Information from site:

http://www.shaywood.com/quail/coturn1.htm

The Nutrition and Management of Japanese (Coturnix) QuailIn The Tropics

By: Dr. Shim Kim Fah

Japanese quails are produced mainly for their eggs and meat. Starters from day-old to four weeks of age are reared in brooder cages provided with strong lighting to give heat. They are fed 3 times daily with quail starter mesh. Growers and layers are from four weeks to about one year old. They are housed in layer cages which are 5 or 6-tiered. They are fed with quail layer or breeder feed twice daily. Lighting is left on during the night to stimulated the birds to lay eggs. The nutritional requirements of Japanese quail for protein, amino acids, vitamins and minerals will be discussed.

 

History of The Japanese (Coturnix) Quails

Quail belong, along with chickens, pheasants and partridges to the Family Phasianoidea of Order Galliformes of the Class Aves of the Animal Kingdom. Species or subspecies of the genus Coturnix are native to all continents except the Americas. One of them Coturnix coturnix or common quail are migratory birds of Asia, Africa and Europe. Several interbreeding subspecies are recognized, the more important being the European quail, Coturnix coturnix coturnix, and the Asiatic or Japanese quail, Coturnix coturnix japonica. One subspecies that commonly migrates between Europe and Asia was eventually domesticated in China. These birds were raised as pets and singing birds. The domesticated coturnix were brought at about eleventh century to Japan from China across the Korean bridge (Howes, 1964). In any event, coturnix were first domesticated in the Orient and not in the Middle East as has been claimed by some authors. Although European coturnix migrating south in the fall across the Mediterranean Sea were, in their exhausted condition, easily caught or trapped the available Egyptian and Biblical records do not indicate that these birds were ever bred in captivity.

The first written records of domesticated quail in Japan date from the twelfth century. These birds were initially developed for song. It is claimed that a Japanese Emperor obtained relief from tuberculosis after eating quail meat, and this led to selection of domestic quail for meat and egg production in Japan in the latter part of the nineteenth century (Howes, 1964). By 1910, the Japanese quail in Japan were widely cultured for their meat and eggs. Between 1910 and 1941, the population of Japanese quail increased rapidly in Japan especially in the Tokyo, Mishima, Nagoya, Gifu and Toyohashi areas. This period also represented a time of

imperial expansion in Japanese history and domesticated Japanese quail were established in Korea, China, Taiwan an d Hong Kong, and later on spread to Southeast Asia.

The domesticated subspecies, Coturnix coturnix japonica, is called Japanese quail but is also known by other names: Common quail, Eastern quail, Asiatic quail, Stubble quail,  Pharoah's quail, Red-throat quail, Japanese gray quail, Japanese migratory quail, King quail, and Japanese King quail. The correct popular nomenclature for Coturnix coturnix japonica should be Japanese quail or coturnix, but not coturnix quail since in Latin "coturnix" may be translated as quail.

 

Description

Coturnix Chick:Young coturnix are yellowish in appearance with stripes of brown and somewhat resemble turkey poults except for size. The newly hatched chicks weigh about 6 to 7 grams, but grow rapidly during the first few days. After three days flight feathers begin to appear and the birds are fully feathered about four weeks of age. Partial sexing is possible by three weeks of age by the cinnamon-colored feathers on the breast of the male bird, but there are some birds that defy definite sexing by this method, eve n when adults.

Adult Male:Male (right) and Female (left) Quails

The adult male coturnix weighs about 100 to 140 grams (3 1/2 to 5 ounces). The male birds can be identified readily by the rusty brown colored feathers on the upper throat and lower breast region. Males also have a cloacal gland, a bulbous structure located at the upper edge of the vent which secretes a white, foamy material. This unique gland can be used to assess the reproductive fitness of the males (Cheng, Hickman and McIntyre (1985). The young birds begin to crow at 5 to 6 weeks old. Sanford (19 57) described the voice of the male as a loud, castanet-like crow, producing sound as "pick-per awick" or "ko-turro-neex". During the height of the normal breeding season, coturnix males will crow throughout the night.

Adult Female:The adult female coturnix are slightly heavier than the male, weighing from 120 to 160 grams (4 to 5 1/2 ounces). The body coloration of the female bird is similar to the male except that the feathers on the throat and upper breast are long, pointed, an d much lighter cinnamon. Also, the light tan breast feathers are characteristically black-stippled.

Quail Eggs:Coturnix eggs are characterized by a variety of color patterns. They range from snow white to completely brown. More commonly they are tan and dark brown speckled or mottled brown with a chalky blue covering. The average egg from mature female weighs a bout 10 grams (1/3 ounce), about 8 percent of the body weight of the quail hen as compared to 3 percent for chicken eggs. The egg of Japanese quail contains 158 Cal. of energy, 74.6% water, 13.1% protein, 11.2% fat, and 1.1% total ash. The mineral conte nt includes 0.59 mg calcium, 220 mg phosphorus and 3.8 mg iron. The vitamin content is 300 i.u. of vitamin A, 0.12 mg of vitamin B1, 0.85 mg of vitamin B2 and 0.10 mg nicotinic acid.

Japanese Quail Farming

Incubation

Pre-incubation Egg Care:Successful quail propagation begins in the pre-incubation period. Eggs should be collected twice daily and more frequently in hot weather. Special care must be taken in collecting and handling quail eggs for they are thin-shelled, break more easily than chicken eggs. Eggs should be of a uniform size - extreme large or small size eggs has low hatchability. Eggs held for incubation should be kept in a cool, clean, dust-free room at a temperature of 14 + 3ºC (55 + 5ºF) and 70 + 10 percent relative humidity. Eggs should be stored large end up and they should not be held for more than 7 days before being placed in the incubator. Set only clean eggs. Eggs to be incubated should not be washed; if cleaning is required, it should be done with a clean abrasive or sandpaper. The egg is mostly water and quail egg dehydrates more rapidly. Eggs stored in PVC bags may be stored for a longer period of time (14-21 days) and the hatch will be higher than from unpackaged eggs stored as described above.

Natural Incubation:Although it is possible to incubate quail eggs under a broody hen or bantam, it is not usually practice in Singapore. From behavioral studies, some coturnix hens will sit on their own eggs in a nesting box, but this is not the general rule.

Artificial Incubation:

Quail eggs can be incubated successfully in any standard size commercial incubators. However, trays must be modified by adding 1.3 cm x 2.5 cm strips of welded wire to the chicken egg tray holders. Special wooden tray can be ordered to suit the size of quail eggs. Be sure to orient the eggs large end up in the setting trays or place flat in a horizontal tray. Quail eggs will hatch successfully if they are placed in an incubator in any position except with the large end down. The incubator should have a fan to provide adequate air circulation because the developing embryos use oxygen and give off carbon dioxide and heat. Little ventilation is needed at the beginning but the requirement increases as incubation progresses. The machine should be equipped to allow automatic turning of all eggs through an angle of 90 at least 4-6 times per 24 hours. Turning regularly is particularly critical in early incubation to prevent the embryos from adhering to the shell membrane. Lack of turning during the first 3 to 4 days will produce some malformed embryos as well as other minor defects. Turning may be discontinued after 14 days.

Fan-ventilation incubators should be set at 37.5 + 0.3 ºC. If the temperature of the incubator exceeds these recommendations many embryos may die. During the hatching period temperature should be lowered 0.5 ºC. A relative humidity of about 60 percent is satisfactory during incubation and should be raised to about 70 percent during the hatching period. The incubation period is 16 1/2 to 17 1/2 days. The duration of incubation may range from 16 to 18 days depending upon temperature, humidity and genetic variability. Some farmers in Singapore transfer the developing eggs to a separate hatcher on 15th day of incubation. It takes 10 hours from pipping to hatch, and an additional 5 hours for drying the chick. Then the quail chicks are ready to be distributed to other farmers or go into the brooder for rearing.

 

Brooding and Care of Small Quail

Brooding Facilities:Quail chicks can be brooded successfully in several types of commercial or game-bird battery brooders. When commercial chick battery brooders are used they must be modified to suit the small size of quail. The openings in

the wire floor should be covered with a rough-surfaced paper during the first week to avoid damage to feet and legs. The wire sides of the brooder must be closed with either fine mesh or paper to prevent escape of the baby quails.

Heat:Young coturnix chicks need extra heat to keep them warm until they are feathered. The proper brooding temperature for young birds is very important for successful management. The newly hatched quail chicks are transferred directly to the brooder from t he incubator. The heat to start with in the brooder should be only slightly lower than that of the incubator. They require a high temperature (37 ºC) at first and the temperature can be reduced 3 ºC each week until room temperature (28 ºC) is reached. Any brooder should afford an escape from under the heated area so the chicks can go and come as they wish. Feed and water are usually placed outside the heated hovering area. Thus, the chicks are forced to venture out from under the heat. This gives them needed exercise and accustoms them to lower temperature.

Feed:Flat paper plates can be used as feeders for the first few days. Later, a 10 cm x 30 cm x 3 cm galvanized floor feeder with a 1.2 cm x 1.2 cm welded wire grill is placed over the opening to prevent feed wastage.

Water:Water should be provided at all times. Care must be taken with small quails to prevent drowning in water troughs for the first two weeks. A pint canning jar with a glass or plastic fountain base works well. It should be modified by placing a donut shape d piece of hardware grill in the trough at the base. A shallow dish or pan filled with pebbles or marbles will also work. The chicks can drink between the marbles, but can not fall into the water. When chicks reach one week of age, the pebbles or wire protection can be removed with safety. It is important to provide clean water at all times. The water containers or troughs should be cleaned daily.

 

Housing For Laying Quail

The system of housing depends very much on the type and scale of the quail enterprise. Most commercial quail farmers in Singapore will use a cage system. They build their cages inside closed houses with wire mesh surrounding both sides of the house for well ventilation. A concrete floor is essential, and the building needs to be substantial enough, not only to deter rodents and other pests but also to provide drought-free and well-ventilated,

sheltered accommodation. Canvas-cloth is sometime hanged over on both sides of the house is prevent direct sunlight into the cages. The quails are never exposed to direct sunlight.

The farmers use 6 tier high cages which indicates how little head room this quail requires. Each unit is about 6 feet in length and 1 foot in width, and subdivided into 6 subunits. The farmers use very little metal in their cages. The birds stand on sloping slatted wooden floors. The droppings fall into pull-out wooden trays. Front and rear of cages are closed by wooden slats. Long narrow feed troughs are placed in front of the cages and PPC water troughs are placed at the back of the cages. The eggs roll out under the feed troughs and are

collected twice daily, once in the morning and once in the evening. Commercial egg layers are usually housed in colonies of 10-12 birds per cage. For breeding purposes, male quails are introduced in the cages i n the ratio of 1 to 3 females.

 

Lighting For Laying Quail

From experiment it has been proved that light has more importance than temperature in stimulating hens to lay. One report indicates the bird will lay to zero temperature if the light of day is extended to at least 14 hours.

A bright light is not necessary. Just enough to maintain wakefulness and social activity in the flock is sufficient. Electric bulbs of 40 or 60 watts may be used in colony pens.

For the light to be effective it must be turned on before dark and calculated to go off after the day has been extended to 14 or 16 hours. Control of the light may be by a time switch. Singapore quail farmers always leave the light on continuously during the night, and there is indication that hens may lay just as well if the light is left on all the time.

 

Nutrition Requirements of Japanese Quails

The nutrient requirement of Japanese quail have been studied extensively in the Department of Zoology, National University of Singapore, and a review paper of the nutrition of Japanese quail has been published by Shim and Vohra (1984).

The nutrients that comprise a quail diet are water, protein, carbohydrate, fat, minerals, and vitamins. Although all are essential, adequate water may be considered the single most important nutrient. Fresh clean water should be provided continuously to all birds, especially under the tropical environment. Quails require at least twice, as much in weight of water as they require in weight of dry feed (Farrell et al., 1982). They may require more water if there are excess salts in the feed or during ho t dry season.

Protein.Protein provides the amino acids for tissue growth and egg production. The dietary protein requirement of quail is influenced by metabolizable energy content and the ingredients used to formulate the diets. The earlier investigators raised their quail f locks successfully on turkey starter diets containing about 25-28% crude protein (Wilson et al., 1959; Woodard et al., 1973; NAS, 1969). Lee et al. (1977a & b) have shown that a dietary crude protein level of 24% is needed in starter diet for quail and t he protein content may be reduced to 20% by 3rd week of age.

Protein is the most expensive nutrient and must be provided from a high quality source. Protein quality is generally based on the amino acid composition of the feedstuff and the availability of these amino acids from the feedstuff through digestion in the gut of the quail. Amino acids are considered as the building blocks of proteins. Out of 19 total amino acids required by quail, 13 are considered as essential amino acids, because they cannot be produced in the quail's body and must be supplied in the diet, and 6 are considered as nonessential, because they are synthesized by the body and need not be supplied in the diet. The 13 essential amino acids are: arginine, cystine, glycine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, th reonine, tryptophan, tyrosine and valine. Feedstuffs differ qualitatively and quantitatively in their amino acid composition. Quail diets consist mainly of plant materials. The most commonly used plant products are maize, soyabean meal, sorghum and rice or wheat bran. Methionine and lysine are generally low in plant products. Animal protein products such as fish meal, meat and bone meal etc., are good sources of most of the essential amino acids, but they are usually more expensive than plant protein ingredients. Synthetic methionine and lysine are usually added to the diets to balance the amino acid composition (Shim and Lee, 1984a & b; 1988a & b).

Energy.The amount of food intake depends upon the metabolizable energy (ME) content of the diet, age of the birds, their reproductive status and the ambient temperatures. An energy requirement of 2,600 to 3,000 kcal ME/kg diet for growing quail has been reported from temperate regions (Farrell et al., 1982; Young et al., 1978), whereas, findings under our tropic condition indicated an energy requirement of about 2,800 kcal ME/kg for growing quails (Shim and Lee, 1982a) and 2,550 kcal ME/kg for laying quails (Shim and Lee, 1982b). Though raising the dietary energy levels from 2,600 to 2,800 kcal ME/kg did not influence the gain in weight, it affected significantly the efficiency of feed utilization as the feed consumption was reduced significantly (Shrivastavand Panda, 1982).

The main energy source is provided by the grains and cereals which are the main ingredients in most feed. Fat such as animal tallow, lard or other vegetable oils are added to the diet if high energy is required by the quail.

Vitamins.Vitamins may be categorized as fat soluble, (A, D, E, and K) and water soluble (the B-complex vitamins). Many vitamins are quite stable, but some deteriorate rapidly on exposure to heat, sunlight, or air. Housed quails are entirely dependent on the vitamins that are present in their compounded feed in the correct amount and proportions, for they have no access to the natural supply of these nutrients. The principal vitamin functions and requirements are as follows:

Vitamin A.The principal feature of vitamin A is its function in ensuring adequate growth and as a means of assisting in the birds' resistance to disease. Vitamin A is essential for normal vision, egg production, and reproduction. Laying quails receiving insufficient vitamin A produce fewer eggs and eggs produced frequently do not hatch. For egg production and fertility of females, a level of 2,500 I.U. vitamin A/kg diet was required (Parrish and Al-Hasani, 1983). The hatchability and survival of newly-hatched c hicks were better with 3,200 I.U. vitamin A/kg diet.

True vitamin A exists only in animal kingdom. It may be formed by synthesis in the body of the bird from the precursor, carotene, which present in green vegetable matter or yellow corn. Because it increases exposure to air, grinding of feed materials will hasten the deterioration of this vitamin during storage, particularly if storage areas are warm or hot. As a result, the feed industry does not depend upon the bird's receiving their vitamin A from ingredients in the diet. Dry or stabilized vitamin A is added to diet to meet the requirements of the bird. The supplementation of 4,000 I.U. vitamin A per kilo of diet for quails may be adequate for their optimum growth, production and reproductive traits.

Vitamin D.This vitamin has several forms, but D2 and D3 are the most important. Vitamin D3 is utilized by birds, man, and four-footed animals, while vitamin D2 is of value to man and four-footed animals. Thus D3 becomes essential for quail. Vitamin D aids the absorption of calcium and phosphorus form the intestinal tract and the deposition of calcium on eggshell.

Vohraetal. (1979) observed that dietary deprivation of supplementary vitamin D3 did not affect body weight of male and female Japanese quail despite a reduction in feed intake. However, the production of eggs was reduced from 74% to 20%. In another experiment, the mature male quail remained in good physical condition on practical diets devoid of vitamin D3 for 1 year. But a mortality of about 90% was observed in females and 16% in males even when both were in negative calcium balance of about the same order (Chang and McGinnis, 1967).

Vitamin D is associated with sunlight, for sunlight provides irradiation that stimulates the manufacture of vitamin D in the skin of the bird. Unfortunately, laying quails are seldom exposed to direct sunlight, so the body synthesis of vitamin D is limit ed. The quail producer normally adds vitamin D to the quail diet in required amount to meet productive objectives rather than relying on synthesis or feed ingredients.

Vitamin E.A deficiency of vitamin E causes a disease of the nervous system in chicks known as 'crazy chick disease' (encephalomalacia). It is also essential to breeding stock for the good hatchability of their eggs. Encephalomalacia occurs when the diet contains unsaturated fats that are susceptible to rancidity. Several antioxidant compounds, in addition to vitamin E, are usually added to prevent the fat from going bad.

The essentiality of vitamin E for quail was demonstrated by Price (1968), Cunningham and Soares (1976), Kling and Soares (1980) and Shim et al. (1983). A deficiency of vitamin E in semi-purified diets containing isolated soybean protein and starch did no t affect the body weight, feed consumption, or egg production of Japanese quail. However, it caused sterility in males, which was overcome by restoring 40 I.U. vitamin E/kg to the diet for about 2 weeks. The fertility and hatchability of quail eggs were severely depressed after the birds were fed a conventional diet containing glucose and soybean meal, but deficient in vitamin E for 20 weeks. No encephalomalacia or muscular dystrophy were observed in quail fed vitamin E deficient diets for 35 weeks.

Whole grains and alfalfa meal are the best natural sources of vitamin E. Synthetic tocopherols (vitamin E) are available, and these are usually added to quail starter and breeder rations.

Vitamin K.Vitamin K is an essential element in the synthesis of prothrombin, a chemical necessary for blood clotting. A deficiency can lead to the rupture of blood vessels and causing excessive bleeding. It is present naturally in all green foods, especially rich in lucerne meal. The needs are small, and 2 i.u./kg will suffice under normal conditions. A synthetic, water-soluble form of vitamin K3 is generally added in the diet.

Vitamin B complex.The B vitamins are well distributed in cereals and grains, and deficiencies are normally unlikely to occur. The main functions of the B vitamins are to assist the quail in achieving its optimum growth.

Thiamin (vitamin B1) is needed for the metabolism of carbohydrates. Charles (1972) reported classical symptoms of polyneuritis in newly hatched quail chicks from a flock fed turkey breeder diet calculated to contain 3.2 mg thiamin/kg. These quail responded positively to thiamin injection. Breeding Japanese quail may have a higher requirement for thiamin (Shim and Boey, 1988) than breeding fowls which is reported to be 0.8 mg thiamin/kg diet (NRC, 1977).

Riboflavin (vitamin B2). Ramchandran and Arscott (1974) suggested a minimum requirement of 8 mg riboflavin/kg diet in absence of vitamin B12 and vitamin C, but it decreased to 4 mg per kg in presence of these vitamins. The characteristic symptoms of riboflavin deficiency were slow growth, high mortality, impaired gait and posture which is known as 'curled toe paralysis' in quails. Feathering was absent other than down at the end of two weeks of riboflavin deficiency.

Shim (1985) studied the maternal riboflavin deficiency on reproductive and embryonic development in Japanese quail and found high mortality in the riboflavin deficiency group. The 4 and 8 mg/kg of riboflavin were sufficient to maintain normal egg product ion. Data obtained in weekly hatches showed that the addition of small quantities of riboflavin supplement to the basal ration increased the incidence of curled-toe paralysis whereas larger amounts decreased it.

Nicotinic acid. Park and Marquardt (1982) fed a nicotinic acid-free diet to 4 week old quail and found a subsequent depression in growth, but no other classical deficiency symptoms. However, newly-hatched quail chicks diet within 9 days of this deficient diet. The age of the birds determines the severity of symptoms of nicotinic acid deficiency. A marked depression in growth, closure of eyes, reduced activity and a marked atrophy of the pectoral muscle were observed in quail on nicotinic acid deficient diets. Ramchandran and Arscott (1974) suggested a level of 40 mg per kg diets for normal growing quails.

Pantothenic acid. A supplementary level of 7.5 mg calcium pantothenate/kg diet was needed in purified diets for prevention of mortality and for normal growth of quail chicks, but 10-30 mg was needed for normal feathering (Curler and Vohra , 1977). On the other hand, Spivey-Fox et al. (1966) found the requirement to be 40 mg/kg diet for quail up to 5 weeks of age.

Breeding quail needed 15 mg supplementary calcium pantothenate per kg diet for optimal fertility and hatchability. Eggs from pantothenic acid deficient hens were characterized by embryonic mortality late in incubation period, haemmorhagic embryos, oedema and embryos with crooked legs (Cutler and Vohra, 1977).

Choline. Growing Japanese quail required higher levels of dietary choline to support maximum growth, prevent perosis (Ketola and Young, 1973), maintain maximum egg weight (Latshaw and Jensen, 1971), egg production and hatchability (Latshaw and Jensen, 1972) than chickens. Mature quail differ from laying fowls as they require performed choline. The suggested requirement of quail for egg laying is about 3,100 mg/kg diet.

Folic acid. Folic acid deficiency in growing quail caused poor feathering, high mortality, leg weakness and cervical paralysis. These symptoms were similar to those observed in turkey poults. Quail chicks also suffered from a mild anaemia , and a curled toe syndrome. The folic acid requirement of growing quail was between 0.3 to 0.36 mg/kg casein-gelatin based diet (Wong et al., 1977).

Biotin. Dobalova et al. (1983) reported the need of supplementary biotin for gain in body weight of quail and for increase in egg production.

Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin). vitamin B12 is required for the development of normal red blood cells. For better hatchability, sufficient pantothenic acid and vitamin B12 are also essential.

Substantial quantities of vitamin B complex are found in all the ingredients in feed. It should be stressed that vitamin B12 is found only in foods of animal origin. The levels required by quails for the major B vitamins are shown in Table 1.

 

Minerals:

Besides protein, carbohydrates, fats, and vitamins, many other elements form a part of the quail's nutritional requirements. Minerals can be divided into macrominerals and microminerals. Macrominerals are required in large amounts, and are often struct ured parts or acid-base elements. These are: calcium, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, sulfur and salt (NaCl). The microminerals are associated in activation or integrated parts of enzymes. These include: cobalt, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, selenium and zinc. Minerals make up 3 to 5% of the quail's body. Since minerals cannot be synthesized, they must be provided by the diet.

Calcium and phosphorus. The main function of these two minerals is in the make-up of the bones of the body. Calcium is also essential for the deposition of egg shell. It is not only that calcium and phosphorus are required in sufficient quantity but also in the correct proportions. For the young growing quail the ratio should be 1:1 to 2:1. The young quail needs a minimum of 0.8 per cent of the diet as calcium and 0.45 per cent as available phosphorus, whilst the laying quail needs about 2.5% to 3% of calcium since this is the main constituent of the egg shell (Nelson et al., 1964).

Miller (1967) observed no difference in body weight or bone ash of quail up to 6 weeks of age as long as the diets contained 0.58% to 1.18% total phosphorus and 0.44% to 2.3% calcium. Lee and Shim (1971) found that 0.5% calcium was adequate for the growing quail and a level of 4.9% calcium retarded growth. Ong and Shim (1972) observed that growing as well as laying quail were in positive calcium balance as long as the diets contained 0.8%, 1.5%, 2.6% or 3.5% calcium. A level of 3.5% dietary calcium reduced hatchability.

Minerals are present in many of the ingredients in the diet. Fish meal, meat and bone meal, milk products are good supplemental sources of calcium and phosphorus. Oystershell, limestone, tricalcium phosphate or calcium carbonate are usually added to the feed to supplement these elements.

Magnesium. Magnesium is an essential constituent of tissues and body fluids. Its ions serve as activators of important enzymes involved in intermediary metabolism. When it is absent from the diets, quails grow slowly, exhibit convulsions and may eventually die (Harkabd et al., 1976). Deficiencies in laying rations produce a rapid drop in egg production. The magnesium requirement was recommended to be 300 mg/kg diet. In the studies of Vohra (1972), magnesium requirement for survival and growth was met by supple menting 150 mg magnesium per kg diet, or 50 mg magnesium per liter drinking water. Sughara et al. (1982) found no detrimental effects from feeding 1,000 mg magnesium per kg purified diet.

Natural feedstuffs contain adequate amount of magnesium. Some limestone (the dolomites) contain a high percentage of magnesium and are to be avoided because excess magnesium is laxative and interferes with calcium usage.

Manganese. The main function of manganese is to prevent perosis, a condition where the Achilles's tendon slips off its groove behind the hock joint, pulling sideways and backwards. It is also required for normal growth, egg shell deposition, egg production and good hatchability. It is supplemented in the diet in the form of manganese sulphate.

Iron, Copper and Cobalt. These trace elements are essential for the formation of haemoglobin. Nutritional anemia occurs when there are deficiencies of these minerals. The red blood cells contain iron. Copper is necessary for iron utilization when haemoglobin is formed. Harl and et al. (1973) reported the iron requirement of growing Japanese quail as 90-120 mg/kg, and of copper as 5 mg/kg diet based on EDTA extracted isolated soybean protein.

Cobalt is the integrated part of vitamin B12 which involves in haemoglobin formation. The amount of these elements in the diet is quite specific; excesses may be toxic. Usually, only small amounts are added in the feed. Mackova et al. (1981) studied the effect of supplementary 50, 100, 250 and 500 mg cobalt sulphate per kg diet on vitamin B12 concentration in liver and caeca. The concentration was highest with 1200 mg cobalt sulphate/kg diet.

Selenium. Selenium is an essential element for growing quail even in presence of vitamin E. Diets consisting of amino acids and 100 mg d-alpha-tocopheryl acetate/kg needed to be supplemented with 0.1 mg selenium as selenite for proper survival of quail (Thompson and Scott, 1967).

Impaired reproduction was observed in Japanese quail fed a diet low in selenium and vitamin E from hatching to maturity. Oviposition rate and fertility were not affected, but the hatchability of fertile eggs, viability of male and female adults and newly hatched chicks were reduced. Dietary supplementation with either 1 mg selenium or 30 I.U. vitamin E/kg diet prevented the impaired reproduction (Jensen, 1968). Selenium supplementation of the diet at 0.2 mg/kg diet prevented nutritional pancreatic atrophy and resulted in significant elevation in SeGSHpx activity (Shim, 1985).

Zinc. Japanese quail are quite sensitive to a dietary deficiency of zinc. Zinc deficiency in quail chicks was characterized by slow growth, abnormal feathering, labored respiration and an in coordinated gait, low tibia ash, and a low concentration of zinc in liver and tibias. The zinc requirement for normal growth, feathering, tibia length and conformation was 25 mg/kg diet (Spivey-Fox and Jacobs, 1967). Harland et al. (1975) studied the protective effect of a high prior zinc intake for rapidly growing quail to a subsequently fed low zinc diet. The birds fed an initial level of 75 mg zinc/kg grew significantly better than those fed initially 25 mg zinc/kg. Bone might store zinc and it might be mobilized during zinc deprivation. A reduction in zinc absorption in adult quail by high levels of calcium was reported by Kienholz et al. (1965).

Salt (Sodium chloride). This is needed for protein digestion and these elements are also involved with acid-base equilibrium in the body. The growing Japanese quail fed a purified type of diet containing 0.042-0.051% sodium had poor growth , high mortality,

adrenal enlargement, elevated haematocrit, and depressed plasma sodium suggestive of an aberration in fluid and electrolyte haemostasis. A dietary sodium level of 0.1% overcame these difficulties (Lumijarvi and Vohra, 1976).

Natural feedstuffs usually require supplemental feeding of salt (NaCl) to satisfy the quail's requirement for sodium and chloride and this is normally added to the feed at amounts of 0.25 to 0.35 per cent. Too much salt produces a laxative effect and results in wet droppings and also wet litter.

Practical Quail FeedingNutrition is one of the most important factors required to maintain quails in good physical condition and to obtain normal growth and egg production. Since feed constitutes 60-70% investment at the farm, for deriving maximum benefit out of quail farming it is necessary to feed a balanced ration which will have all the nutrients in necessary proportion (Table 1). There are several forms in which a balanced ration may be fed to quail - all dry mash, pellets or crumbs. In tropics usually dry all mash feeding system is being used. A typical ration formulated by Shim and Lee (1988) and widely used in experiments (Shim and Chen, 1989; 1990) is shown in Table 2.

The local farmers may use the chicken starter and layer diets for their growing and laying quails and supplement them with high protein ingredients, such as fish meal, soyabean meal and skimmed milk. Fast early growth is achieved with high-protein diets. Japanese quails, which mature at 5 to 6 weeks of age, respond favorably to higher dietary protein concentration. These high protein starter feeds will give quick development to growing birds as well as bringing earlier and more consistent laying to he ns.

For birds just prior to maturity, the dietary requirements are similar, except for calcium and phosphorus. A diet containing 1.25 percent total phosphorus and 3.50 percent calcium is recommended; this may need to be increased to 3.9 percent in hot weather when quail eat less food but still require calcium to maintain egg production. Broken oyster-shell or limestone grits may be given ad lib.

When the ration contains only plant protein, supplemental methionine and lysine may be beneficial. There are indications that these are the first limiting amino acids for Japanese quails (Howes, 1965).

It is important to obtain fresh feed and it should be stored in covered containers with tightly fitting lids in a clean, dry, cool area free from animals and vermin. Feed stored longer than 8 weeks is subject to vitamin deterioration and rancidity, especially in hot humid tropics.

 

Disease Prevention and Control

The prevention of disease in Japanese quail depends on the continuous and conscientious application of fundamental principles and practices of quarantine and sanitation. Good management will reduce the danger of disease. The first prerequisite to a successful disease-prevention program is that infection-free stock be used as the foundation flock. Immediately on arrival the birds should be placed in facilities well isolated from birds of the farms and held for an observation period of 2 weeks. They should be observed daily for signs of illness, and when disease is noted, immediate steps should be taken to obtain a diagnosis, and treatment be given. The second rule is to separate quail breeder flocks from growing quail.

Sanitary management practices are the best guarantee against disease. Equipment, such as cages, feeders, waterers and tools should be cleaned and sanitized frequently. Every effort should be made to screen out wild birds, rodents and vermin that might introduce disease. Dead birds should be removed immediately upon discovery. In theory, Japanese quail, as a cousin of the fowl, would be expected to be susceptible to most of the same diseases that affect domestic poultry. Nevertheless, disease is not much of a problem on well managed quail farms. Japanese quails appear to be m ore hardy than chickens and with proper management, serious mortality should not be a problem.

 

Conclusion

Japanese quail is a interesting domesticated economic species for commercial egg and meat production beside chickens. They may fit this bill for the following reasons. They are relatively small in body size. They are adaptable to intensive systems of poultry husbandry. Because of their low volume, they are fit for high density rearing. It is blessed with the unique characteristics of fast growth, early sexual maturity, high rate of egg production, short generation interval and shorter incubation per iod that make it very suitable as a alternative farming animal. They are fairly resistant to disease, and less worries for vaccination. Because of low volume, low weight, less feed and space requirements, quail farming can be started with much lower cap ital investment as compared to chicken and duck with almost the same profit margin. Their laying prolificacy is very high, able to produce more than 300 eggs per year. With shorter reproduction cycle and earlier marketing age, it offers fast monetary circulation ultimately yielding quicker returns.

Base on the above reasons, the quail farming in the Tropics is highly profitable. Quail eggs are widely accepted by Asean people and quail meat is treated as a delicacy among the Asian. Recognizing the immense potentiality of quail as an alternative to poultry farming in providing gainful employment, supplementary income and as a valuable source of meat and egg, quail farming should be encouraged and promoted. With the technical know-how, the commercial quail farming for table egg and meat production i n the tropics is possible. The husbandry technology may be suitable for adaptation in our neighboring developing countries as well.

Japanese Quail - References

1. Chang, S.I. and McGinnis, J. (1967). Vitamin D deficiency in adult quail and chickens and effects of estrogen and testosterone treatments. Proc. Soc. Exptl. Biol. Med. 124: 1131-1135.

2. Charles, O.W., Roland, D.A. and Edwards, H.M. Jr. (1972). Thiamine deficiency identification and treatment in commercial turkeys and coturnix quail. Poultry Sci., 51: 419-423.

3. Cheng, K.M., Kickman, A.R. and McIntyre, R. (1985). Function of foam from the proctodeal gland of the male Japanese quail. Poultry Sci., 64: 78.

4. Cunningham, J.J. and Soares, J.H. Jr. (1979). Splenomegaly in Japanese quail fed low vitamin E diets. Nutr. Rep. Int., 19: 471-478.

5. Cutler, B.A. and Vohra, P. (1977). Pantothenic acid requirements of Japanese quail for growth and production. Poultry Sci., 56: 1707.

6. Dobalova, M. and Pajtasova, L. (1983). Effect of biotin and ground maize on performance of Japanese quail. Pol'nohospodarstvo., 29: 51-57.

7. Farrell, D.J., Atmamihardia, S.I. and Pym, R.A.E. (1982). Calorimetric measurement of the energy and nitrogen metabolism of Japanese quail. Br. Poultry Sci., 23: 375-382.

8. Harland, B.F., Fry, B.E., Jacobs, R.M. and Spivey-Fox, M.R. (1973). Mineral requirements of young Japanese quail. Fed. Proc., 32: 930.

9. Harland, B.F., Spivey-Fox, M.R. and Fry, B.E. Jr. (1975). Protection against zinc deficiency by prior excess dietary zinc in young Japanese quail. J. Nutr., 105: 1509-1518.

10.Harland, B.F., Spivey-Fox, M.R. and Fry, B.E. Jr. (1976). Magnesium deficiency, requirement and toxicity in the young Japanese quail. Poultry Sci., 55: 359-364.

11.Howes, J.R. (1964). Japanese quail as found in Japan. Quail Quarterly, 1: 19-30. 12.Howes, J.R. (1965). Energy, protein, methionine and lysine requirements for growing and laying coturnix quail. Proc.

Southern Agr. Workers 62d Conv., Dallas, Texas, 258. 13.Jensen, L.S. (1968). Selenium deficiency and impaired reproduction in Japanese quail. Proc. Soc. Exptl. Biol. Med., 128:

970-972. 14.Kienholtz, E.W., Nickels, L.F. and Jacobs, L.C. (1965). Zinc absorption in adult Coturnix quail. Fed. Proc., 24: 171. 15.Kling, L.J. and Soares, J.H. Jr. (1980). Vitamin E deficiency in the Japanese quail. Poultry Sci., 59: 2353-2354. 16.Ketola, H.G. and Young, R.J. (1973). The need for dietary choline by young Japanese quail. Poultry Sci., 52: 2362-2363.

17.Latshaw, J.D. and Jensen, L.S. (1971). Choline level and its effect on egg weight in the Japanese quail. Poultry Sci., 50: 790-794.

18.Latshaw, J.D. and Jensen, L.S. (1972). Choline deficiency and synthesis of choline from precursors in mature Japanese quail. J. Nutr., 102: 749-756.

19.Lee, H.B. and Shim, K.F. (1971). Calcium requirement of Japanese quails. Nanyang Univ. Jour. 5: 122-131. 20.Lee, T.K., Shim, K.F. and Tan, E.L. (1977a). Protein requirement of growing Japanese quails in the tropics. Sing. J. Pri.

Ind., 5: 70-81. 21.Lee, T.K., Shim, K.F. and Tan, E.L. (1977b). Protein requirement of laying Japanese quails in the tropics. Sing. J. Pri. Ind.,

5: 82-90. 22.Lumijarvi, D.H. and Vohra, P. (1976). Studies on the sodium requirement of growing Japanese quail. Poultry Sci., 55: 1410-

1414. 23.Mackova, M., Sommerova, H. and Kazdova, M. (1981). Effect of a supplement of cobalt sulphate on vitamin B12 in liver

and caecum of Japanese quail. Praci Vyzkumneho Ustavu Vyzivy Zvirat Pohorelice, 15: 55-61. 24.Miller, B.F. (1967). Calcium and phosphorus in the diet of coturnix quail. Poultry Sci., 46: 686-692. 25.National Research Council - National Academy of Sciences. (1969). Coturnix (Coturnix coturnix japonica) - Standards and

guidelines for the breeding, care, and management of laboratory animals. NAS Publication No. 1703, Washington, D.C. 50 pp.

26.National Research Council - National Academy of Sciences. (1977). Nutrient requirements of domestic animals. Nutrient requirements of poultry. 7th Ed. NRC - NAS, Washington, D.C. 62 pp.

27.Ong, L.L. and Shim, K.F. (1972). The calcium balance in Japanese quails. Nanyang Univ. Jour. 6: 95-105. 28.Park, I.K. and Marquardt, R.R. (1982). Effects of sulfaguanidine and amino acid imbalances on the induction of niacin

deficiency in mature and immature Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica). Poultry Sci., 61: 1329-1334. 29.Parrish, D.B. and Al-Hasanbi, S.M. (1983). Requirements and utilization of vitamin A by Japanese quail. Nutr. Rep. Int., 28:

39-50. 30.Price, F.C. (1968). The effect of vitamin E deficiency on fertility of Coturnix coturnix. Poultry Sci., 47: 1037-1038. 31.Ramachandran, V. and Arscott, G.H. (1974). Minimum vitamin requirements and apparent vitamin interrelationships for

growth in Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica). Poultry Sci., 53: 1969-1970. 32.Sanford, J.A. (1957). A progress report of Coturnix quail investigations in Missouri. Proc. North Am. Wildlife Conf., 22 Conf.

pp. 316-359. 33.Shim, K.F. (1985). The effects of maternal riboflavin deficiency on reproductive and embryonic development in Japanese

quail. Poultry Sci., 64: 98. 34.Shim, K.F. (1985). Selenium nutrition in Japanese quail, Coturnix coturnix japonica. Poultry Sci., 64: 98. 35.Shim, K.F. and Boey, H.L. (1988). Thiamin requirements of the Japanese quail Coturnix coturnix japonica. Nutr.Rep.Int.,

37:893-900. 36.Shim, K.F. and Chen, E.V. (1989). Methionine requirement and its effect on the feather loss of laying Japanese quail.

Nutr.Rep.Int.,40:1003-1010. 37.Shim, K.F. and Chen, E.V. (1990). Biopotency of methionine sources and their effects on sexual maturity of growing

Japanese quail. Br. Poultry Sci., 31: 273-282. 38.Shim, K.F. and Lee, T.K. (1984a). Lysine requirement of growing Japanese quail to five weeks of age. Singapore J. Pri.

Ind., 12: 1-10. 39.Shim, K.F. and Lee, T.K. (1984b). Effect of dietary lysine on egg production of laying Japanese quail. Singapore J. Pri. Ind.,

12: 88-97. 40.Shim, K.F. and Lee, T.K. (1988a). Influence of supplemented methionine in practical rations for young growing Japanese

quail. Nutr. Rep. Int., 38: 157-164. 41.Shim, K.F. and Lee, T.K. (1988b). Methionine requirements of Coturnix coturnix japonica for reproduction using practical

diets. Nutr. Rep. Int., 38: 681-686. 42.Shim, K.F., Phang, V. and Teoh, K.W. (1983). Reproductive performance of Japanese quails. Sing. J. Pri. Ind., 11: 52-60. 43.Shim, K.F. and Vohra, P. (1984). A review of the nutrition of Japanese quail. World's Poultry Sci. J., 40: 261-274. 44.Shrivastav, A.K. and Panda, B. (1982). Effect of increasing calorie-protein ratio during growing period (4-5 week) on

dressing yield and chemical composition of quail meat. India J. Poult. Sci., 17: 253-256. 45.Spivey-Fox, M.R. and Jacobs, R.M. (1967). Zinc requirement of the young Japanese quail. Fed. Proc., 26: 1492. 46.Spivey-Fox, M.R., Hudson, G.A. and Hintz, M.E. (1966). Pantothenic acid requirement of young Japanese quail. Fed. Proc.,

25: 721. 47.Sugahara, K., Kikuchi, H., Kakiuchi, Y. and Kubo, T. (1982). Effect of dietary magnesium level on the growth of male

Japanese quail fed on a purified diet. Jap. Poultry Sci., 19: 121-123.

48.Thompson, J.N. and Scott, M.L. (1967). Selenium deficiency in chicks and quail. Proc. Cornell Nutr. Conf. for feed Mfrs., 130-136.

49.Vohra, P. (1972). Magnesium requirement for survival and growth of Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica). Poultry Sci., 51: 2103-2105.

50.Vohra, P., Siopes, T.D. and Wilson, W.O. (1979). Egg production and body weight changes of Japanese quail and leghorn hens following deprivation of either supplementary calcium or vitamin D3. Poultry Sci., 58: 432-440.

51.Wilson, W.O., Abbott, U.K. and Abplanalp, H. (1959). Developmental and physiological studies with a new pilot animal for poultry. Coturnix quail. Poultry Sci., 38: 1260.

52.Wong, P.C.K., Vohra, P. and Kratzer, F.H. (1977). The folacin requirements of broiler chicks and quail. Poultry Sci., 56: 1852-1860.

53.Woodard, A.E., Abplanalp, H., Wilson, W.O. and Vohra, P. (1973). Japanese quail husbandry in the laboratory (Coturnix coturnix japonica). Department of Avian Sciences, University of California, Davis, 22 pp.

 

Table 1. Nutrients required in quail diets________________________________________________________________

Nutrients Starting Laying and Growing quail quail________________________________________________________________

ME kcal/kg 2,800 2,800Protein % 24 20Lysine % 1.2 0.9Cystine % 0.4 0.35Methionine % 0.5 0.45Met + Cys % 0.9 0.8Arginine % 1.4 1.25Histidine % 0.4 0.4Isoleucine % 1.1 1.0Leucine % 1.9 1.7Phenylalanine % 1.1 1.1Tyrosine % 1.0 0.9Phe + Tyr % 2.1 2.0Threonine % 1.2 1.1Tryptophan % 0.25 0.25Valine % 1.1 1.0Glycine % 1.0 1.0Serine % 0.7 0.7Gly + Ser % 1.7 1.7

Vitamin A IU 4,000 4,000Vitamin D ICU 600 600Vitamin E IU 40 40Vitamin K mg 5 5Biotin mg 0.12 0.4Choline mg 3,500 2,000Folacin mg 0.4 0.5Niacin mg 40 40Pantothenic acid mg 40 40Pyridoxine mg 2 2Riboflavin mg 2 4Thiamin mg 2 2Calcium % 0.8 2.5Total phosphorus % 0.8 0.8Avail. phosphorus % 0.3 0.3Sodium % 0.12 0.12Potassium % 0.4 0.4Iron mg 120 120Copper mg 5 5

Manganese mg 80 80Zinc mg 75 75Selenium mg 0.1 0.1________________________________________________________________

Table 2. Composition of the basal diet (g/kg)________________________________________________________________

Ingredient Grower diet Layer diet________________________________________________________________

Maize 46.1 49.6Soyabean meal 26.8 18.0Fish meal 3.0 5.0Meat and bone meal 5.0 4.0Groundnut meal 8.5 4.0Alfalfa meal 4.6 8.4Skimmed milk powder 2.0 2.0Sodium chloride 0.3 0.2Dicalcium phosphate 0.2 1.1Limestone dust -- 4.8Lysine 1.0 0.6Methionine 0.5 0.3Premix * 2.0 2.0________________________________________________________________

* Each kilogram of diet contains: retinol acetate, 30 mg;cholecalciferol, 2 mg; alpha-tocopherol, 25 mg; menadione, 3 mg;riboflavin, 8 mg; nicotinic acid, 60 mg; pantothenic acid, 15 mg;folic acid, 1.5 mg; thiamin, 2 mg; pyridoxine, 3 mg; cyanocobalamin,0.015 mg; choline chloride, 800 mg; Fe, 30 mg; Co, 1 mg; Mn, 100 mg;Cu, 10 mg; Zn, 80 mg; I, 2 mg; Se, 0.1 mg; Mg, 50 mg.