Nutritional Needs in Aquaculture Diversity in Species and Purpose

Jesse Trushenski EAGLE FISH HEALTH LABORATORY IDAHO DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME

PUBLIC VS. PRIVATE AQUACULTURE

Aquaculture is a commercial, agricultural practice and a natural resource conservation and management activity

Both help to support the American way of life

Most are more familiar with commercial aquaculture than the hatchery systems

Today’s presentation will highlight some differences and similarities in nutritional needs and the value of rendered animal products to both sectors

FISHING FOR A LIVING

Commercial fishing puts food on the table and pays the bills for millions of Americans

Freshwater fisheries are small in comparison, but significant

~14 million lbs. landed in Florida annually, worth $5+ million

National Marine Fisheries Service. 2014. Fisheries economics of the United States 2012. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-F/SPO-137.

The value of commercial fisheries landings is on the rise in the U.S.

Freshwater

Saltwater

Great Lakes

FISHING FOR FUN

Recreational fishing creates economic opportunity and supports aquatic resource conservation

If recreational fishing were a company, it would rank #51 on the Fortune 500™ list

Roughly 60 million American anglers are responsible for…

$115 billion in economic output $15 billion in state/federal taxes 828,000 jobs

Southwick Associates. 2013. Sportfishing in America, an economic force for conservation. American Sportfishing Association.

Total Contribution to GDP = $62 billion

FISHERIES IN DOLLARS AND CENTS

National Marine Fisheries Service. 2014. Fisheries economics of the United States 2012. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-F/SPO-137.

Commercial and recreational fisheries help drive the U.S. economy

The U.S. government must fulfill various treaty and statutory obligations to tribal nations guaranteeing the right to fish

TRIBAL TRUST RESPONSIBILITIES

Fishing is a part of cultural identity

Fish and fishing are central to the subsistence and ceremonial practices of many indigenous people

HATCHERIES SUPPORT OUR NATION’S FISHERIES

Hatcheries put fish in the nets of anglers, commercial fishermen, and tribal communities

0%

50%

100%

Pink Sockeye Chinook Coho Chum

Contributions to Southeast Alaskan Salmon Harvest 2005-2009

Hatchery-origin Wild

Heard, W.R. 2011. Overview of salmon stock enhancement in southeast Alaska and compatibility with maintenance of hatchery and wild stocks. Environmental Biology of Fishes 94:273-283.

Charbonneau, J.>, and J. Caudill. 2010. Conserving America’s fisheries, an assessment of economic contributions from fisheries and aquatic resource conservation. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Impacts of NHFS Stocking Programs 2006

13.5 million angler days

$554 million in retail sales

$903 million in industry output

8,000+ jobs

GLOBAL AQUACULTURE IS DIVERSE

Annual Production (MMT)

Freshwater Fish

Mollusks

Crustaceans

Marine Fish

Other

FAO 2014

More than 500 species are raised

worldwide Including more than 400 finfishes and crustaceans

MAJOR TAXA RAISED BY US FISH FARMS

Catfish Trout

Tilapia Hybrid Striped Bass

Red Drum Largemouth Bass

Sturgeon Carps

2013 Census of Aquaculture, USDA

+

> 95% of total >450 MM lbs.

MAJOR TAXA RAISED BY US HATCHERIES

Rainbow Trout Chinook Salmon

Steelhead Brown Trout Coho Salmon Brook Trout

Channel Catfish Lake Trout

2005 Fish Production Summary USFWS AADAP

+

> 95% of total >44 MM lbs.

~100 species and hybrids are produced by public hatcheries in the U.S.

Primary Producers & Detritus

Primary Consumers

Secondary Consumers

Tertiary Consumers

Plains Minnow

Southern Redbelly Dace

Topeka Shiner

Chain Pickerel

Pallid Sturgeon

Walleye

DIVERSITY IN PUBLIC AQUACULTURE

Fishbase 2016

PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF ATLANTIC SALMON

Protein

Lipid

Ash

Shearer et al. 1994

THINKING SMALL AND THINKING BIG

Higher resting metabolic rate Higher energy expenditures Higher feeding rates (e.g. 5%)

Higher maintenance demand

Lower resting metabolic rate

Lower energy expenditures

Lower feeding rates (e.g. 3%)

Lower maintenance demand

TYPES OF HATCHERIES

Production hatcheries Produce large volumes to increase abundance for commercial/recreational

fishing or mitigation

Support harvest, not natural recruitment

Supplementation hatcheries Produce fish intended to become part of the wild population

Reduce short-term risk of population losses, increase harvest opportunities

Conservation hatcheries Produce fish for restoration of imperiled species

Serve as a refuge for rare stocks and genes

Many facilities operate as functional hybrids

COMPARISON OF HATCHERY OPERATIONS

Production Hatchery Conservation Hatchery

Spawning time Directed by biologists for convenience or to time stocking or return

Synchronized to wild spawn

Target number of progeny

Larger, to maximize output Smaller, to match carrying capacity of receiving waters or ensure equal family representation

Mating strategy Haphazard or to promote certain characteristics

Highly structured to maintain diversity

Incubation temperature

Chosen to control developmental time

Synchronized to receiving waters

Culture system Standard, smooth tanks/raceways

Enriched, semi-natural tanks/raceways

COMPARISON OF HATCHERY OPERATIONS

Production Hatchery Conservation Hatchery

Husbandry techniques

Standard, to maximize efficiency and output

Innovative, to reduce conditioning and domestication

Water temperature

May be modified to maximize growth or meet production goals and timelines

Synchronized to receiving waters and natural life history

Rearing density High, up to maximum rearing capacity of the system

Low, to minimize behavioral and health concerns

Feeds Selected to satisfy minimum nutrient requirements and meet production goals at the lowest cost

Selected to address unknown nutrient requirements and ensure maximum fitness of progeny

Macro- & Micronutrients

Metamorphosis

Reproduction

Behavior Stress

Response

Biosynthetic Rates

Cell Signaling

Appetite Regulation

Osmoregulation

Growth & Development

Energy Substrates

Immunity & Survival

Antioxidative Defense

Seafood Quality

Endocrine Status

Metabolic Regulation

Pigmentation

Membrane Competence

Tocher 2003, Li et al. 2008

Macro- & Micronutrients

Metamorphosis

Reproduction

Behavior Stress

Response

Biosynthetic Rates

Cell Signaling

Appetite Regulation

Osmoregulation

Growth & Development

Energy Substrates

Immunity & Survival

Antioxidative Defense

Seafood Quality

Endocrine Status

Metabolic Regulation

Pigmentation

Membrane Competence

Tocher 2003, Li et al. 2008

Macro- & Micronutrients

Metamorphosis

Reproduction

Behavior Stress

Response

Biosynthetic Rates

Cell Signaling

Appetite Regulation

Osmoregulation

Growth & Development

Energy Substrates

Immunity & Survival

Antioxidative Defense

Seafood Quality

Endocrine Status

Metabolic Regulation

Pigmentation

Membrane Competence

Tocher 2003, Li et al. 2008

WHAT DO WE FEED FISH?

Protein

Lipid Carbohydrates

Micro-nutrients

Typical

Ingredients High Energy

(Carnivorous) Medium Energy

(Carnivorous) Low Energy

(Omnivorous)

Fish meal 25-50 20-40 0-20

Soy products

0-15 25-35 30-50

Gluten & animal products

5-20 15-20 15-20

Cereal grains

10-18 20-25 30-45

Fats/oils 20-30 5-10 2-5

Other 3-5 3-5 3-5

Typical

IngredientsHigh Energy

(Carnivorous)

Medium Energy

(Carnivorous)

Low Energy

(Omnivorous)

Fish meal 25-50 20-40 0-20

Soyproducts

0-15 25-35 30-50

Gluten& animal products

5-20 15-20 15-20

Cerealgrains

10-18 20-25 30-45

Fats/oils 20-30 5-10 2-5

Other 3-5 3-5 3-5

THE RISING COST OF FISH MEAL

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Price in $US/MT

“…much research has focused on finding replacements for fish meal…Partial replacements have been achieved. However, no dramatic breakthroughs have been reported, and the share of fish meal and fish oil used in aquaculture is increasing…” FAO 2008

Aquaculture consumes ~61% of global supply

THE RISING COST OF FISH OIL

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

“…given the difficulty in replacing fish oils…it is clear that competition for fish oil is likely to be a more serious obstacle for some sections of the aquaculture industry.” FAO 2008

Fish Oil Price in $US/MT

Aquaculture consumes ~74% of

global supply

FEEDSTUFF ATTRIBUTES TO CONSIDER

Compositional profile and practical feeding value

Protein content and quality

Presence of antinutritional factors

Interactions with other nutrients

Economic and environmental costs of raw materials

Availability

Cost-effectiveness relative to marine ingredients AND other feedstuffs

Sustainability

Influence on animal performance Growth and survival

Reproductive performance

Safety

MINIMIZING LOSS OF LC-PUFA

No growth effects Substantial LC-PUFA loss

Trushenski and Boesenberg 2009

No growth effects Limited LC-PUFA loss

Trushenski et al. 2008

No growth effects Limited LC-PUFA loss

Trushenski 2009

n-3

MC-PUFA

SFA

MUFA/SFA

RENDERED FATS MAY ALSO MAKE FATTY ACID REQUIREMENTS EASIER TO ATTAIN

Trushenski et al. 2013 400

450

500

550

600

650

700

750

800

0 10 20 30 40

Wei

ght

Gai

n (

%)

Dietary LC-PUFA Content (g/kg diet)

Break Point = 29.3 g LC-PUFA/kg diet

400

450

500

550

600

650

700

750

800

0 10 20 30 40

Wei

ght

Gai

n (

%)

Dietary LC-PUFA (g/kg diet)

Growth was suppressed among fish fed high

levels of C18-rich soybean oil, but not SFA-rich

soybean oil

FEED FORMULATION

Feedstuff FISH

ONLY

BEEF

ONLY

BEEF +

50%

EPA

BEEF +

100%

EPA

BEEF +

50%

DHA

BEEF +

100%

DHA

BEEF +

50%

BOTH

BEEF +

100%

BOTH

Soybean meal 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300

Corn gluten meal 238 238 238 238 238 238 238 238

Wheat bran 205 205 205 205 205 205 205 205

Menhaden fish meal 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Menhaden fish oil 98 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Beef tallow 0 98 86 75 86 74 77 56

EPA supplement 0 0 12 23 0 0 10 21

DHA supplement 0 0 0 0 12 24 11 21

Micronutrients &

binder 59 59 59 59 59 59 59 59

All diets formulated to contain ~40% protein, ~14% lipid

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND ANALYSIS

1

Dissection and Tissue Collection

10 weeks

Vision Acuity Trials

Weight gain, specific growth rate (SGR), feed conversion ratio (FCR), feed intake, tissue fatty acid composition, and Djh

N = 4, 1-way ANOVA with Tukey’s HSD pairwise comparison tests where appropriate PROC GLIMMIX, SAS 9.3

WEIGHT GAIN (%) P < 0.001

NSD

zy y zy y zy z z z 0

50

100

150

200

250

FISH ONLY BEEF ONLY BEEF + 50%EPA

BEEF +100% EPA

BEEF + 50%DHA

BEEF +100% DHA

BEEF + 50%BOTH

BEEF +100% BOTH

yx z yx yx zy x yx x 0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

FISH ONLY BEEF ONLY BEEF + 50%EPA

BEEF +100% EPA

BEEF + 50%DHA

BEEF +100% DHA

BEEF + 50%BOTH

BEEF +100% BOTH

FEED CONVERSION RATIO P < 0.001

DO WE REALLY KNOW FATTY ACID REQUIREMENTS?

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

ReportedRequirement(NRC 2011)

FISH ONLY BEEF ONLY BEEF + 100% DHA

g fa

tty

acid

s/kg

fe

ed

DO WE REALLY KNOW FATTY ACID REQUIREMENTS?

ReportedRequirement(NRC 2011)

FISH ONLY BEEF ONLY BEEF + 100%DHA

DO WE REALLY KNOW FATTY ACID REQUIREMENTS?

ReportedRequirement(NRC 2011)

FISH ONLY BEEF ONLY BEEF + 100%DHA

SUCCESSFUL SPARING OF FISH OIL WITH BEEF TALLOW

Beef tallow appears suitable for use in HSB feeds

Trial provides insight regarding fatty acid requirements of HSB

‘Known unknowns’ are better than ‘unknown unknowns’

DHA may be more critical than EPA

Results consistent with the “omega-3 sparing effect”

SFA-rich lipid sources, like beef tallow, may effectively reduce LC-PUFA requirements of fishes

Similar results from companion trials with Atlantic Salmon and Pompano

RENDERED FATS MAY ALSO MAKE FATTY ACID REQUIREMENTS EASIER TO ATTAIN

Sparing fish oil with beef tallow does not impair performance in the way that other alternative lipids do

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Fish Oil(+)

Control

BeefTallow (-)Control

BeefTallow +

DHA

Atlantic Salmon

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Fish Oil(+)

Control

BeefTallow (-)Control

BeefTallow +

DHA

Pompano

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Fish Oil(+)

Control

BeefTallow (-)Control

BeefTallow +

DHA

Hybrid Striped Bass

Weight Gain (%) Bowzer et al. 2016 Rombenso et al., in review Emery et al., in review

INFLUENCING REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE

Lewis et al. 2013

Results with SFA-rich coconut oil suggest SFA- and MUFA-rich lipids are better than

C18 PUFA-rich lipids for broodstock, too

SAFETY OF FARMED FISH

Risk outweighed by benefits of seafood consumption

National Academies Institute of Medicine Food and Agriculture Organization World Health Organization

BUT, perception is reality and feeding rendered fats can reduce contaminant burdens

0

5

10

15

Dioxin-like PCBs Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins anddibenzofurans

WHO-TEQ (pg/g) Fish Oils Animal Fats

Ábalos et al. 2008

Although there is variability in levels, marine ingredients are potential sources of organic and inorganic contaminants

Risks of contaminants in farmed fish are largely overblown

THE CHALLENGES…

Fish meal and oil are finite resources which aquaculture increasingly monopolizes

Sources of amino acids abound, but may be improperly balanced, unpalatable

Alternative proteins impact production performance, livestock resilience, etc.

Sources of essential fatty acids can be limiting

Alternative lipids affect tissue composition, reproductive performance, etc.

THE OPPORTUNITIES—OUR NATION’S FISHERIES

Economic Opportunity

Seafood Security

Recreation

Cultural Identity Ecosystem

Services Biodiversity

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Authors of the various works cited herein

Fats and Proteins Research Foundation

Idaho Department of Fish and Game

Southern Illinois University Carbondale