NS 2 COVERAGE FOR EXAMINATION 2

Other Organ Systems, Reproduction and Aging, Genetics and Inheritance, Evolution and Advances in

Biological Sciences

TOPIC CONTENTS

• Circulation and Respiration (including immune system)

• Digestion (Mechanical and Chemical)

• Reproduction and Aging

• Genes and Inheritance

• Man and the Environment (Evolution, Advances in Biology)

CIRCULATION AND RESPIRATION

THE OPEN & CLOSE TYPE OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

• OPEN: Circulatory medium directly bathes peripheral tissues; Blood is conveyed directly to organs; Less readily regulated blood distributed; Usually a low pressure system; Sustained pressure is possible (due to small body size); Return to heart is often slow

• CLOSED: tissues are not bathed in CM; Blood is conveyed directly to organs; Well-regulated blood distribution (via the sphincters, valves and hormones; Usually high pressure system; Hydraulic pressure sustained; requires high peripheral resistance (provided by arteries’ elastic vessels); Rapid return of blood to heart

VARYING NUMBER OF HEART CHAMBERS

FOCUS: HEART, BLOOD AND BLOOD VESSELS

FUNCTIONS OF THE HEART

• Pumps blood into 2 closed circuits (systemic/pulmonary)

• Left: pumps freshly oxygenated blood into the systemic circulation

• Right: pumps deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary circulation

PATH OF BLOOD

SA NODE: PACEMAKER• Development of abnormal

self-excitability of ectopic pacemakers (ocassional)

• Extra beats

• Pace heart for some period of time

• Caffeine and Salbutamol may have the same effect

• Triggers ectopic activity

THE HEART BEAT• SYSTOLE: WHEN

THE HEART CONTRACT

• DIASTOLE: WHEN THE HEART RELAX

• 0.8 SECONDS = ONE CYCLE

• AT REST: ATRIA AND VENTRICLES IN DIASTOLE = 0.4S

FETAL CIRCULATION• Both the umbilical vein and the umbilical

arteries are housed in the umbilical cord which attaches the placenta to the umbilicus (future belly button) of the fetus

• umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood

• umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated blood

• RECALL: Blood returning from the lungs to the left atrium closes the flap between the two atria

• In some cases, the flap does not close and causes a "blue baby" that is not getting enough blood to the lung for oxygenation

THE BLOOD VESSELS

APPRECIATING HOW VESSELS WORK

CONTROL OF BLOOD PRESSURE AND BLOOD FLOW

STROKE VS HEART ATTACK

STROKE VS HEART ATTACK

BLOOD• A liquid connective

tissue

• Heavier, thicker and more viscous than water

• Temperature about 38C

• pH = 7.4

• 8% of body weight

• 1.5 gallons (male); 1.2 gallons (female)

• FUNCTIONS:

• TRANSPORTATION (gases, hormones, nutrients, wastes)

• REGULATION (buffering and ion balance)

• PROTECTION (WBC, inflammation and clotting)

WHAT YOUR CBC TELL YOU

• INCREASED WBC = INFECTION

• INCREASED NEUTROPHIL = BACTERIAL INFECTION

• DECREASED PLATELET = DENGUE, ETC

• INCREASED LYMPHOCYTE = VIRAL INFECTION

BLOOD COMPOSITION AND THEIR FUNCTION

BLOOD PRODUCTION AND “RECYCLING”

BLOOD DOPING AND BEING SPORTY

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BLOOD: WHEN TO CLOT AND WHEN NOT TO

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Hemophilia

Hereditary deficiency of clotting

Hemophilia A: absence of factor VIII (males)Hemophilia B: absence of factor IX (males)

Hemophilia C: absence of factor XI (males and females)

Vitamin KRequired for synthesis of clotting factors by liver cells (II, VII, IX and X)

FIBRINOLYTIC SYSTEM: FOR

UNWANTED CLOTS

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BLOOD TYPING AND THE Rh FACTOR

MODIFIED SCHEDULE• FEB 26: NO CLASS

• MARCH 2: LAST LECTURE

• MARCH 5 AND 9: FINISH VIDEO

• MARCH 12: VIDEO SHOWING

• MARCH 16: EXAM 2

• FINALS and DEADLINE OF REQUIREMENTS: MARCH 26

LET’S TALK ABOUT FIGHTING DISEASES...

THE IMMUNE/LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

• Protecting against invasion (immune responses)

• T cells: destroys invaders directly or indirectly

• B cells: develop into antibody-producing plasma cells

• Types of Immunity:

• Non-specific defenses

• Specific defenses

NON-SPECIFIC DEFENSE (1st line)• MECHANICAL

PROTECTION

• EPIDERMIS and MUCOUS MEMBRANES

• LACRIMAL APPARATUS

• SALIVA and VOMITING

• FLOW OF URINE

• VAGINAL SECRETIONS

• DEFECATION

• CHEMICAL PROTECTION

• SEBUM

• PERSPIRATION

• GASTRIC JUICE

• VAGINAL SECRETIONS (ACIDIC)

NON-SPECIFIC DEFENSE

NON-SPECIFIC DEFENSE

FEVER and YOUR IMMUNE SYSTEM

• Abnormally high body temperature

• Due to toxins triggering release of fever-causing cytokines and interleukins (ILK-1)

• Intensify effects of interferons (to inhibit microbes and speed up repair)

• Commonly occurs during infection and inflammation

SPECIFIC DEFENSEWhen the first line missed the target!!!

TYPES OF IMMUNITY

MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX

• REASONS WHY TISSUES ARE REJECTED DURING TRANSPLANTS

• APPEAR ONLY ON THE SURFACE OF ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS OR APC)

• Help T cells recognize foreign invaders

ANTIBODIES

IMMUNOLOGICAL MEMORY

HIV/AIDS and the IMMUNE SYSTEM

• Attacks helper T cells which stimulates the activities of B cells (recall: B cells produce antibodies)

• Patient more susceptible to infection

• Why a vaccine not applicable?

ALLERGIES, HYPERSENSITIVITIES and AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE

• Overactive immune system/HYPERSENSITIVTY

• IgE causes allergies

• Allergen attaches to IgE antibodies of mast cells

• Release histamine

• Mucous secretion and airway restriction

• Basophils release substances into the blood stream

• Increased capillary permeability

• Fluid loss and shock

• Allergy shots (IgG before allergen reach IgE)

• AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE:

• Preceded by an infection that results in cytotoxic T cells attacking the body’s own organs

• Examples: multiple sclerosis and systemic lupus

RESPIRATION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD

MUST TRY!

MECHANICS OF

BREATHING

CAN I SWALLOW MY FOOD WHILE BREATHING?

• A thin flap of tissue called the epiglottis covers your windpipe when you swallow

• This prevents food or drink from entering the air passages that lead to your lungs

EXTERNAL RESPIRATION: air from environment to alveoli to blood (gas exchange)

INTERNAL RESPIRATION: air from blood to cells (gas transport)

• Do you wonder why you are supposed to inhale (breathe in) before the crunch and exhale (breathe out) during the crunch?

• In forced expiration (what you do when you crunch) relaxation of the diaphragm doesn't create enough force to cause necessary for rapid expiration

• The extra force needed comes from CONTRACTION of the abdominal muscles

• So when you crunch, you are contracting your abdominal muscles (what you want to do) and exhaling

• If you inhale (or try to) at the same time you are contracting your abs, you are working at cross purposes

MODIFIED RESPIRATORY MOVEMENTS

SPIROMETER or PNEUMOGRAPH

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• Most O2 is transported by hemoglobin as oxyhemoglobin within RBCs = Most CO2 is transported in blood plasma as bicarbonate ions

• pH

• As pH decreases affinity of hemoglobin for O2 decreases resulting to dissociation (Bohr effect)

• During exercise: lactic acid

• Excess CO2: carbonic acid

• PARTIAL PRESSURE OF CO2

• CO2 can bind to hemoglobin (Bohr effect)

• As pCO2 increase hemoglobin releases more O2

• Low blood pH results from high Pco2

• TEMPERATURE

• As temperature increases, amount of O2 released from hemoglobin increases

• Heat: by-product of metabolism = raises body temperature = promotes release of O2

• Active/exercise or Fever

• BPG OR BIPHOSPHOGLYCERATE

• Decreases affinity of hemoglobin for O2 thus facilitating release

• When BPG binds to hemoglobin, hemoglobin binds O2 less tightly

• Hormones increasing formation of BPG:

DIGESTION

HORMONES

ENZYMES

ACTIVITIES IN THE MOUTH

IMPORTANT TO NOTE…when you swallow you stop breathing for 1-2

ACTIVITIES IN THE STOMACH

Heartburn and Vomiting

• Heart Burn

• HCl from the stomach contents can irritate the esophageal wall resulting in a burning sensation

• Not related to cardiac problem (though sensation near the heart)

• How to avoid: Eat food in smaller amounts; Do not lie down after meal

• Vomiting

• Forcible expulsion of the contents of the GI tract through the mouth

• Stimulus: irritation and distention of stomach, unpleasant sights, dizziness and certain drugs

THE HEAVIEST GLAND IN THE BODY

CAN I DONATE PARTS OF MY LIVER AND STILL LIVE?

• November 1989: University of Chicago Medical Center

• 1st living-donor liver transplant (US)

• Child received part of left lobe of mother

• Child’s case: closure or absence of some of the major bile ducts

• GOOD NEWS!!!

• Liver capable of regeneration

• Mother’s liver returned to normal size (2 months)

• TRUE for lungs, pancreas, kidneys and bone marrow

FATTY FOOD DIET?

SMALL INTESTINES

LARGE INTESTINES

HOW ARE YOUR FECES FORMED

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HOW DO THEY LOOK

TODAY???

GO FORTH & MULTIPLY....

Reproduction and Aging in Organisms

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

• Binary Fission

• Budding

• Regeneration

• Vegetative Propagation

• Spore Formation

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

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SEX IN NON-VASCULAR PLANTS

VASCULAR PLANTS: ANGIOSPERMS

• Monoecious plants have separate male and female flowers on the same plant (e.g., corn and pecan)

• Some monoecious plants bear only male flowers at the beginning of the growing season, but later develop both sexes (e.g., cucumbers and squash).

• Dioecious species have separate male and female plants (e.g. holly, ginkgo, and pistachio)

• In order to set fruit, male and female plants must be planted close enough together for pollination to occur

MALE OR FEMALE

(Staminate or Pistillate)

POLLINATION: leads to fertilization, resulting in the production of seeds and

fruits, thus ensuring continuity of life

• SELF-POLLINATION: is the transference of the pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of either the same or of another flower borne on the same plant.

• CROSS-POLLINATION: t is the transference of the pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower borne on a different plant of the same species

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION continued...

GETTING TO KNOW HOW YOUR BODY PREPARES YOU FOR REPRODUCTION

GETTING TO KNOW HOW YOUR BODY PREPARES YOU FOR REPRODUCTION

WHAT THE GUYS NEED TO KNOW

• ERECTION – first effect of male sexual stimulation

• LUBRICATION – during sexual stimulation; causes glands to secrete mucus which flows to urethra to aid in lubrication during copulation

• EMISSION AND EJACULATION – mark the culmination of male sexual response

MALE FERTILITY

• RADIATION EFFECTS – affects activity of actively dividing cells

• TEMPERATURE EFFECTS – prevents spermatogenesis and causes degeneration of ST

• SPERM COUNT – 3.5 ml = 120 M sperms

• Average : 400 M/ejaculate

• Below 20 M infertile…. Oh No, WHY???

• SPERM VIABILITY – 3-4 days

• SPERM JOURNEY – 30 min to 3 hrs

GETTING TO KNOW HOW YOUR BODY PREPARES YOU FOR REPRODUCTION

FEMALE HORMONAL CYCLES

WHY THE NEED TO KNOW YOUR CYCLE GIRLS?

COPULATION TO FERTILIZATION TO EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT

POPULATION ISSUES & BIRTH CONTROL

• TEACHING YOU HOW TO BE RESPONSIBLE WHILE YOUNG

• HELPING YOU HOW TO HAVE A QUALITY LIFE WITH YOUR KIDS WHEN YOUR A COUPLE

• AWARENESS ABOUT

PLEASE BE RESPONSIBLE

POPULATION ISSUES & BIRTH CONTROL

• TEACHING YOU HOW TO BE RESPONSIBLE WHILE YOUNG

•HELPING YOU HOW TO HAVE A QUALITY LIFE WITH YOUR KIDS WHEN YOUR A COUPLE

• AWARENESS ABOUT STDs

NATURAL ARTIFICIAL

NATURAL METHODS

• RHYTHM METHOD/CALENDAR METHOD

• ABSTINENCE

• Only 100% method of birth control

• Abstinence is when partners do not engage in sexual intercourse

• Communication between partners is important for those practicing abstinence to be successful

POPULATION ISSUES & BIRTH CONTROL

• TEACHING YOU HOW TO BE RESPONSIBLE WHILE YOUNG

• HELPING YOU HOW TO HAVE A QUALITY LIFE WITH YOUR KIDS WHEN YOUR A COUPLE

•AWARENESS ABOUT STDs

GENDER SENSITIVITY: THE BARRIER METHODS

can’t get pregnant...will i do it?

AGING IS INEVITABLE...CELLS GROW, MULTIPLY AND SAY

GOODBYE...AFTER ALL, THAT’S LIFE

SOME SIGNS OF NATURAL AGING

RADIATION AND AGING

IS IT POSSIBLE TO AGE WELL?

THE CURIOUS CASE OF BENJAMIN BUTTON

THE NOT SO CURIOS CASE OF PROGERIA

PROGERIA: rare; , “rapid aging” disease

• affected person ages prematurely with a life expectancy of thirteen years (occurrence one per eight million live births)

• also called “Hutchinson–Gilford progeria syndrome” named after Jonathan Hutchinson and Hastings Gilford who arrived at the explanation of the disease independently.

• not an inheritable disease and is mainly caused by mutation in Lamin A a protein part of main building block of nuclear components required by the body growth

• symptoms: affected child fails to have normal physical growth accompanied by localized hardening of skin

• can be confirmed with a genetic test

• no successful treatment for this disease (reduce the complications : growth hormone treatment)

MAN AND HIS INTERACTIONS WITH

HIS ENVIRONMENT

MAN AND MICROBES

MAN AND VECTORS

PREVENTION: CUT WAYS OF TRANSMISSION

LET’S TALK ABOUT HIV/AIDS

LET’S TALK ABOUT HIV/AIDS

LET’S TALK ABOUT HIV/AIDS

IT’S IN YOUR GENES: ISSUES on

INHERITANCE

MENDEL AND HIS PEAS• UNIT FACTORS IN PAIRS

• Genetic characters are controlled by unit factors that exist in pairs in individual organisms

• Example: tall x dwarf

• 3 combinations possible: 2 tall factors, 2 dwarf factors, or 1 of each factor

• DOMINANCE/ RECESSIVENESS

• When two unlike unit factors responsible for a single character are present in a single individual, one unit factor is dominant to the other, which is said to be recessive

• Important: should be in pairs (1 dominant and 1 recessive)

• SEGREGATION

• During the formation of gametes, the paired unit factors separate or segregate randomly so that each gamete receives one or the other with EQUAL likelihood

TO UNDERSTAND HOW IT WORKS GET TO KNOW THEM FIRST...

• Phenotype

• Physical appearance of a trait

• Yellow, dwarf, round, wrinkled

• Genes

• Units of inheritance

• Alleles

• Alternative form of a single gene

• Genotype

• Genetic make-up of an individual in symbols

• Example: Dd, Yy, XX, zz

• Homozygous

• Both alleles are the same (XX, YY, xx, yy)

• Heterozygous

• When alleles are different (Yy, Xx)

TRY THIS...• What was the tool used

to observe cross frequencies of flamingoes?

• How many red flamingoes will result from the cross?

• How many blue flamingoes will result from the cross?

• What type of cross was described by this example? Justify.

HEMOPHILIA INHERITANCE

END OF EXAM 2 COVERAGE