, 313. 109. Gladstone and the Irish Nation, 96. 110. Fenians in Context, 152. 111. BL Add MS 42825 Rose Papers 19 May 1869. Although drawn up for

the Duke the letter was never sent to Cambridge. 112. Ryan, The Fenian Chief 328. Davitt was also of the same opinion, The

Fall of Feudalism 42 and 77, d. Newsinger, 'Old Chartists, Fenians and New Socialists' 23.

113. BL Add MS 44249 Gladstone Papers, f. 23 and ibid. 28 Mar. 1868, ff. 32-3.

114. BL Add MS 42828 Rose Papers, Strathnairn to Cambridge, 8 Dec. 1868, f.34.

115. BL Add MS 44425 Gladstone Papers, Gladstone to Cullen, 6 Mar. 1870, ff. 192-201.

116. BL Add MS 44425 Gladstone Papers, Cullen to Gladstone, 12 Mar. 1870, f. 244.

117. Devoy, Recollections, 250. Cf also Davitt, The Fall of Feudalism 84. 118. AICR Kirby Papers, Cullen to Kirby, 18 Nov. 1868. 119. AICRKirby Papers, MaeEvilly to Kirby, 8 Jan 1869. O'Flaherty, accord-

ing to MacEvilly, had been 'one of the 1848 runaways'. 120. Irishman, 17 Oct. 1868,243. 121. Irishman, 14 Nov. 1868. Matthews lost the seat in the 1874 election. 122. By which time O'Brien had written to Rome and received a letter from

Cardinal Barnabo about Anderson. When Anderson was moved to Cork, he hoped that the move in itself 'will show the Cardinal that I was right'. DDA Cullen Papers, O'Brien to Cullen, 3 Feb. 1869.

123. BLAdd MS 42828 Rose Papers, Strathnairn to Abercorn, 11 Sept. 1868. Strathnairn was furious with the local magistrate Green 'who ordered the troops out at Dungarvan & then was aft'aid to do his duty and tell the coroner's inquest that he had done so'. Emphasis in original.

124. Rossa received 1131 votes as opposed to 1028 for his Catholic lawyer and tenant-right advocate, opponent Denis C. Heron. Archbishop Leahy was prepared to support Butt had he been prepared to stand, in which case Leahy thought Butt would have 'a walkover'. NLI Calender of Dr Leahy's Papers Special list 171, Leahy to Thomas Ryan, 10 Oct.

186 Notes

1869. This is one of a number of lettcrs which have not been micro-filmed.

125. Elections, Politics and Society, 465. 126. Fenians in Context, 178. 127. NAI Fenian Papers R series box 10 5065R, 27 Nov. 1869. 128. Elections, Politics and Society, 466. 129. NAI Fenian Papers R series box 10 5058R, Patrick Hoare to Inspector

General, 25 Nov. 1869. 130. BL Rose Papers Add MS 42826, Strathnairn to Cambridge, 29 Nov.

1869, ff. 57 and 58. 131. PRONI T.2541 85/72 Abercorn Papers, Mayo to Abcrcorn, 18 Mar.

1868. 132. Sullivan, Recollections of Troubled Times, 103-4. Fenian Revelations: the

Confessions of O'Farrell who attempted to Assassinate the Duke of Edinburgh (London, n.d.) 5. This extraordinary, and rare, document is made up of a series of interviews which took place between Parkes and O'Farrell in Darlinghurst gaol in Sydney and recorded verbatim by Samuel Cook of the Sydney Morning Herald who was also present. The interviews formed part of the prosecution evidence against O'Farrell. Fenian Revelations also contains extracts of a diary O'Farrell was alleged to have kept.

133. Matthew, Gladstone Diaries vii, 63-4. 134. Oliver MacDonagh, 'The Last Bill of Pains and Penalties: the Case of

Daniel O'Sullivan, 1869', IHS xix (1974-75) 136-55. 135. In Dcrry there was a major riot, owing, it seems, to the fact that a local

Catholic band, rather than an Orange lodge band, was given the ambiguous privilege of playing the national anthem upon their Royal Highnesses' arrival in the city. The Times, 3 May 1868, 12.

136. Precedence of the Prelates of the Roman Catholic Church by Sir lohn Bernard Burke. PRONI VR/7 Abercorn Papers. Burkc was the Ulster King of Arms.

137. PRO HO 45/7799 part 2 pouch 7 ff. 2713-17. 138. Moody, Davitt 63-79. 139. BL Add MS 42825 Rose Papers, Strathnairn to Cambridge, 5 Dec. 1868. 140. NAI Fenain Papers R series 5388 R 30, Dec. 1869. 141. NAI Fenian Papers R series 'The state of the country as to Fenianism'

5129R. 142. R.F. Foster, Modern Ireland (London, 1988) 339-41, 370-1, 453; Donal

A. Kerr, A Nation of Beggars? (Oxford, 1994) 143-65; 1.1. Lee, The Modernisation of Irish Society 42-9; Garvin, Nationalist Revolutionaries 57-77; S.l. Connolly, Priests and People in Pre-Famine Ireland (Dublin, 1982) 13-14, & 261-2; Comerford, 'Conspiring Brotherhoods and Contending Elites' 428; Oliver McDonagh, 'The Politicization of the Irish Catholic Bishops', Historical Journal xviii (1974) 37-53.

143. Hansard vol. C\xxxvi 459. 144. DDA Cullen Papers Letterbook No.4, Cullen to Fr 1. Kelly, 16 Mar.

1867, f. 387. A fact he repeated to many correspondents. Cf. AICR Kirby Papers, Cullen to Kirby, 12 Mar. 1867.

145. AICRKirby Papers, Woodlock-Kirby 11 Mar.1867. Woodlock confirms

Notes 187

that the Fenians tried to go to confession before the rising but that priests in Dublin would not absolve them. He also observed: 'Numbers of the poor policemen & soldiers have gone to confession.'

146. Hansard clxxxvi 465. 147. Bodleian Library, B/vii/116 Disraeli Papers, Cambridge to Sir John

Parkington (printed report marked 'strictly confidential - for the cabinet), 7 June 1867, 4. He does add, however, that 'if there had been a rising in 1865, before military Fenianism had been properly dealt with, something disagreeable might and would probably have occurred'. Ibid.

148. BL Rose Papers Add MS 42822, Strathnairn to Forster, 8 April 1866, f. 47.

149. Lothair (Hughen den edition, London, 1882) 48. See also The Dublin Review (n.s.) xv 1870, 173, which unambiguously asserted that this fictional characterization represented Disraeli's real views, a charge he chose not to deny.

150. When Lord Spencer requested that a list be drawn up of names of priests 'who have uttered language eithcr in support of Fenians or in favour of landlord violence', the list contained 21 names. cf. NAI Fenian Papers R series box 10 5126R, Spencer to Sir Thomas Burke, 27 Nov. 1869. Two years earlier Cullen had written to Sir Thomas that all the bishops 'were most respectful to all charged with the burden of government, and that we are ever ready to inculcate obedience and submission to the constitutional authorities in accordance with the teaching of the gospel'. DDA Cullen Papers Letterbook No.4, Cullen to Burkc, 23 Feb. 1867, f. 381.

151. Cf. The Vatican Decrees and their Bearing on Civil Allegiance: a Political Expostulation (London, 1874), in which Gladstone questioned the ability of Catholics to be loyal to the state in the light of papal infalli-bility, and Vaticanism: an Answer to Reproofs and Replies (London, 1875), which was even more rhetorically polemical than his efforts of the previous year. The popularity of anti-Catholic vituperation from Gladstone's pen was such as to earn him 'substantial sums' from royal-ties, at a time when he was facing some financial embarrassment. Jenkins, Gladstone 391.

5 THE POLITICS OF CONDEMNATION

1. Isaac Butt, Ireland's Appeal for Amnesty: a Letter to the Right Honourable WE. Gladstone M.P. (Glasgow and London, 1870) 7.

2. Thornley, Isaac Butt and Home Rule 65. Both the Irish Secretary and Attorney General opposed any releases. Matthew, Gladstone Diaries vii 112 n. 1.

3. O'Donovan Rossa, Irish Rebels in English Prisons 301-4. 4. Report of the Commissioners Appointed to Inquire into the Treatment of

Treason-Felony Convicts in English Prisons H.C. 1871 [c.319] [c.319] xxxii. 1,61, 243ff and 475. These admissions were forced from the chap-lains under cross-cxamination from Stephen De Vere. The priests

188 Notes

themselves tended to take the view that there was nothing in the trcat-ment of the prisoners to complain of.

5. Ibid. 26. 6. This is Butt's estimate, Ireland's Appeal for Amnesty 82. Johnson Fenian

Amnesty, 275 estimates 600000. 7. The Irishman, 25 Sept. 1869, 196. 8. NAI Fenian Papers R series box 9, James Ryan to Commissioner of

police un-numbered despatch, 25 Aug. 1869 and Joseph Murphy, Second Head Constable Liverpool, to Inspector General 30 Aug. 1869.

9. Ibid. R series 4576R, Daniel Ryan to Commissioner, 18 Sept. 1869. Copies of this dispatch were sent to Gladstone and the Home Office.

10. NAI Fenian Papers box 9, 26 Sept. 1869. 1l. PRONI D.2777/8/80 O'Hagan Papers, Spencer to O'Hagan, 10 Oct. 1869. 12. Others wcre resolutely opposed for a variety of reasons. People

inclined to support the Fenian collections showed a proportionate disinclination to contribute to specifically religious causcs such as the Catholic university. NAI Fenian Papers R series box 10 5585R 3rd, Inspector D. McArdle, Borrisoleigh Tipperary to Inspector General 24 Jan. 1870.

13. AICR Manly Papers box 3, Cullen to Kirby, 2 Nov. 1869. Dr Keane of Cloyne had similarly permitted a collection; the result of such encour-agement, according to Cullen, was that the Fenians had 'increased in number and audacity'.

14. DDA Cullen Papers, Letterbook No.4 f. 508. 15. The Irishman, 13 Nov. 1869, 321 16. PRO FO 918/3, Clarendon to Russell, 7 Feb. 1870. 17. PRONI 0.2777/8/126 O'Hagan Papers, O'Hagan to Spencer, 28 Dec.

1870. On the other hand, by that stage, given the releases that had already taken place, he thought there was no point in keeping the rest of the prisoners in captivity.

18. TCD MS 9659d/23 Stephens Papers, Stephens to Mary Stcphens, 24 July 1870.

19. NAI Fenian Papers R series 5290R, Head Constable Joseph Murphy to Inspector General, 6 Dec. 1869. This was a premature move carried out by a Fcnian cell from Liverpool on its own authority. There was a plan to raid simultaneously a number of gun-shops, which was frustrated by the indiscretion of the Liverpool men, since this action 'placed the authorities on their guard'.

20. The Tablet, 22 Jan. 187099. See also Lord Dufferin, Contributions to an InquilY into the State of Ireland (London, 1866) 13.

21. BL Add MS 44425 Gladstone Papers, 6 Mar. 1870 f. 192. Gladstone also made the remarkable admission in this letter that 'Ireland has been strong in her controversy with G[reat] B[ritain], because she has had justice on her side ... .'

22. BL Add MS 44249 Gladstone Papers, Manning to Gladstone, 5 Feb. 1970, f. 136, and same to same, I Mar. 1870, f. 193. In this letter there is enclosed an unsigned set of proposals in Cullen's hand, outlining the bishops' recommendations which included the cxtension of the Ulstcr custom to the whole country.

Notes 189

23. Babara Solow, The Land Question and the Irish Economy (Harvard, 1971) 19-20.

24. W.E. Vaughan, Landlords and Tenants in Mid-Victorian Ireland (Oxford, 1994) 100.

25. BL Add MS 44425 Gladstone Papers, Cullen to Gladstone, 12 Mar. 1870, f. 244.

26. PRO FO 918/4 Russell to Clarendon, 24 Jan 1870. 27. DDA Conroy Papers, Cullen to Conroy, 16 Mar. 1870. 28. The Irish Times, 22 Mar. 18705. 29. A measure which Cullen supported. DDA Cullen Papers, Letterbook

No.4, Cullen to William Monsell, February 1871, f. 577. 30. NAI Fenian Papers R series 6020R, Robert Anderson to T.H. Burke,

18 Jan. 1870, which encloses a Home Office memo, I.139, concerning a clash between the two groups in Armagh on 6 January. According to this documcnt the rules of the IRB as circulated in the North of England alluded to the fact that 'Ribbonism being a religious agrarian movement is inconsistent with the principles of RepUblicanism.' The memo gocs on to observe that 'antagonism between the two is v[ery] marked & has led to the commission of several outrages'.

31. Archives of the Irish Province of the Society of Jesus Haly Papers HP EV.64.43.

32. PRO FO 918/1, Clarcndon to Russell, 22 Feb. 1869. Cullen in fact had remarkably little contact with Antonelli and tended to conduct his Roman business through Barnabo at Propaganda. Furthermore Odo Russell was of the opinion that Antonelli did not like the Irish. PRO FO 918/4, Russell to Clarendon, 13 Jan. 1869. More than a decade earlier William Petre, then looking after British affairs in Rome, could write: 'the Court of Rome ever shrinks, except on points of doctrine, and canonical discipline, from decisive measures with foreign ecclesi-astics, and it stands in no ordinalY fear of the Irish'. PRO FO 170/5730 May 1852.

33. To give but one example for the Foreign Secretary's scepticism: the Rev. Patrick O'Connor of Ballymurry, in the diocese of Elphin, was suspected of being a Fenian centre. His bishop suspended him, his parishioners, however, locked up the chapel and would allow no other priest to officiate until O'Connor was restored. NAI Fenian Papers R series 5746R 'Report on the state of Roscommon', 15 Feb. 1870.

34. PRO FO 918/1, Clarendon to Russell, 13 Dec. 1869. 35. AVECR Talbot Papers, Moriarty to Talbot, 10 Jan. 1868. 36. Ibid. Moriarty'S views on the freedom of the Catholic Church in Ireland

coincided exactly with those of Clarendon. PRO FO 918/1, Clarendon to Russell, 13 Dec. 1869.

37. Freeman's Journal, 24 Dec. 1869. Larkin, Consolidation of the Roman Catholic Church 652, wrongly asserts that 'apparently only one promi-nent Dublin priest, James Redmond ... signed the declaration'. In fact at least three parish priests and six curates added their signatures. Their names, as Cullen recorded, 'ought to be all put upon a black list and kept up for some future retribution'. DDA Cullen Papers, Cullen to McCabe, 22 Dec. 1869.

190 Notes

38. DDA Cullen Papers, miscellaneous. 39. DDA Conroy Papers, Cullen to Conroy, 28 Dec. 1869. 40. Consolidation of the Roman Catholic Church 654. Larkin gives no

evidence for this sequence of events, which is in part contradicted by the fact that the bishops still intended to move against Lavelle, as is clear from Cullen's letter of 28 December.

41. Norman, The Catholic Church and Ireland 129. 42. PRO FO 918/2, Spencer to Clarendon, 21 Dec. 1869. 43. PRO FO 43/106, Russell to Clarendon, 2 Jan. 1870. 44. PRO FO 918/3 21 Jan. 1870. 45. PRO FO 43/106, Russell to Clarendon, 13 Jan. 1870, f. 51. Curiously

the Pope referred to Queen Victoria, who he hoped might be induced to visit Rome, as head of the Church of England. He 'respected and admired' Victoria as a 'colleague' and observed, '10 sono Papa Reina la Nostra sovrano e Regina e Papessa in Inghilterra'. f. 52. Pius IX had a notoriously quirky sense of humour. Whether his observation here is intended as some sort of joke is difficult to say. The sentiments expressed are certainly at variance with Roman Catholic theology in the matter.

46. Larkin, Consolidation of the Roman Catholic Church 658-9. 47. I wish to thank Mgr James O'Brien of the Vatican's Congregation for

Bishops, for guiding me through nineteenth-century Roman Curial procedure.

48. PRO FO 918/76 Ampthill Papers, Manning to Russell, 26 Jan. 1870, f.207.

49. Matthew, The Gladstone Diaries vii 229. Gladstone does not record why he thought the decree would not be beneficial. One possibility is that it highlighted the role of the Pope in civil and religious affairs at a time when the discussion on papal infallibility, a doctrine which Gladstone disliked, was about to begin in earnest. Antonelli had told Russell that 'Papal infallibility would be the destruction of Fenianism'. PRO FO 918/4 Russell to Clarendon, 20 Feb. 1870.

50. NAI Fenian Papers R series 5619 box 10, Daniel Ryan to Commissioner, 28 Jan. 1870.

51. DDA Cullen Papers, Conroy to Cullen, 7 Jan. 1870. 52. The Times, 17 Feb. 1870,4. The N