nurturing adult learners handout bbmullinix oct09

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Jacaranda Educational Development Bonnie B. Mullinix, EdD Teaching Learning and Technology Group Greenville, SC www.jacarandaeducation.net [email protected] Takoma Park, MD www.tltgroup.org Teaching and Nurturing Adult Learners A Colloquium co-sponsored by Winston-Salem State University and the North Carolina Adult Education Association Exploring the Learning Ecosystem Opening Session October 20, 2009 (12:30-2:00) Dr. Bonnie B. Mullinix Colloquium Facilitator and Consultant Co-President, Jacaranda Educational Development Sr. Consultant, Faculty and Educational Development, TLT Group www.jacarandaeducation.net www.tltgroup.org [email protected] 864/270-3349 [email protected] Session Goal and Focus: To pose our challenge, set the tone for the colloquium… and start us on our way by: Conceptualizing the learning environment as an Ecosystem… Considering some conceptual and statistical visions of adult learners … Reviewing Colloquial challenges in the context of conceptual frameworks … Thinking about learning… Actively exploring learning theories. 10-15 min Table Talk & Introductions (during lunch) 20-30 min Opening Address: Conceptualizing the Learning Ecosystem, More about Adult Learners & Setting forth the Colloquium Challenges 15 min About Learning 20 min Constructing and Considering Learning Theories and Frameworks to inform Teaching Practice (A collaborative learning activity) 5 min Closing/Transitional Remarks

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Jacaranda Educational Development Bonnie B. Mullinix, EdD Teaching Learning and Technology Group

Greenville, SC www.jacarandaeducation.net [email protected] Takoma Park, MD www.tltgroup.org

Teaching and Nurturing

Adult Learners

A Colloquium

co-sponsored by Winston-Salem State University and the North Carolina Adult Education Association

Exploring the Learning Ecosystem

Opening Session October 20, 2009

(12:30-2:00)

Dr. Bonnie B. Mullinix

Colloquium Facilitator and Consultant

Co-President, Jacaranda Educational Development

Sr. Consultant, Faculty and Educational Development, TLT Group www.jacarandaeducation.net www.tltgroup.org

[email protected] 864/270-3349 [email protected]

Session Goal and Focus:

To pose our challenge, set the tone for the colloquium… and start us on our way by:

� Conceptualizing the learning environment as an Ecosystem…

� Considering some conceptual and statistical visions of adult learners …

� Reviewing Colloquial challenges in the context of conceptual frameworks …

� Thinking about learning…

� Actively exploring learning theories.

10-15 min Table Talk & Introductions (during lunch)

20-30 min Opening Address: Conceptualizing the Learning Ecosystem, More about Adult Learners & Setting forth the Colloquium Challenges

15 min About Learning

20 min Constructing and Considering Learning Theories and Frameworks to inform Teaching Practice (A collaborative learning activity)

5 min Closing/Transitional Remarks

Colloquium on Teaching and Nurturing Adult Learners Opening Session October 20, 2009 page 2

Jacaranda Educational Development Bonnie B. Mullinix, EdD Teaching Learning and Technology Group

Greenville, SC www.jacarandaeducation.net [email protected] Takoma Park, MD www.tltgroup.org

Adult Learning Theory & Frameworks Construction

Small Group Task Sheet

In your self-selected group:

1. Take the cards out of the envelopes (and distribute them among group members);

2. Work together to arrange them in the orientation that makes the most sense to you;

3. When you have agreed on how they are arranged, ask a facilitator for an “answer sheet”;

4. Review the sheet and briefly discuss:

◦ How did your arrangement differ?

◦ How this theory associated with adult learning inform your teaching practice and work with adult learners?

You have 10 minutes to complete this activity.

We will not have time to share now… but bring your understanding of these theories and frameworks into the panel and roundtable discussions… and add your own to enrich our learning over the coming days.

[Facilitator’s Note: During a regular session, I would normally allow at least 20-25 minutes for this activity and greater time for discussion and post-activity processing around not only content, but the process of re-constructing and exploring theories from one’s own perspective – but as our time is tight in this overview/orientation session, this activity is compressed.]

Colloquium on Teaching and Nurturing Adult Learners Opening Session October 20, 2009 page 3

Adapted from Mullinix, Bonnie B., et al. (1989). Nonformal Education Manual. In Nurturing Participation (2002) p 21.

Handout 1

ANDRAGOGY In his book, The Modern Practice of Adult Education, Malcolm Knowles identifies the following for distinctions between andragogy (the science of teaching adults) and pedagogy (the science of teaching children). 1. Self-Concept: In pedagogy, the child is dependent upon those around him/her; the adult

acts autonomously in relation to others. Adults are capable of being self-directed, of being able to identify and articulate what they want to learn in dialogue with the teacher. In pedagogy, the teacher is in a directing relationship with the student; in adult education, the teacher is in a helping relationship with the student.

2. Experience: Pedagogy is often seen as the one-way transfer of information from teacher to the student. Since the adult learner has a wealth of experience and wisdom, the teacher becomes a facilitator in a mutual learning environment. The distances created between teacher and student in pedagogy is replaced with a community of learners and facilitators.

3. Readiness to learn. In traditional pedagogy, the teacher decides what the students need to learn, and the curriculum is developed without initial input from the learner. Adult education is more learner-centered and the learner is more actively involved in deciding what will be taught.

4. Orientation to learning. Children have been conditioned to have a subject-centered orientation to learning whereas adults tend to have a more problem or process-centered orientation. Children are able to focus attention towards future rewards while adults are primarily concerned with their present situations and interested in solving problems they experience on a daily basis.

The chart below summarizes some key considerations for the adult educator.

DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN CHILD AND ADULT LEARNING APPROACHES

Key Ideas Child Adult

The learner Generally dependent Self-directed

The educator Identifies & defines problems

Facilitates learner solving own problems

Primary information source

Educator Self/experience

Motivation External Internal

Time factors Future Present

Over the years, both adult education and nonformal education have contributed a great deal to our understanding of how learning occurs. Formal education’s shift to learner-centered pedagogy helps to affirm observations that much of andragogy is simply good pedagogy. If agreed, then the headings on the matrix above can be changed to illustrate the distinction between traditional or instructor-centered education and learner-centered education.

Colloquium on Teaching and Nurturing Adult Learners Opening Session October 20, 2009 page 4

Adapted from Mullinix, Bonnie B., et al. (1989). Nonformal Education Manual. In Nurturing Participation (2002) p 22-23.

Handout 2

MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Attributes

Need for Self

-

Actualization

Survival Needs

Security Needs

Love Needs

Ego - Self

Esteem

Needs

Develop to fullest potential;

strong sense of individuality

Respect and like for self

and others

Membership, acceptance,

belonging, feeling loved and

wanted

Protection from physical or

psychological threat, need

for order and structure

Food, water, shelter,

clothing, etc.

Adult Learner Motivation

Motivation is an important part of an adult’s ability to learn. Environmental distractions, unmet needs, and personal trauma can divert the learner’s attention from the task at hand.

Abraham Maslow is a renowned theorist in the field of humanistic psychology and is often cited when discussing the dynamics of human motivation in general. Maslow suggests that human needs form a hierarchy that can be visualized as a stack of dependent layers; one level cannot be fully attained until the lower level need is met. To further complicate the model, an individual’s position in the hierarchy may change from hour to hour, day to day or year to year.

Colloquium on Teaching and Nurturing Adult Learners Opening Session October 20, 2009 page 5

Adapted from Mullinix, Bonnie B., et al. (1989). Nonformal Education Manual. In Nurturing Participation (2002) p 22-23.

Handout 3

THE EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING CYCLE Adult Learning - Process and Styles

An adult educator named David Kolb developed a model that integrates an experiential learning process with learning styles and provides a comprehensive theoretical guide for the adult educator. This model begins by describing four key steps in the learning cycle and provides a clear method to consider when designing programs for adults. Since adult learning is heavily based on previous experience, Kolb suggests the following types of learning that make up the adult learning process:

1. Concrete Experience (Do It): The learner is involved in a concrete experience that is provided in training. The learner explores a new situation firsthand. The learner learns by demonstration, explanation, lecture, and the giving of facts by the trainer.

2. Reflection and Observation (Think About It): The learner maintains concrete involvement but distances self, becoming reflective observer, taking a step back to observe and reflect on what the situation means to him/her. Learning occurs through question and answer periods, discussion, or individual time for reflection and work.

3. Abstract Conceptualization (Think About How to Apply It): Based on reflection, the learner analyzes the situation and forms theories, generalizing from the particular to the hypothetical and general. Interaction with peers and the trainer helps the learner analyze situations.

4. Active Experimentation (Try It Out): The learner formulates a plan or strategy to apply the newly attained information to his/her own situation. The learner needs to discover for him/herself the application of knowledge.

This experiential learning cycle can be represented as follows:

CONCRETE EXPERIENCE

ACTIVE REFLECTION

EXPERIMENTATION AND

OBSERVATION

ABSTRACT CONCEPTUALIZATION

Learners who feel most comfortable immersing themselves in an experience may be the ones who most need to be drawn back occasionally, and helped to conceptualize their experience (and vice versa). People have a tendency, even in childhood, to gravitate towards one style or another. By the time that they are adults, they have firmly established their preferred way of learning and may not wish to move through this process in a stage-by-stage manner. The job of the nonformal trainer is to design programs that address each stage in the experiential learning cycle. Designing a simulation or practical experience without allowing time to reflect, discuss and process the experience will not give learners the chance to bring the learning into their daily lives and experiences, and the learning will be incomplete.

Colloquium on Teaching and Nurturing Adult Learners Opening Session October 20, 2009 page 6

Adapted from Perry, W. Cognitive and Ethical Growth in Chickering, A. W., & Associates (Eds.). (1981). The modern American college: Responding to the new realities of diverse students and a changing society. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Handout 4

Stages of Cognitive and Ethical Development

William Perry’s study of intellectual and ethical development among a group of male Harvard undergraduates (1970) helped to describe the key stages that many faculty encounter in learners as they pass through their undergraduate experience. Below are the four basic stages. A nine phase version details transitions between stages and differentiates growth within stages.

Stage Name Stage Description Experience

Dualism

Division of meaning into two realms -- good versus bad, right versus wrong. We versus They. All that is not success is failure. Right Answers are to be memorized by hard work. Knowledge is quantitative.

Agency is experienced as external, residing in authority, test scores, the right job.

Multiplicity

Diversity of opinion and values is recognized as legitimate in areas where right answers are not yet known.

Opinions remain atomistic without pattern or system. No judgments can be made among them so "everyone has a right to his own opinion; none can be called wrong."

Relativism

Diversity of opinion, values, and judgment derived from coherent sources, evidence, logic, systems, and patterns allowing for analysis and comparison. Knowledge is qualitative, dependent on context.

Some opinions may be found worthless, while there will remain matters about which reasonable people will reasonably disagree.

Commitment

An affirmation, choice, or decision (career, values, politics, personal relationships) made in the awareness of relativism (distinct from commitments never questioned).

Agency is experienced as within the individual with a fully internalized and coherent value structure.

Colloquium on Teaching and Nurturing Adult Learners Opening Session October 20, 2009 page 7

Adapted from Chickering, A. W. and Gamson, Z. F. (1987). "Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education." AAHE Bulletin. 39 (7), 3-7.

Handout 5

Seven Principles of Good Practice in Undergraduate Education

In 1987, Art Chickering and Zelda Gamson distilled decades of research on the undergraduate experience into Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education. Viewing education as active, cooperative, and demanding, these principles assert that good practice:

1. Encourages Contact Between Students and Faculty

Frequent student-faculty contact in and out of classes is the most important factor in student motivation and involvement. Faculty concern helps students get through rough times and keep on working. Knowing a few faculty members well enhances students' intellectual commitment and encourages them to think about their own values and future plans.

2. Develops Reciprocity and Cooperation Among Students

Learning is enhanced when it is more like a team effort that a solo race. Good learning, like good work, is collaborative and social, not competitive and isolated. Working with others often increases involvement in learning. Sharing one's own ideas and responding to others' reactions sharpens thinking and deepens understanding.

3. Encourages Active Learning

Learning is not a spectator sport. Students do not learn much just by sitting in classes listening to teachers, memorizing pre-packaged assignments, and spitting out answers. They must talk about what they are learning, write about it, relate it to past experiences and apply it to their daily lives. They must make what they learn part of themselves.

4. Gives Prompt Feedback

Knowing what you know and don't know focuses learning. Students need appropriate feedback on performance to benefit from courses. When getting started, students need help in assessing existing knowledge and competence. In classes, students need frequent opportunities to perform and receive suggestions for improvement. At various points during college, and at the end, students need chances to reflect on what they have learned, what they still need to know, and how to assess themselves.

5. Emphasizes Time on Task

Time plus energy equals learning. There is no substitute for time on task. Learning to use one's time well is critical for students and professionals alike. Students need help in learning effective time management. Allocating realistic amounts of time means effective learning for students and effective teaching for faculty. How an institution defines time expectations for students, faculty, administrators, and other professional staff can establish the basis of high performance for all.

6. Communicates High Expectations

Expect more and you will get more. High expectations are important for everyone -- for the poorly prepared, for those unwilling to exert themselves, and for the bright and well motivated. Expecting students to perform well becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy when teachers and institutions hold high expectations for themselves and make extra efforts.

7. Respects Diverse Talents and Ways of Learning

There are many roads to learning. People bring different talents and styles of learning to college. Brilliant students in the seminar room may be all thumbs in the lab or art studio. Students rich in hands-on experience may not do so well with theory. Students need the opportunity to show their talents and learn in ways that work for them. Then they can be pushed to learn in new ways that do not come so easily.

Colloquium on Teaching and Nurturing Adult Learners Opening Session October 20, 2009 page 8

Cup Analysis adapted from Srinivasan, Lyra, Tools for Community Participation, 1994, p. 156. Cup & Arrow Symbolic Design

Analysis in Nurturing Participation (2002) p 49-50.

Handout 6

Colloquium on Teaching and Nurturing Adult Learners Opening Session October 20, 2009 page 9

Cup Analysis adapted from Srinivasan, Lyra, Tools for Community Participation, 1994, p. 156. Cup & Arrow Symbolic Design

Analysis in Nurturing Participation (2002) p 49-50.

The Arrow Analysis of Movement

See also page 10 for an example of how Symbolic Analysis can be used to graphically summarize and

analyze session (and course) design.

Active Movement –

Participants are primarily active and moving throughout the technique/session.

Some Movement –

Participants move to new locations or between groups but are then mostly stationary throughout the technique/session.

No Movement –

Participants remain where they are and there is little or no movement during the technique/session.

Colloquium on Teaching and Nurturing Adult Learners Opening Session October 20, 2009 page 10

Mullinix (2002). Nurturing Participation p. 66

Handout 7

Sensory Learning and Remembering

10%

20%

30%

50%

70%

90%

Colloquium on Teaching and Nurturing Adult Learners Opening Session October 20, 2009 page 11

Mullinix (2002). Nurturing Participation p. 16 & 17 – Adapted from Tim Simkins (originally in Mullinix et al (1989) Nonformal Education Manual.

The Three Squares Analysis of Participation

Facilitator Box

Equal Participation

Participant Box

PaParticipation

greatest participation by facilitator

equal participation, responsibility, guidance and input from facilitator and participants shared

greatest participation by participants

Primary color

red (or white) 1/2 red (or white), 1/2 green (or gray)

green (or gray)

Orientation (emphasis)

top left

equal

bottom right

Colloquium on Teaching and Nurturing Adult Learners Opening Session October 20, 2009 page 12

Mullinix (2002). Nurturing Participation p. 16 & 17 – Adapted from Tim Simkins (originally in Mullinix et al (1989) Nonformal Education Manual.

4A

4B

Colloquium on Teaching and Nurturing Adult Learners Opening Session October 20, 2009 page 13

Mullinix (2002). Nurturing Participation p. 16 & 17 – Adapted from Tim Simkins (originally in Mullinix et al (1989) Nonformal Education Manual.

Handout 8

A COMPARISON OF

FORMAL EDUCATION AND NONFORMAL EDUCATION

PURPOSES

1. Long-term and general 2. Credential-based (diploma oriented)

1. Short-term and specific 2. Not credential-based

TIMING

1. Long cycle 2. Preparatory (provides the basis for

future participation in society and the economy)

3. Full-time

1. Short cycle 2. Recurrent (depends on the

immediate learning needs arising from the individual's roles and stage of life)

3. Part-time

CONTENT

1. Subject-centered & standardized (a well defined package of cognitive

knowledge (knowing) with limited emphasis on psychomotor (doing) or affective (feeling) considerations and designed to cover needs across large groups of learners)

2. Academic 3. Clientele determined by entry

requirements (tests)

1. Problem-centered & Individualized (task or skill centered, discrete units which may be related to what individual participants or small groups may want to learn)

2. Practical 3. Entry requirements determined by

the clientele

DELIVERY SYSTEM

1. Institution-based (highly visible and expensive)

2. Isolated (from socio-economic environment)

3. Rigidly structured 4. Teacher-centered 5. Resource-intensive

1. Environment-based (minimal local facilities with low cost)

2. Community-related 3. Flexibly structured 4. Learner-centered 5. Resource saving

CONTROL

1. Externally controlled (curricula and standards are externally determined)

2. Hierarchical (internal control is based on role--defined relations among teachers and between teachers and learners)

1. Self-governing (autonomy at program and local levels, with an emphasis on local initiative, self-help and innovation)

2. Democratic (substantial control vested in participants and local community)

Colloquium on Teaching and Nurturing Adult Learners Opening Session October 20, 2009 page 14

Mullinix (2002). Nurturing Participation p. 16 & 17 – Adapted from Tim Simkins (originally in Mullinix et al (1989) Nonformal Education Manual.

Four Types of Education

Incidental Education

Education that takes place without any conscious intent on either the part of the learner or the source of information.

Informal Education

Learning is the result of a conscious effort on either the part of the learner or the information source.

Nonformal Education

Learning occurs when there is an intent on the part of both the learner and the information source; nonformal education is planned.

Formal Education

Learning occurs when there is intent on the part of both the learner and the information source; formal education is planned and institution-based.

Colloquium on Teaching and Nurturing Adult Learners Opening Session October 20, 2009 page 15

Jacaranda Educational Development Bonnie B. Mullinix, EdD Teaching Learning and Technology Group

Greenville, SC www.jacarandaeducation.net [email protected] Takoma Park, MD www.tltgroup.org

Bonus Handout

How Do I Learn Best? This questionnaire aims to find out something about your preferences for the way you work with information. You will have a preferred learning style and one part of that learning style is your preference for the intake and the output of ideas and information. Choose the answer which best explains your preference and circle the letter next to it. Please circle more than one if a single answer does not match your perception. Leave blank any question that does not apply. 1. You are about to give directions to a person who is standing with you. She is staying at a hotel in town and

wants to visit your house later. She has a rental car. You would: a) draw, or provide a map. b) tell her the directions. c) write down the directions (without a map). d) collect her from the hotel in a car. 2. You are not sure whether a word should be spelled `dependent' or `dependant'. You would: c) look it up in the dictionary. a) see the word in your mind and choose by the way it looks. b) sound it out in your mind. d) write both versions down on paper and choose one. 3. You have just received a copy of your itinerary for overseas travel. This is of interest to a friend. You would: b) phone her immediately and tell her about it. c) send her a copy of the printed itinerary. a) show her on a map of the world. d) share what you plan to do at each place you visit.

4. You are going to cook something as a special treat for your family. You would: d) cook something familiar without the need for instructions. a) thumb through the cookbook looking for ideas from the pictures. c) refer to a cookbook where you know there is a good recipe. 5. A group of tourists has been assigned to you to find out about wildlife reserves or parks. You would: d) drive them to a wildlife reserve or park. a) show them slides and photographs. c) give them pamphlets or a book on wildlife reserves or parks. b) give them a talk on wildlife reserves or parks.

6. You are about to purchase a new CD player. Other than price, what would most influence your decision? b) The salesperson telling you what you want to know. c) Reading the details about it. d) Playing with the controls and listening to it. a) It looks really smart and fashionable.

a) b) c) d)

Count your choices on this page

Turn to the next page.

Colloquium on Teaching and Nurturing Adult Learners Opening Session October 20, 2009 page 16

Jacaranda Educational Development Bonnie B. Mullinix, EdD Teaching Learning and Technology Group

Greenville, SC www.jacarandaeducation.net [email protected] Takoma Park, MD www.tltgroup.org

7. Recall a time in your life when you learned how to do something like playing a new board game. Try to avoid choosing a very physical skill, eg. riding a bike. You learnt best by:

a) visual clues -- pictures, diagrams and charts. c) written instructions. b) listening to somebody explaining it. d) doing it or trying it.

8. You have an eye problem. You would prefer that the doctor:

b) told you what was wrong. a) showed you a diagram of what was wrong. d) used a model of an eye to show you what was wrong.

9. You are about to learn to use a new program on a computer. You would: d) sit down at the keyboard and begin to experiment with the program. c) read the manual that comes with the program. b) telephone a friend and ask questions about the program. 10. You are staying in a hotel and have a car. You would like to visit friends whose address/location you do not

know. You would like them to: a) draw you a map on paper or provide a map from the internet. b) tell you the directions. c) write down the directions (without a map). d) collect you from the hotel in a car. 11. Apart from price, what would most influence your decision to buy a particular book? d) You have used a copy before. b) A friend talking about it. c) Quickly reading parts of it. a) The way it looks is appealing.

12. A new movie has arrived in town. What would most influence your decision to go (or not go)? b) You heard a review about it on radio. c) You read a review about it. a) You saw a preview of it. 13. Do you prefer a teacher who likes to use: c) a textbook, handouts and readings. a) flow diagrams, charts and graphs. d) field trips, models, labs and practical sessions. b) class or email discussion, online chat groups and guest speakers.

a) b) c) d)

Count your choices on this page

Total for both pages

V A R K

Copyright Version 4.1 (2002) held by Neil D. Fleming, Christchurch, New Zealand and Charles C. Bonwell, Green Mountain Falls, COLORADO 80819 U.S.A. This material may be used for faculty or student development if attribution is given. It may not be published in either paper or electronic form without consent of the authors. The VARK website is at www.vark-learn.com.

Colloquium on Teaching and Nurturing Adult Learners Opening Session October 20, 2009 page 17

Jacaranda Educational Development Bonnie B. Mullinix, EdD Teaching Learning and Technology Group

Greenville, SC www.jacarandaeducation.net [email protected] Takoma Park, MD www.tltgroup.org

Recommended References: Angelo, T. and Cross, P. (1993). Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Handbook for

College Teachers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Belenky, M., Clichy, B., Goldberger, N., & Tarule, J. (1986). Women’s ways of knowing: The development of self, voice and mind. New York: Basic Books.

Bransford, J. D., A.L. Brown and R.R. Cocking (eds). (1999). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience and School. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Available online at: http://www.nap.edu/html/howpeople1/notice.html.

Chickering, A. W. and Gamson, Z. F. (1987). "Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education." AAHE Bulletin, 1987, 39 (7), 3-7.

Christopherson, R.W. (2008). Geosystems:An Introduction to Physical Geography. Prentice Hall.

Fleming, N. VARK (Learning Styles Inventory). Online at: www.vark-learn.com.

Lovelock, J.E.; Margulis, L. (1974). "Atmospheric homeostasis by and for the biosphere- The Gaia hypothesis". Tellus 26 (1): 2–10.

Mullinix, B. B. (2002). Nurturing Participation: A Facilitator's Introduction to NonFormal Education and Participatory Training. Amherst, MA: Center for International Education, University of Massachusetts.

Perry, W. Cognitive and Ethical Growth in Chickering, A. W., & Associates (Eds.). (1981). The modern American college: Responding to the new realities of diverse students and a changing society. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Shriver, M & and the Center for American Progress (2009) A Woman’s Nation. Available: http://www.awomansnation.com/awn.php

Tansley, A.G. (1935) The use and abuse of vegetational terms and concepts. Ecology 16, 284-307.

Thomas, L (1974). The Lives of a Cell. Bantam Books.

Teaching Goals Inventory. Online version available at: http://centeach.uiowa.edu/tools.shtml

U.S. Department of Education National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (2002). Nontraditional Undergraduates: Findings from "The Condition of Education” Available: http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2002/2002012.pdf

Western Interstate Commission on Higher Education (2008). Knocking at the college

door. Available: www.wiche.edu/policy/knocking/1992-

2022/knocking_complete_book.pdf.