nutrition of figure skaters 0 3

8/12/2019 Nutrition of Figure Skaters 0 3

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Original Research

Contribution of Meals and Snacks to Nutrient Intake of

Male and Female Elite Figure Skaters During Peak

Competitive Season

Paula J. Ziegler, PhD, RD, Satya S. Jonnalagadda, PhD, RD, Judy A. Nelson, MS, Corrinna Lawrence, BS, and Brandy

Baciak, MS, RD

Gerber Products Company, Summit, New Jersey (P.J.Z.), Department of Nutrition, Georgia State University, University Plaza,

Atlanta, Georgia (S.S.J., C.L., B.B.), United States Olympic Committee, One Olympic Plaza, Colorado Springs, Colorado

(J.A.N.)

Key words: figure skaters, meal patterns, macronutrient, micronutrient

Objective: To examine the contribution of breakfast, lunch, dinner and snack to the macronutrient and

micronutrient intake of elite male and female figure skaters during their competitive season.

Subjects: Male (n 46) and female (n 48) figure skaters who participated in the 1999 U.S. National

Figure Skating Championships completed the study.

Methods: Each athlete completed three-day food records, during the athletes competitive season. Food

records were analyzed using Nutritionist V software. Macronutrient and micronutrient contributions from meals

were assessed.

Results:Lunch and dinner meals were the main contributors to the total calorie intake of these skaters (27%

and 32%, respectively). Likewise, lunch and dinner were the main contributors to the total protein (27% and

41%), carbohydrate (26% and 29%), fat (30% and 32%), saturated fat (29% and 32%) and polyunsaturated fat

(31% and 32%) intakes. Dinner was the main source of the monounsaturated fat (34%), cholesterol (40%) and

dietary fiber (34%). Breakfast was the main source of dietary folate (36%), whereas iron and calcium intakes

were mainly contributed by breakfast and dinner (29% and 32%, 27% and 29%, respectively).

Conclusion:These elite figure skaters appear to be starting their day with low energy reserves and therefore

need to be educated about the benefits of consuming breakfast. These athletes also need to be educated about

consuming adequate calories throughout the day in order to meet the energy needs of their activity. It is thusimportant to monitor eating patterns throughout the day to ensure adequate energy intake to sustain the physical

and mental aspects of the athletes training and performance.

INTRODUCTION

Figure skating enjoys worldwide popularity. The increasing

competitiveness of the sport raises concerns about the health of

these athletes, which may be compromised due to inadequate

nutrient intake [15]. Nutrient intake may be influenced by

factors such as lack of time, hectic training schedule and

increased emphasis on physical features, such as leanness and

body image [6]. Several studies have shown that many skaters

are not consuming adequate amounts of energy; this not only

can influence performance, but can also influence the risk of

injury, bone health and reproductive health of these skaters [16].

Although dietary intake research has examined the impact of

single nutrients, single foods or meals on physiological responses,

few studies have been conducted to examine the food habits, i.e.

eating patterns, of these competitive figure skaters [7]. Knowledge

of food habits of these athletes is necessary to provide appropriate

nutritional advice to the athletes [8].

Eating patterns are behaviors that develop over the years

and may be influenced by physiological and social factors. Of

Presented in part at the Experimental Biology Annual Meetings, April 2000, San Diego, California.

Address reprint requests to: Satya S. Jonnalagadda, PhD, RD, Department of Nutrition, Room 839 Urban Life Building, 140 Decatur Street, Georgia State University,

Atlanta, GA 30303-3083. E-mail: [email protected]

Journal of the American College of Nutrition, Vol. 21, No. 2, 114119 (2002)

Published by the American College of Nutrition

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the four meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner and snacks) typically

consumed by individuals, breakfast is considered the most

important meal of the day and has been observed to influence

cognitive abilities and academic achievements in school-aged

children. Pollitt [9] suggests that omission of breakfast could

significantly alter metabolism, resulting in reduced nutrient

availability to the brain, which in turn can influence an indi-

viduals behavior. On the other hand, consumption of lunch has

been observed to result in decreased alertness and performance

efficiency [10, 11]. The post-lunch dip in functional abilities

appears to occur approximately one hour after lunch and con-

tinue for an additional hour. Craig and Richardson [12] ob-

served changes in performance based on the size of the lunch

consumed, with an increase in performance after a small and

light meal compared to a large and heavy meal. Additionally,

macronutrient composition of a meal can influence mental

abilities and mood. Lloyd et al. [10] observed that a medium-

fat, low-carbohydrate or high-fat, low-carbohydrate meal at

midday resulted in an increase in reaction time to stimulus and

individuals were more drowsy and confused compared to amedium-fat, medium-carbohydrate meal. Similarly, the

evening meal may have a significant impact on mental func-

tioning [13]. Snacks can also contribute a significant proportion

to total energy intake. They are typically consumed late morn-

ing, afternoon and evening [14] and can contribute to the

nutritional quality of the total diet [15]. Kanarek and Swiney

[16] have noted afternoon snacks to have positive effects on

cognitive performance. Because of these diverse effects of

meals it is important to monitor eating patterns of elite athletes

since their food consumption patterns can impact on their

training and performance.

Given the physical demands of participation in sports andthe constraints placed on elite athletes because of their training,

competition and other routine daily activities, such as school

and work, it is important to ensure that these active individuals

are consuming sufficient food to meet their daily energy needs.

Strategies, such as high carbohydrate-low fat diets, increased

frequency of meals and snacking, may need to be incorporated

into the daily routine of these athletes to ensure adequate

calorie intake during the various times of the day to carry out

their wide range of activities. Feeding plans that include fre-

quent meals and/or mini meals may be appropriate to incorpo-

rate into the athletes training and performance schedule to

ensure adequate delivery of energy during performance [17].

Physiological and metabolic responses during performance can

also be influenced by the athletes meal patterns [18]. A few

studies in the past have observed that athletes may have either

grazing food habits or an increased frequency of food con-

sumption, especially in sports with high-energy requirements

[19]. Triathletes and runners have been noted to consume five

to six meals per day while cyclists consume eight to ten meals

per day [19]. This practice of small meals and snacks, con-

sumed over the course of the day, may ensure that the energy

needs are met during various stages of activity and may also

facilitate increased energy consumption and greater food selec-

tion, while potentially eliminating gastrointestinal discomfort

commonly associated with consumption of a large meal. There-

fore, it is important to gain an understanding of athletes meal

consumption pattern and the nutrient distribution in order to

ensure that energy needs throughout the day are met. Thus the

purpose of the present study was to examine the contribution of

daily meals to the macronutrient and select micronutrient intake

of elite male and female U.S. figure skaters during their com-

petitive season. The main hypothesis of this study was that

breakfast, lunch, dinner and snack will contribute equally to the

macronutrient and micronutrient intake of the elite male and

female figure skaters.

METHODS

Subjects

The present study was conducted during the peak compet-

itive season of these athletes prior to the start of the 1999 U.S.

Figure Skating National Championships at Salt Lake City, UT.

Forty-six male and forty-eight female figure skaters partici-

pated in the study. Informed consent forms describing the

objectives and requirements of the study and any risks and

benefits that might occur were signed by study participants and

where necessary by the legal guardian prior to participation in

the study. The Sports Medicine Advisory Board of the United

States Figure Skating Association approved the study.

Dietary Intake

Three-day food records were collected two weeks prior tothe start of the championships, which represent intake during

the peak competitive season of these elite figure skaters. No

one method of dietary assessment is error proof and each

method has its own strengths and weaknesses. However, it has

been shown that three-day food records are adequate in esti-

mating habitual energy intake to within 90% of actual values in

groups as small as 13 individuals [20]. The three days included

two non-consecutive weekdays and one weekend day. Partici-

pants were given detailed instructions for completing the food

records, and the research dietitian reviewed each record for

accuracy and completeness with the skater. Portion sizes were

estimated using common household measures such as cups,

glasses, bowls, teaspoons and tablespoons along with individ-

ual food items/units. The figure skaters were instructed to

provide as much detail as possible of the foods and fluids

consumed, including brand names, and recipes for home

cooked foods. In order to determine the contribution of meals

to the macronutrient and micronutrient content of the diets of

these figure skaters, the athletes were instructed to record the

time of consumption of the food, and, based on the time of

reported intake, the meals were coded as follows: breakfast

(6am 8:59am), lunch (11am1:59pm), dinner (4pm7:59pm),

Meal Patterns of Competitive Figure Skaters

JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN COLLEGE OF NUTRITION 115


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and snack (any food or drink consumed during the following

time periods 9am10:59am, 2pm3:59pm, 8pm5:59am) [21].

Although there are several ways of examining eating patterns,

we chose the above method to minimize coding error by

participants and data entry personnel and also since we were

interested in examining the contribution of individual meals to

nutrient intake. Also, the above meal timings reflect typical

training and performance days of the skaters. The food records

were analyzed using Nutritionist V software (First Databank,

Inc., San Bruno, CA). The contribution of breakfast, lunch,

dinner and snacks to the macronutrient and micronutrient in-

take was also analyzed. The same research dietitian entered the

food intake data into the Nutritionist V software for all of the

participants, and the same individual coded the meals based on

the above mentioned categorization. In case a particular food

item was not available in the database, then the recipe and/or

manufacturers nutrient information was entered into the data-

base. All participants received a report of their nutrient intake

analysis, and appropriate counseling was provided to set indi-

vidual dietary goals.

Anthropometric Measurements

The height and weight (with light clothing and without

shoes) of all subjects were determined using calibrated scales.

All measurements were taken first thing in the morning prior to

any activity and a single measurement was made.

Data Analysis

The data collected were analyzed using SPSS (Version 9.0,

Chicago, IL) to provide descriptive information (Mean SE)

for all study variables. Additionally, within each gender group,the contribution of the meals to the macronutrient and micro-

nutrient intake was tested using the general linear model re-

peated measures analysis of variance, and the Bonferroni post-

hoc test, which adjusts for multiple comparisons, was used to

determine differences between meals (p 0.05).

RESULTS

Table 1 presents the characteristics of the figure skaters. The

male and female skaters were young, lean individuals, with a

mean body mass index (BMI) of 21.2 and 18.5 kg/m2, respec-

tively.

Overall, the reported dietary intakes of these figure skaters

suggest that they meet the macronutrient recommendations

(Table 2). Compared to the dietary guidelines for the general

population, the male figure skaters had high carbohydrate,

protein, saturated fat and cholesterol intake (Table 2). The

female figure skaters had low fat, cholesterol and dietary fiber

intakes (Table 2). The micronutrient intakes of the female

figure skaters did not meet the dietary recommendations for

these nutrients (Table 2).

The contribution of breakfast, lunch, dinner and snacks to

the macronutrient intake and select micronutrient intake of

male and female figure skaters are shown in Tables 3 and 4.

Table 5 presents the percent contribution of the meals to the

macronutrient and micronutrient intake of these athletes. The

male figure skaters had the lowest energy intake at breakfast

and the greatest energy intake at dinner (Tables 3 and 5). Lunch

was the other major meal providing a greater proportion of their

energy intake. A similar trend was observed with intake of allmacronutrients including dietary fiber (Tables 3 and 5). The

folate intake was mainly obtained from breakfast, whereas

breakfast and dinner contributed to iron and calcium intake of

the male skaters (Tables 3 and 5). On the average, the male

figure skaters reported consuming 1.35 ( 0.86) snacks per

day. Similar to the meal patterns of the male skaters, dinner and

lunch were the main contributors to the energy intake of the

Table 1. Characteristics of elite male and female figure

skaters

Males

(n 46)

Females

(n 48)

Age (years) 17.2 3 15 2.4

Height (inches) 68.6 2.6 61 3.3

Weight (lbs) 144 19.5 99 17.8

BMI (kg/m2) 21.2 2.0 18.5 2.0

Values are Mean SE.

Table 2. Macronutrient and micronutrient intake of elite

male and female figure skaters

Males

(n 46)

Females

(n 48)

Energy (kcal) 2649 127 1632 106

Carbohydrate

Gram 374 18 243 16

% Energy 67 10 58 2

Protein

Gram 104 6 70 5

% Energy 16 1 17 1

Total Fat

Gram 86 5 45 4

% Energy 29 1 24 1

Saturated Fat (SFA)

Gram 34 5 15 1

% Energy 12 3 8 0.4

Monounsaturated Fat (MUFA)Gram 21 2 10 1

% Energy 7 0.3 5 0.3

Polyunsaturated Fat (PUFA)

Gram 12 1 6 1

% Energy 4 0.3 3 0.3

Cholesterol (mg) 329 29 170 2

Total Dietary Fiber (g) 19 1 15 1

Folate (mcg) 351 25 232 17

Iron (mg) 21 2 13 1

Calcium (mg) 1237 94 873 66

Values are Mean SE.


116 VOL. 21, NO. 2


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female skaters (Tables 4 and 5). Additionally, dinner contrib-

uted substantially to the protein intake of the female figure

skaters, while lunch and dinner were the predominant sources

of fat, cholesterol and dietary fiber intake (Tables 4 and 5). As

in the case of the diets of the male skaters, breakfast was the

main contributor to the folate intake, while breakfast and dinner

equally contributed to iron and calcium intake (Tables 4 and 5).

The female skaters on average reported consuming 1.36 (

0.62) snacks per day. Among both genders, significant differ-

ences were observed in the contribution of the meals to the

Table 3. Contribution of meals to the macronutrient and micronutrient intake of elite male figure skaters (n 46)

Breakfast Lunch Dinner Snack

Calories 519 34ab 705 44a 829 47b 596 73

Protein (g) 17 1.4ab 29 2.2acd 41 2.7bce 17 2.4de

Carbohydrate (g) 82 6a 93 6 110 8a 88 11

Total Fat (g) 14.5 1.3ab 26 2a 25 2b 21 3

Saturated Fat (g) 5.7 1.0a 8 1 8.6 0.7a 7.1 1.1

Monounsaturated Fat (g) 3.8 0.4a 5.7 0.6 6.7 0.5a 5.1 1.1

Polyunsaturated Fat (g) 2.2 0.3ab 4.1 0.5a 3.8 0.4bc 2.4 0.4c

Cholesterol (mg) 111 21a 83 9b 94 7c 45 8abc

Dietary Fiber (g) 3.9 0.5a 4.7 0.4 6.2 0.5ab 3.7 0.5b

Folate (mcg) 131 13abc 58 6ad 89 8bd 74 16c

Iron (mg) 6 0.9 4.2 0.3a 6.3 0.5a 4.7 0.8

Calcium (mg) 310 27 293 29 356 33 279 48

Values are Mean SE.abcde Values within a row with similar superscripts are significantly different, p 0.05.

Table 4. Contribution of meals to the macronutrient and micronutrient intake of elite female figure skaters (n 41)


Calories 323 27ab 455 35a 490 31b 385 46

Protein (g) 11.6 1.2ab 18 1.4ac 27 2bcd 13.5 3.3d

Carbohydrate (g) 53 4.5 65 5.3 67 5.4 61 6.5

Total Fat (g) 7.7 1.6ab 14 1.4a 13 1.1b 11 2

Saturated Fat (g) 2.4 0.4ab 4.5 0.5a 4.5 0.4b 3.9 0.6

Monounsaturated Fat (g) 1.9 0.4 2.9 0.3 3.1 0.3 2.6 0.6

Polyunsaturated Fat (g) 1.3 0.3 2 0.3 1.9 0.3 1.3 0.3

Cholesterol (mg) 39 10 38 5.5a 65 6.4ab 29 10b

Dietary Fiber (g) 3.1 0.4a 4.1 0.4b 4.9 0.5ac 2.7 0.3bc

Folate (mcg) 85 9abc 47 4.6a 59 5.4b 44.5 6.4c

Iron (mg) 4.2 0.4a 3.1 0.3 3.9 0.3b 2.3 0.3ab

Calcium (mg) 241 26 207 23 243 23 186 22

Values are Mean SE.abcd Values within a row with similar superscripts are significantly different,p 0.05.

Table 5. Percent contribution of meals to macronutrient and micronutrient intake of male and female elite figure skaters


Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

Calories 21 1.2 20 1.1 27 1.3 27 1.3 32 1.4 31 1.6 21 2.1 22 1.6

Protein 18 1.3 17 1.3 27 1.3 27 1.4 40 1.4 40 2 15 1.6 17 1.7

Carbohydrate 23 1.4 22 1.3 25 1.4 27 1.5 30 1.8 28 1.8 22 2.3 24 1.7

Total Fat 17 1.2 16 2 30 1.6 30 2 31 1.5 34 3 22 2.4 21 2.4

Saturated Fat 18 2 16 2.2 29 2 28 2.3 31 1.6 33 2.8 22 2.5 23 2.7

Monounsaturated Fat 18 1.7 17 2.2 29 2.3 29 2.5 33 2 34 2.6 20 3 20 2.6

Polyunsaturated Fat 18 1.9 18 2.2 33 2.8 31 2.8 31 2.1 33 2.6 18 2.7 18 2.5

Cholesterol 26 3.5 19 3.6 27 2.4 23 2.4 34 3 45 3.4 14 2 13 2.2

Dietary Fiber 21 1.9 21 1.8 26 1.6 28 2 34 2 33 2 19 2 18 1.9

Folate 37

3 34

2.6 18

2 21

2.1 28

3 27

2 17

3 18

2Iron 28 2 30 2.4 21 1.4 24 1.7 32 2 31 2 19 3 16 1.5

Calcium 27 2 27 2.2 24 1.6 23 1.9 29 1.7 28 1.9 20 2.4 22 2.1

Values are Mean SE.




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these athletes should be given special attention considering that

they contribute significantly to their dietary intake. In the

present study these figure skaters were observed to consume a

wide variety of foods as snacks, which if incorporated more

frequently into their eating patterns could assist with meeting

their energy and nutrient needs.

The results of the present study and earlier studies thus

suggest that athletes should be encouraged to consume more

frequent meals and to distribute their energy intake between the

meals based on their activity schedules. Small, frequent meals

that are energy and nutrient dense will assist athletes with

meeting their energy and nutrient needs while at the same time

prevent the adverse gastrointestinal consequences of a large

meal, prevent overeating, and can safeguard against fatigue.

Additionally, since many of these athletes begin their training

very early in the morning, a circumstance which may not be

conducive to eating breakfast, they should be encouraged to

pack nutrient dense foods which can be consumed during

breaks in their training. Nutrition education should be provided

to the athletes to assist them with the preparation of easy andready to use meals and snacks.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This study was supported by the U.S. Figure Skating Asso-

ciation, and the U.S. Olympic Committee, Colorado Springs,

CO; and Gerber Products Company, Summit, N.J.

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Received March 16, 2001; revision accepted November 9,

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