now pick out the seven dwarves
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Turn your paper over. Now pick out the seven dwarves. - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
NOW PICK OUT THE SEVEN DWARVES.
Turn your paper over
Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy Smiley Jumpy Hopeful Goofy Sleazy Shy Droopy Moody Hoppy Dopey Sniffy Wishful Puffy Ren Dumpy Sneezy Pop Grumpy Cheesy Bashful Cheerful Teach Snorty Nifty Itchy Happy Doc Wheezy Stubby Poopy Diddy Stimpy
SEVEN DWARVES
Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashful
NAME THE SEVEN DWARVES
Take out a piece of paper
MEMORY
MEMORY FEATS
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Definition: learning that has persisted over time; The ability to retain knowledge
Adaptive AdvantageAllowed animals to use information from the past to respond quickly to immediate challenges
WHAT IS MEMORY?
Memorized series of nonsense syllables(TUV YOF GEK)
More times he practiced the list on day 1, the fewer repetitions he required to relearn it on day 2
Retention Curve
HERMANN EBBINGHAUS
Memory system is often compared to that of a computer
Information has to be encoded (getting information to our brain)
Then stored (retained)And finally retrieved (getting in out of the
memory system)
INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL
Proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin
See pg 187
THREE STAGE PROCESSING MODEL
Sensory Input
Rehearsal
Forgetting Forgetting
ENCODING
Automatic Processing: Unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings Space – we often encode the place on the page where
material appears Time – we unintentionally note the sequence of a day’s
events Frequency – we effortlessly keep track of how many times
things happen (I ran into you four times today!) Well-learned information – reading billboards, the writing
on a truckEffortful Processing: Encoding that requires
attention and conscious effort Often produces durable and accessible memories
AUTOMATIC V. EFFORTFUL PROCESSING
Rote Rehearsal: Repeating information over and overBoosts memory
Spacing Effect: Distributed v. Massed Rehearsal Distributed practice yields better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study/practice
Repeated quizzing also helps “Testing is a powerful means of improving learning,
not just assessing it.” – Henry Roediger and Jeffrey Karpicke
EFFORTFUL PROCESSING: REHEARSAL & SPACING EFFECT
Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
Primacy Effect: Enhanced recall for items at the beginning of the list More time to practice
Recency Effect: Enhanced recall for the last items on a list Still in working/short-term memory
Presidents, names, word lists, etc.
REHEARSAL: SERIAL POSITION EFFECT
Visual: Encoding of picture images (imagery)Acoustic: Encoding of sound (the sound of
words)Semantic: Encoding of meaning (meaning of
words)Which yields the best memory of verbal
information?Fergus Craik and Endel Tulving
Flashed a word at people Then asked a question that required participants to
process the word visually, acoustically, or semantically Is the word in capital letters? Does the word rhyme with train? Would the word fit into this sentence? The girl put the
______on the table.
WHAT WE ENCODE
TYPES OF ENCODING: RESULTS
Chunking: Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically FBIIRSCIAEPAFBI IRS CIA EPA
Hierarchies: Composed of a few broad concept divided and subdivided into narrower concepts
ORGANIZING INFORMATION FOR ENCODING
ENCODING: MNEMONIC DEVICE
A memory trick or technique for remembering specific facts
“Every good boy does fine” to remember the notes on the lines of the scale
“People say you could have odd lots of good years” as a way to remember how to spell “psychology”
MNEMONIC DEVICES
Loci Method: A person associates items to be remembered with places
Peg-Word: A person associates items to remember with a list of peg words already memorizedGoal is to visualize the items to remember with the items on the pegs
PEG WORD SYSTEM
STORAGE
First stage of storage that holds large amounts of incoming data for very brief amounts of time
Iconic Memory: Momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli A photographic or picture-image memory lasting no
more than a few tenths of a secondEchoic Memory: Momentary sensory memory
of auditory stimuli If attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still
be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
SENSORY MEMORY/SENSORY REGISTERS
SENSORY MEMORY EXPERIMENT
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The exposure time for the stimulus is so smallthat items cannot be rehearsed.
R G TF M QL Z S
50 ms (1/20 second)
“Recall”R T M Z
(44% recall)
Sperling (1960)
PARTIAL REPORT
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Low Tone
Medium Tone
High Tone
“Recall”J R S
(100% recall)
Sperling (1960) argued that sensory memory capacity was larger than what was originally
thought.
50 ms (1/20 second)
S X TJ R SP K Y
TIME DELAY
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“Recall”N _ _
(33% recall)TimeDelay
50 ms (1/20 second)
A D IN L VO G H
Low Tone
Medium Tone
High Tone
SENSORY MEMORIES
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Iconic0.5 sec. long
Echoic3-4 sec. long
Hepatic< 1 sec. long
The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses.
A tiny amount of information from your sensory registers will move to short term memory Conscious, activated memory which holds information briefly
before it is stored or forgottenStays in as long as you can rehearse it
Slightly better for what we hear than what we see Small capacity Can hold the “magic number 7 plus or minus
2” – George Miller Can increase it by chunking
Also called working memory Actively manipulating information
WORKING MEMORY (SHORT-TERM)
Moves to long term as a result of rehearsal
Elaborative Rehearsal: linking new material to things you already know
FROM SHORT TERM TO LONG TERM
Capacity is limitlessEstimates on capacity range from 1000
billion to 1,000,000 billion bits of information (Landauer, 1986)
LONG TERM MEMORY
Explicit (Declarative): Memories for information we can readily express in words and that we are aware of having; Can be intentionally retrieved from memory Semantic: Facts and concepts not liked to a particular time; Like a
dictionary or encyclopedia Episodic: Personally experienced events Processed by hippocampus (active during deep sleep), not stored
here Implicit (Nondeclarative): Memories for information that
we cannot readily express in words and may not be aware of having Procedural: motor skills and habits Emotional Memories: learned emotional responses to various
stimuli (usually through classical conditioning) Processed by the cerebellum
Flashbulb memories
TYPES OF LONG TERM MEMORIES
TO SUMMARIZE….
Memories are not stored in one “spot” in the brain
Working memory is processed in the prefrontal cortex and temporal lobe
Long-term semantic memories are located in the frontal and temporal lobes
Episodic: frontal and temporal
WARNING
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) A long-lasting change in the
structure or function of a synapse that increases the efficiency of neural transmission and is thought to be related to how information is stored by neurons
An increase in neurotransmitter release or receptors on the receiving neuron indicates strengthening of synapses
NEURAL BASIS FOR MEMORY
In stressful situationsEmotion-triggered stress hormones make more glucose energy available for brain activity
Boost in amygdala activity Result: Arousal can sear certain events into the brain
Epinephrine and cortisol can affect long-term retention of negative memories
Sudden stress hormones can block older memories
STRESS AND MEMORIES
RETRIEVAL
Recall v. Recognition: We remember more than we recall
During retrieval, information flows from long-term memory back to working memory
Mind reconstructs a memory out of the stored bits
Retrieved information is blended with the new content currently present in the working memory Prone to changeFuture retrievals will bring up the modified file!
Recognition! Most effective cues are those we generate
ourselves Elaborative rehearsal
The more retrieval cues, the more likely you are to remember
Priming: The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
CUES: STIMULUS THAT HELPS YOU ACCESS TARGET INFORMATION
Context Congruent Memory: Enhanced ability to retrieve information when you are in an environment similar to the one in which you encoded the information More similar to your retrieval circumstances are to
your encoding circumstances, the more likely you are to remember the information Retracing your footsteps Revisiting the scene of a crime
Mood Congruent Memory: The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood
CONTEXT/MOOD CONGRUENT MEMORY
FORGETTING
Daniel Schacter Three Sins of Forgetting
Absent-mindedness: inattention to details leads to encoding failure
Transience: storage decay over time Blocking: inaccessibility of stored information
Three Sins of Distortion Misattribution: confusing the source of information Suggestibility: the lingering effects of
misinformation Bias: belief-colored recollections
One Sin of Intrusion: Persistence: unwanted memories
WHY DO WE FORGET?
Most of what we sense we never noticeIf you don’t encode it, you can’t retrieve it
Slower encoding with age
ENCODING FAILURE
Hermann Ebbinghaus’ “Forgetting Curve”We forget a lot right away, but then it levels off!
Result: Some memories do “decay”
Explanation?Fading of the memory traces in our brains?
STORAGE DECAY
Forgetting is often a result of not being able to get out the memories we have stored
Why? Proactive Interference: Something you learned
earlier disrupts your recall of something you learn later Forward-acting
Retroactive Interference: Occurs when new information makes it harder to recall something you learned earlier Backward-acting
Information that is presented in the hour before sleep is protected from retroactive interference But not in the few minutes before sleep!
RETRIEVAL FAILURE
We unknowingly revise our memories People who were told the benefit of tooth-brushing
recalled having frequently more brushed their teeth in the preceding two weeks then people who were not told the benefit of tooth-brushing
Memory is often self-serving Sigmund Freud and Memory
We repress (banish from the conscious) painful memories to protect our self-concept and to minimize anxiety
“Submerged” memories will linger and can be retrieved by some later cue or during therapy
Many psychologists think repression is rare We might actually be more likely to remember emotional
memories
MOTIVATED FORGETTING
We infer our past from stored information plus what we later imagined, expected, saw, or heard
Elizabeth Loftus Misinformation Effect: After exposure to subtle
misinformation, many people misremember We alter and save the new file
False Memories: One experiment showed people digitally altered photos depicting themselves (from childhood) taking a hot air balloon ride three times over two weeks. Half of the participants “remembered” the experience.
It is then hard for us to discriminate between these altered and real memories
Source Amnesia (misattribution): attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined Rumors!
MEMORY CONSTRUCTION
Children’s memories are extremely susceptible to suggestibility
Experiments Researchers asked 3-year-olds to show on anatomically correct
dolls where a pediatrician had touched them; 55% of children who had not received genital examinations pointed there.
Preschoolers overheard a false comment that a magician’s rabbit had gotten loose in their classroom. Later, when suggestively questioned , 78% recalled actually seeing the rabbit.
Children chose cards from a deck of possible happenings and an adult read the card followed by, “Think real hard, and tell me if this ever happened to you. Can you remember going to the hospital with a mousetrap on your finger?” After 10 weekly interviews, with the same adults repeatedly asking children to think about several real and fictitious events, a new adult asked the same question. 58% produced false, often vivid, stories regarding one or more events they had never experienced.
CHILDREN AND EYEWITNESS RECALL
Use a neutral personDo not ask leading questions Keep children from involved adults
before questioning them
SUGGESTIONS FOR CHILDREN’S TESTIMONY
Can clinicians help their patients “recover” memories of childhood abuse?
How can we interpret therapists who use “memory work” techniques like guided imagery, hypnosis, and dream analysis?
RECOVERING REPRESSED MEMORIES
1. Sexual abuse happens2. Injustice happens3. Forgetting happens4. Recovered memories are commonplace
Do our minds forcibly repress painful experiences?5. Memories of things happening before age 3
are unreliable6. Memories “recovered” under hypnosis or
the influence of drugs are especially unreliable
7. Memories, whether real or false, can be emotionally upsetting
AGREED UPON FACTS REGARDING REPRESSED MEMORIES
Anterograde Amnesia: Cannot recall events that happen after the onset of the amnesia Damage to hippocampus
Retrograde Amnesia: Cannot recall events before the amnesia set in Disease, brain injury
Infantile Amnesia: Most people cannot remember events prior to the age of 3 Immaturity in parts of the brain
TYPES OF AMNESIA
IMPROVING MEMORY