o - staff.wrdsb.castaff.wrdsb.ca/ell/files/2012/02/arabic-lang-profile.pdf · green o 1{;()2(lokm ....

green

o 1{;()2(lOkm .-""-<y.;.•" .-.,-,,~ •.--,,"i.F.I~· ?<,,)' ~:; ~'fJ1:1_A ";' ..,.~

,J () 100 200 mi ".J;

mAO IRAN

Ha: it > •

F.Cyp1' Medina•

·Yanbu' al , BaJ:lr

J~ddah Mecca , ..", At Ta' it

,QC<ci

Sea OMAN SUDAN

./

! "..," JJz~n.

;1

/ c;H{ffl,~A YEMEN

Saltbi Arabia SECTION 22 Vol. \I r?

white

~ ciaworldbook.com

• • • • •• ••

••

Name Final Medial Initial Isolated Name Final Medial Initial Isolate(

alif l Qad • • • • ~c..;a ..a ~

ba' '-" ..... oJ \.-.J ta' h b b b- • • ta' .- •• ••

.A oJ ~ ?a' lQ. )Q 1:, Jo'-"

~.

~ ltha' ••• .-. <ayn.A oJ 0 .\ $'-"

jim ,:)t ghayn • • • •> .\ $~ • • t ~ l ~a' ,:)t fa' • •> \o-l - Jl .3 Io.-J)~ t

kha' ;lit qaf ••> u Jl .3~ t <J dal J, kafJ ~ ~ 5 ~

dhal J,• • lamJ J 1 J J ra' mim /;J. I:)J J ~ ~ zay • • nan • • • ..... ,)J J U ~

sin ~ #ON ha' d-. b <)<..r r...r f

shin ••• •• •• ••• waw~ #ON<..r • •

r...r ., j $ad ya' , y

~c..;a ..a ..... oJ~ c.,:p •• •• c..5

• r L 0 '\ V 1\ ~ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

omniglot.com

ARABIC

To begin, I would just like to note that most Arabic-speaking countries are predominately Muslim, and most Muslim countries are predominately populated by Arabic speakers - Iran, Indonesia and Malaysia are notable exceptions. Thus, it is very difficult to speak about Arabic on its own as much of the language and religion are intertwined. This comes about from the revelation of the Qu'ran to Muhammad by the Archangel Gabriel. Muslims believe that the word of God was passed on to Muhammad over a 23-year span of time, and the language in which God conveyed the contents of the Qu'ran was Arabic, and therefore, Arabic is a divine language.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Semitic nomadic tribes have crisscrossed the desert sands for thousands of years, and the desert is believed to be the natal home of the Semitic people.

These ancient tribes spread into Mesopotamia and Palestine in 4000 BCE, and became known as Assyro-Babylonians, Canaanites and Amorites.

In 1000 BCE, the Minaean kingdom was set up in 'Asir and AI Hijaz along the Red Sea. This group was made up of herders, as well as nomads who traded incense,.

Then, the Nabateans from southern Iraq moved into eastern Arabia, and became one of the largest of the earliest empires, stretching all the way to Damascus.

After this time, the area was subjected to invading empires: the Greeks, the Ethiopians and the Persians.

With the coming of Muhammad in 570 CE, the Arabs united, with Mecca becoming the centre of the Islamic Empire. This empire was short-lived as it fell by the end of the seventh century CEo

In the early 18th century, the AI-Sauds, the current ruling family of Saudi Arabia, were the ruling sheiks of Dir'aiyah. They formed an alliance with Mohammed bin Adbul Wahhab, and founded a back-to-basics religious movement called Wahhabism, Saudi Arabia's official form of Islam. By 1806, this group had conquered most of modern Saudi Arabia, as well as a large part of southern Iraq. The Ottoman Empire that held western Arabia retook its portion, and by the end of the 19th century, the AI-Sauds had retreated to Kuwait. Ibn Saud retook Riyadh, and in 1925, Jeddah. In 1938, Chevron found large quantities of oil in Saudi Arabia, and oil production was stepped up for World War II. In the 1960s, 80 percent of the government's revenues came from oil production.

LINGUISTIC BACKGROUND

Arabic is spoken by almost 200 million people, and as the language of Qu'ran, it is thought of as a first language in Muslim states throughout the world. It is spoken in the Middle East, north Africa as well as in 24 other countries including Algeria, Bahrain, Chad, Comoros Islands, Egypt, Eritrea, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Palestinian West Bank and Gaza, Qatar, Somalia, Sudan and Syria.

4th century, alphabetic Arabic (Af - As, Semitic, S-C, ) Arabia, Gulf States, North Africa... Pg. 1

Arabic belongs to the Central, South Arabic Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family.

The early Arabs were a nomadic people, with a great love for poetry and writing. The Jazm script is the earliest reference to the Arabic script, and was based on the Nabatean one.

The earliest known alphabet scripted language is the North Semitic one developed in 1700 BCE in the area around Palestine and Syria. It consisted of 22 written consonants. Arabic, Hebrew and Phoenician alphabets are based on this model. Arabic itself originated in the Arabian peninsula around the fourth century CEo It descended 'from the Nabatean alphabet which in turn came from the Phoenician. All Asiatic alphabets originated, like Arabic, from the Aramaic version (the language of Jesus) of Phoenician while European ones originated directly from the Phoenician. In the eighth century CE, the diacritics (accent marks) were added to the script to indicate short vowels, unmarked grammatical endings and changes in consonants.

The North Arabic script became the script of the Qu'ran. This was due to its spread to Hijaz in Arabia, and was used by the aristocracy of Quraysh, the tribe of the Prophet Muhammad. After the rise of Islam, Arabic also developed into a branch of calligraphic art.

Other countries also use a modified Arabic script: Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, as well as other languages once used this script: Ottoman Turkish, Malay, Swahili, Hausa, Algerian tribal, as well as Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan.

• SCRIPT: The beautiful and graceful Arabic script is the second most widespread writing system after the Latin scripted one. It is also the fastest writing system by nature of its cursive/connected feature, a connected script that moves forward so that a writer need not raise pen from page.

The first revelation commanded Muhammad, "Recite in the name of thy Lord... who has taught (the writing) by the pen." (Surah 96, al- A'laq, 104). Thus, it is clear how the written word is eternal and divine for the Arab. Though Muhammad himself could not read nor write, a book was delivered to him, which is the miracle visited upon Muhammad. In 632, upon the ascension of Muhammad, the divine revelation ceased. The contents of the Qu'ran were passed on to the huffaz, ones who memorize and recite the complete Qu'ran by heart. However, as many huffaz were lost in battle, the Muslim community was disturbed that they would lose this divine revelation. Omar Ibn al-Khattab urged the first caliph, Abu Baker, Muhammad's father-in-law, to set down the Qu'ran in written script. Zaid ibn Thabit, secretary to Muhammad, began to collect and compile the revelations into a book. The first versions were written in the Makki and Madani scripts from Mecca and Medina. They were based on the Jazm script. After that, the Kufic and Naskhi scripts were used.

Abdul Aswad al Du'ali, famed as the founder of Arabic grammar in the seventh century, invented Tashkeel (vocalization), the system of placing large coloured dots in the writing to indicate vowel sounds - black for consonant changes and red or yellow for vocalization. It was very effective in the large and bold Kufic script but cumbersome in the smaller everyday printed script. Governor al Hallaj ibn Yusuf al Thaqafi enforced a more uniformed system to distingUish letters developed by two of al Du'ali's students. AI Khalil ibn Ahmad al Farahidi refined al Durali's system further by replacing it with a system that used six diacritics to show short vowel sounds, double consonants and to lengthen the Alef (A).

The Kufic cursive script existed pre-Islam, but was neither regulated nor elegant. It was a secular script. However, under the Ummayads and Abbasids, the court required a refinement and codification of a script for record keeping and official documents. Abu Ali Muhammad Ibn Muqlah,


along with his brother, was given the task of devising a regulated system. Ibn Muqlah, as vizier under three caliphs, developed a script that followed strict proportional rules. He used the dot as a measuring unit for line proportions, and a circle with a diameter that equaled the height of the Alef for letter proportions. It was this system that elevated the script into an art form.

The calligraphic script has since been divided into two main forms: Kufic, dry style, and Naskhi, Thuluth, Nastaliq, soft/moist, cursive styles.

a. Kufic originated 'from Kufah in Mesopotamia (Iraq) near the end of the seventh century CEo It is the heavy, bold, elegant script used in metal and stone inscriptions. It is also the script of the Qu'ran, literature and calligraphy as well as architecture, the writing on mosques. It is composed of square and angular lines with compact, bold, circular forms. Vertical strokes are short, and horizontal ones long and extended. It is highly decorative with diacritics. In the 10th century, Eastern Kufic used slender, vertical strokes and became the style for ceramics and book calligraphy. Later on, on architectural monuments, serifs were added to the early Kufic style, and leaflike ornamentals appeared on the ends of strokes. These strokes were then added to round ones, and the Foliate Kufic style became popular on all buildings.

By the 11th century, the letters themselves changed and were used to produce ornamentals as new geometric patterns were added to the script: plaiting, knotting and braiding. For example, a line of poetry or lines from the Qu'ran could be written into imperial seals, or take shapes of objects, such as ships, but all were drawn in script. In the 14th century, Square Kufic developed a script used to adorn whole buildings.

b. Naskhi, "copying'~ was the script used for writing on paper or papyrus, and is the script of Modern Arabic. It began in Mecca and Medina in the 1Oth century. It was refined in Turkey by the 16th century. It is also used for the writing of the Qu'ran. It is legible and clear, and is the style of typesetting and printing. Nowadays, it is the everyday script used for writing, as well as in newspapers, books and schools. It is a small script with thin lines and rounded letter shapes. It can be plain and unadorned with no diacritics.

c. Thuluth is a very impressive, stately script that developed with Mamluk Thuluth. It can be found on monuments, glass, metalwork, textiles, wood and book titles

d. Nastaliq was developed by Mir Ali Sultan al-Tabriz, and refined in Iran in the 14-15th centuries. It is a fluid and expressive script used for writing poetry, miniatures, romantic and mystical epics such as the Persian Shah Nameh (Book of Kings), but not for the Qu'ran.


Nastaliq has short verticals, without serifs, coupled with deep curved horizontals. By and large, the script slants to the right in contrast to the before-mentioned scripts that slant to the left.

e. Riq'a is a simple, everyday handwritten script.

• COLLOQUIAL: As Arabic is the official language of many countries, and the religious language of all Muslims, the variety of oral and written variations are numerous. Although classical Arabic has changed little over time, colloquial Arabic has. Spoken Arabic has two main groups: Khaliji and Shami. 1. Khaliji is used by those who live in the Gulf states, and their Arabic closely resembles the

written text. It is often referred to as Classical or Literary Arabic.

2. Shami, Colloquial Arabic, refers to all other Arabic-speaking groups, and the speech patterns can vary widely from the written text. Egyptian Arabic is such an example.

Basically, Modem Standard Arabic is used for reading, writing and formal speech, and is based on the Qu'ran. It is seen as proper and "correcf' Arabic as opposed to the colloquial, seen as slang and a dialect. Even though Arabs see Modem Standard Arabic as the preferred form, it is a learnt form that is no one's mother tongue.

LINGUISTIC COMPARISON

ENGLISH ARABIC

LANGUAGE Indo-European Afro-Asiatic FAMILY (West Germanic branch) (Semitic, South-Central branch)

WRITING - alphabet, Latin script - alphabet, Naskhi - cursivelKufic - Qu'ran SYSTEM - non-phonetic - phonetic

- written from left to right - written 'from right to left - letters disconnected - letters mostly connected - printedlwritten script - ornamental and non- ornamental scripts

- 4 types of letter script for letters

# OF LETTERS 26 25 consonants - 6 vowels - 9, 3 long vowels (3 written)

- 6 diacritics, mostly for short vowels - 8 diacritics, used to change letter shapes

N.B. In total, Arabic has 28 letters, whose shapes will change depending on the letter's position in the word: initial, medial or final. Of the basic 18 letter shapes, 2 are used for 3 letters, 6 are used


for 2 letters, and the remainder have one shape each. Diacritics (dots) are added, and their position and number added to the shape will change the letter.

VOWELS 6 written, 15-16 spoken 3 written, 6 spoken

DIFFERENT CONSONANTS

- th(this, the), non-Gulf states only

• v, ng (sing), p

- gh (Haghighat), 2 types - kh (Khomeini) - guttural sounds, velarized consonants

CAPITALIZATION· begins new sentences with capitals

• words end in "capital" letters

COMBINATION OF LETTERS

- each syllable has vowel/consonant sound

- many consonant clusters

• consonant + vowel (initial) - long vowel + consonant (final) - final may have 2 consonants

N.B. Arabic vocabulary is made up of a word scheme that consists of a triconsonantal root that provides the meaning, and the pattern provided by the vowels gives it its grammatical meaning. These roots provide the lexical group of related vocabulary.

EX: the triconsonantal root S-L-M refers to words that are related to submission, religion, peace: muSLiM, iSLaM, asLaMa, SalaM

Shift in vowels slightly changes the meaning and the grammatical structure. EX: K- T- B is related to writing: KITaS book, KaTiS derk or one who writes.

NUMBERS - written from left to right - written from right to left, but added from left to right

EX: 73 37 +62 + 26

135 531 (read from right to left)

N.B. This can cause confusion for learners when they first do math equations as they attempt to solve the problem from the "wrong side", or record the answer ''backwards''.

ORDER • sentence - subject + verb + object - verb + subject + object

• adjective - adjective + noun - noun + adjective

NOUNS - 2 genders: masculine (no ending), feminine (h ending)

ARTICLES • indefinite - a, an + noun - noun (masculine, feminine)

• definite - the + noun - al + noun (masculine, feminine)

VERBS - subject separate - subject added to verb - verb only inflected for some - uses suffixes on root

4th century, alphabetic Arabic (Af· As, Semitic, S-C, ) Arabia, Gulf States, North Africa... Pg. 5

(to be) and in some tenses - diacritics can also be used to (continuous/present) change verb modifier

PRONOUNS • sUbject - always written - suffixed to verb, can also be written on

its own + verb suffix - diacritics also used to change subject

N.B. In Arabic, the pronoun, you, has 5 forms: SINGULAR: masculine and feminine PLURAL: masculine, feminine and mixed

• object - differs from subject - suffix - appears after verb - appears after noun

• possessive - differs from above - noun suffix, agrees in gender and (adj.) - appears before noun number

PLURALS - adds suffix s, es, ies - "broken plural", plural shown by internal - has few irregular forms vowel change in word - learnt by rote - plurals of non-human nouns feminine

N.B. In Arabic, numerals under 10 have a plural form, EX: 2 cats, but numbers 10 and higher take a singular form, EX: 10 cat

TENSES - 3 forms of verb: - 2 forms perfect + suffixes =past, imperfect present, past, past part. + suffixes = present and future tenses changed with ed - can be reduced to 1 word to show tense, suffix, whole word or with subject and object to be, to have or will

COMMANDS - infinitive form of - infinitive + prefix a verb - subject indicated by suffix

(masculinelfeminine)

? FORM - question word/auxiliary verb - hel + verb + subject (yes/no) + subject - question word + verb

- verb + subject

NEGATIVE - uses auxiliary verbs - la + wordlverb negated FORM - to be + not

EX: la ilaha ilia al-Lah There is no God but one God (opening line to the Shaddah).

VERBI - verb + to + infinitive - verb + infinitive 2ND VERB

MODAlS - modal + infinitive - no true modal structure (no to) - impersonal pronoun use, one,

and preposition or noun - synonym used (must = necessity)


FORMALITY - 3 levels - 3 levels LEVELS - levels changed by use

of modals and longer - formal style of Qu'ran

sentence structures

SWEARING! OATHS

- involves subjects of sexlbodily functions

- family lineage - compared to dogs/pigs - directed at family, not person - religious: infidel/atheist

Blessings Blessing given upon family, business and life by invoking the names of the prophets/God

A phrase, often used hoping that an event will come to pass, is Inshallah - God willing.

VOCABULARY! - higher level of writing, - can take any foreign word, and from its FOREIGN GreeklLatin meaning create a new Arabic word INFLUENCE through the use of stems and affixes

- foreign words like philosophy can also become al-filosfy

N.B. It is usually very difficult for Arabic to incorporate foreign loan words, especially verbs, as foreign words cannot be fitted into the triconsonantal word scheme seen earlier. French has been very influential on Arabic in Lebanon, Syria and Northern Africa while English has been influential in the Persian Gulf and the Horn of Africa.

Arabic words are also found in Turkish, Persian, UrdU, Portuguese and Spanish.

WORDS FROM ARABIC Alchemy, almanac, cotton, orange, saffron, sugar, syrup, admiral, albatross, alchemy, alcohol, alcove, alfalfa, algebra (reunion of broken parts), algorithm, alkali, Allah, almanac (book of astronomical data), amber, amulet, aniline, antimony, arsenal, artichoke, assassin (from the same root as "Hashish" as assassins were often given this drug before being sent out to kill political enemies), average, benzene, calibre, caliph, caramel (ball of sweet salt), carat, caraway, cipher, coffee, cork, cotton, drub, elixir, Emir, fakir, fellah (peasant), fez, gala, garbage, garble, gazelle, genie, gerbil, giraffe, ghoul, halal, hashish, harem, hazard, henna, Islam, jar, kismet, lackey (footman), loofah, lute, magazine, marzipan, mask, mattress, minaret, mirror, mohair, monkey, monsoon, mosque, mummy, Muslim, myrrh, nadir, pancreas, racket, ream, safari, Sahara (desert), saffron, sahib, satin, sequin, sheikh, sherbet, sheriff, soda (headache), sofa, sultan, syrup, tabby, talisman, tamarind, tariff, wadi, zenith, zero, zircon

LEARNING OF - word recognition, - whole alphabet, then small words/ WRrrlNG! phonics, syllables sentences READING - phonics

SKILLS OF - heavily dependent on - phonics READING! sight recognition - grammar rules by rote WRITING

Literacy rate: 78 %: 84.2 % males, 69.5 % females

N.B. Most items, letters, correspondence, notes written by devout Muslims are headed with the inscription bismallah el rah-man el rahlm (In the name of God, the Merciful and Compassionate - from the Fatihah - the opening Surah of the Qu'ran).


CULTURAL BACKGROUND

EDUCATION

Compulsory education is dependent on the Arabic speaking country. Segregated schools at all levels occur in the Persian Gulf states. Other countries have the genders integrated at various levels.

Elementary education lasts for six years followed by secondary school education for three years with a further three years of intermediate education. Pupils have the choice between general secondary and technical schools. The first year shares a common curriculum. At the end of that year, students are divided into the scientific and literary streams for the final two years. Students obtaining a score of 60 percent in all their first-year subjects choose between a literary and scientific track. The rest enter the literary track.

School system: 1. Elementary School (6 years), ages 6 to 12 • Certi'ficate awarded: General Elementary Education Certificate

2. Intermediate School (3 years), ages 12 to 15 • Certificate awarded: Intermediate School Certificate

3. General Secondary School (3 years), ages 15 to 18 • Certificate awarded: Tawjihiyah (General Secondary Education Certificate)

4. Technical, Junior College (3 years), ages 15 to 18 • Diploma awarded: Secondary Vocational School Diploma, Secondary Commercial School Diploma, SecondaryAgricultural School Diploma

Academic year: October to July

Languages of instruction: Arabic, English

Admission to university: Secondary school credential required: Tawjihiyah Minimum score/reqUirement: 75% for admission to science faculties; 75% for arts faculties. Entrance exams required.

.Grading system in secondary school: Description: 0-100%: 90-100, excellent; 75-89, very good; 60-74, good; 50-59, pass; 0-49, fail. Highest on scale: Passlfaillevel: Lowest on scale:

100% 50% 0%

NAMES

Among the various Muslim groups, certain names are avoided for historical reasons. For example, Ali is a very common name among Shi'a Muslims and not Sunni. Shi'a means the party ofAli, and his followers believe in religious affiliation attributed to direct descendants of Muhammad for


their spiritual leadership (an Imam), of which Ali was. Sunnis do not. Omar is a Sunni name that Shi'as would not use due to a dispute involving Omar.

Arabic naming patterns can be divided into seven categories: o Religious:

Muhammad, Musa, Ibrahim, Hassan, Ahmad Muslim children are named after the prophets and Muhammad's relatives, and in some countries, most of the Muslim male children are given the first name of Muhammad and then their given name (Syria and Afghanistan are such examples). Muslim girls are quite often named after the female relations of Muhammad.

o kunya, an honorific name for the parent of the child It is usually based on the 'first name of the eldest son. Abu Da'ud (the father of David), Umm Da'ud (the motherof David)

o nasab, a patronymic name ibn Da'ud (son of David), bint' Da'ud (daughter of David) The only notable exception is the use of a special matronymic, 'Isa ibn Maryam (Jesus, son of Mary).

o lakab, a combination of words into a hyphenated name It is usually religious in nature and relates to nature, or is a character trait the person wishes to aspire to. Abdullah (Servant of God), Haroon ai-Rashid (Aaron, the Righteous)

o Nickname or Pet name It is often chosen to avert the evil eye or the attention of evil jinns (genies).

o Trade, hisba It is derived from a person's trade or profession. Muhammad al-Hal/aj (Mohammed, the dresser of cotton)

o Geographical hisba, derived 'from the place of residence or birth. Yusuf al-Isfahani (Joseph of Isfahan)

Some names are a combination of all the above elements. Abu 'Abdullah Muhammad ibn Isma'il ibn Ibrahim ibh Mughirah al-Ju'fi al-Bukhari (father of Abdullah, Muhammad, the son of Ishmael, son ofAbraham, son of Mughirah, of the Ju'fi tribe, of Bukhara) was the compiler of the Hadith (Traditions and Sayings of the Prophet Muhammad).

At the time of the Middle Ages, names followed the pattern of honorific + personal name + hyphenated name: Abu 'Abdullah Muhammad ibn Isma'il ibn Ibrahim.

Names also included the phrases ai-Din (of the faith, Badr ai-Din), al-Dawla (of the state), alIslam (of Islam) and al-Mulk (of the kingdom), and were used almost exclusively by sultans, caliphs, viziers and others of high rank.

Some names are based on the Hadith. According to the sayings of Muhammad, "Call your children afteryour Prophet (Muhammad), but the names God likes best are Abdullah (the servant of God) 'Abd ai-Rahman (servant of the Merciful One), and the next best names are Haris (Husbandman) and Humam (High-minded)."


There is also the spelling of the name Muhammad or Mohamed, or Muhamed or Mohammad.... As written before, Arabic is a consonantal language, and so the name Muhammad is actually written as mhmd, with a diacritic written over the second m to indicate a double consonant. The problem lies in the Shaml, or colloquial Arabic, that the transcriber speaks, which could also be influenced by the country's ties to English or French. Thus, the added vowels will differ depending on the pattern chosen by the transcriber. This is seen whenever a non-Latin scripted language is transcribed into the Latin script.

Another ritual of Arab Muslims is the Tasmlyah, Name Giving Ceremony. On the seventh day of the birth of the child, the Adhan (the call to prayer), is whispered into his or her right ear; in the left ear, the Iqamah (the last waming for prayer), is whispered. This is to remind the child of his or her obligation to pray. Then, one of the many names for the Prophet Muhammad is chosen, or the suffix 'Abd (servant of) + one of the 99 names of God which appear in the Qu'ran.

EX: 'Abdrahman =servant ot God. CIRCUMCISION

A Muslim child is circumcised at the age of seven when he no longer needs the immediate care of his mother, and can now associate with other men, and so is of age to receive a formal education.

"rRADITIONAL MARRIAGE CUSTOMS

In traditional Arabic Islamic weddings, the guests receive presents at the ceremony. The groom provides the bride price that will become the property of the bride should they divorce. He also pays for the wedding. At a very religious ceremony, the women and men are separated and have separate festivities - this includes the bride and groom. To make a suitable match, a marriage broker is used. In traditional Gulf State countries, it is not uncommon for betrothals to occur at birth, and it is seen as a blessing and ordained by God that first cousins marry. However, as these countries have more interaction with the West, these givens are being questioned and challenged by younger generations.

CALENDAR

Many Arabic countries, due to trade with the West, will make use of the traditional Western solar calendar. However, the Islamic calendar is a 12-month lunar one. A month is the time between the two new moon, or crescent cycles. Each month begins at the start of a new moon. Each month has 29.5 days (364 days per year). Muharram is the month that begins the year and is sacred. Ramadan is the ninth month, which begins and ends with a crescent moon, and is the month for fasting from sunrise to sunset. No food nor water is to be consumed during those hours. Travelers, the infirm and pregnant women are exempted. During a woman's menstrual cycle, she cannot fast as she is considered to be "unclean" and will fast the days she has missed at another time in the year. Dhu- al-Hijja is the last month of the Islamic year.

The Islamic calendar is dated from Hijra, the migration of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina on July 16th, 622 CEo 2004 begins the year 1425 AH (Anno Hegira, the year ot Migration). Thus, 2004 would be written 1425 AH.

CELEBRATIONS

Friday is a day of rest, and schools, government offices and businesses close for the afternoon. The business week usually runs from Saturday to Wednesday with Thursday and Friday being the "weekend". During Ramadan, work stops in the afternoons.

4th century, alphabetic Arabic (At - As, Semitic, S-C, ) Arabia, Gulf States, North Atrica... Pg. 10

• Muharram starts the Islamic new year, and celebrates the Hijra, pilgrimage.

• Eid-ul-Adha, Festival of Sacrifice, is the most important holy day. It concludes with the act of pilgrimage and commemorates Abraham's offering of his son to God. It is this act of submission that makes Abraham the first Muslim (one who submits) for Muslims. The meat of sacrificed animals is distributed among the poor and needy.

• Mawled marks the birth of Muhammad.

• Lailat-al-Isra marks the ascension of Muhammad.

• Lailat-ul-Qadr, Night of Power, commemorates the first revelation of the Qu'ran to Muhammad in 610 CEo .

• Nisfu-Shabaan, middle of the month of Shabaan, Night of Repentance, is celebrated in preparation of the beginning of Ramadan. Two weeks later, on the sighting of the new moon, Ramadan begins.

• Ramadan is the fasting month.

• Eid-ul-Fitr, Festival of Breaking of the Fast, is the next most important holy day and marks the end of Ramadan.

LITERATURE/CULTURE

In many of the Arabic-speaking countries, the oral tradition of poetry is held in high esteem. The ultimate form lies in the reading of the Qu'ran.

Art is expressed through geometric shapes and mosaics. No images of humans nor animals are used in religious art to avoid idol worship. When human forms are depicted in miniatures or illuminated texts, the faces of religious figures and prophets are shown veiled. In more orthodox Islam, the use of a physical form is avoided as the creation of it by an artist would imply creation of an image of which God alone is solely capable.

Muslim students in North American and European art classes may show a reluctance to draw images, and others may even refuse to be photographed or filmed for the above reason.

Therefore, in place of drawn images, calligraphy has been raised to a fine religious art form, glorifying the texts from the Qu'ran. Calligraphy was brought to new heights. by the Sufis (religious mystics). The best Arabic calligraphers are from Pakistan.

A well-known Arabic poet in the West is the Lebanese poet and philosopher, Kahlil Gibran.

The ardha is Saudi Arabia's national dance. This sword dance is based on Bedouin traditions: drummers beat out the rhythm, a poet chants verses while sword wielding men dance shoulder to shoulder.

AI-sihba is folk music that originated in Arabian Andalucia in medieval Spain.


• KnowledgeIt is said that God delivered a book to the Arabs to acknowledge their reverence for the printed word. Muhammad was quoted as saying that "the ink of the scholars is worth more than the blood ofmartyrs" (Hadith).

Intellectual traditions were anchored in Islam. God's first commandment to Muhammad was iqrs, Recite! The most common word in the Qu'ran after Allah is the word ilm, knowledge. It was seen as the highest human endeavour. The Prophet Muhammad is also quoted as saying, 'fhe death of a scholar is the death of the universe". Intellectuals and scholars were highly-respected in the Islamic empire.

Imam Ali, the fourth Caliph of Islam and the founder of the Shi'ites, has also been quoted on knowledge:

(> If God were to humiliate a human being, he would deny him knowledge.

(> No wealth equals the mind, no poverty equals ignorance, no heritage equals culture, and no support is greater than advice.

(> Knowledge is superior to wealth. Knowledge guards you, whereas you guard wealth. Thanks to knowledge, you can eam people's respect during your lifetime, and kind memory after death. Knowledge rules over wealth. Those who treasure wealth perish while they are still alive, whereas scholars live forever; not only do they appear in physical image, but in hearts, their memories are enshrined.

It was due to this thirst and reverence for knowledge that much of the science, technology and philosophy knowledge was preserved and passed on to the West during the Islamic Empire's Golden Age, from the eighth to the 13th century.

AI-Mamun, a caliph from 813 to 833 CE, established the "House of Wisdomffranslation" (Baytat Hikma). He asked for Greek texts from the Byzantine emperor of the time, and had the works of Plato, Aristotle and their contemporaries translated from Greek and Aramaic into Arabic. They translated all these great works into Arabic, and used them to refine and develop other ideas before passing them on to Europe, which in turn used the acquired knowledge, and thus, was able to launch the Renaissance.

Arabic became the lingua franca of science, art, literature, philosophy, medicine, mathematics... Higher mathematics was only made possible by the Arabic contribution of the addition of the zero or null. Our numerical system is based on the Arabic one and not the Roman.

The Islamic empire also replaced papyrus with paper which they had learnt how to make from the East. By the ninth century, when Europe could only boast of its 36 volumes in a monastery in St. Gall, 500,000 volumes existed in Arabic in a library in Cordova. Many Christian, Jewish and Muslim academics came to study there and in Baghdad. At one point, these scholars studied more in Arabic than in Latin.

The Islamic empire was a world leader in algebra, astronomy, chemistry, mathematics, medicine, natural sciences, philosophy, physics as well as other disciplines.

Thus, it is truly a shame that the Arab world has fallen behind in this noble tradition. Sixty-five million Arabs still cannot read nor write. Ten million children are not schooled. Enrollment in postsecondary education is only at 13 percent. Only 1.2 percent of Arabs have computers, and only half of them can use the Internet. Investment in scientific research and development is seventh in


the world. The entire Arab world translates 300 books a year, only 20 percent of what Greece does in a year. In the last 1,000 years, Arabs have translated only as many books as Spain does in a year.

• Calligraphy The importance of writing can be seen in the similes used - the pen, human life in God's hand, and ink, the water of life.

For Arabic-scripted calligraphy, reed and brush pens (with 24 hairs from a donkey) are needed, scissors, a knife to cut the pens, an ink pot, a sharpening tool and paper.

The reed pen is called a qalam. The best reed pens are from the coastal regions of the Persian Gulf. They are a treasured and valued commodity traded across the Muslim world. Some have even been buried with famous calligraphers.

Ink is of many colours, but black and brown are the most common for their contrastive value. Ink made by Persians, Turks and Indians were the most treasured as they stayed fresher longer. Some ink was even perfumed.

Paper came to the Middle East from China via Samarkand. Paper was made from cotton and occasionally silk or other fibers, but not wood. Paper is polished and smoothed with an agate or jade before it is written on.

Geometry is essential to Arabic scripted calligraphy. It is based on proportions, which in turn, are based on the dimensions of the Alef, the first letter of the alphabet, which consists of a vertical line.

The calligrapher has to decide on the script she or he is using, and then proceed. Thus, the calligrapher has to consider three factors: height and width of the Alef and the imaginary circle. For the Naksh script, the Alef is five dots high; Thulufh, nine dots with a maddah (hook) of three dots on top. Each character then has a head, body and tail, and they are interrelated in position, direction and spacing.

The dot, which equals the square impression left by the tip of the reed pen when pressed on to the paper, becomes the unit of measurement.

The height of the Alef, depending on script style, could be three to 12 dots high. The width of the Alef is one dot across.

From there, the other letter shapes will be formed using this Alef odule (standard). The Alef is also used as the diameter of an imaginary circle.

OTHER

• Taj Mahallbuildings During the Mughal reign of Shah Jahan, the Taj Mahal was erected. The calligraphic inscriptions and geometric designs were made by the famous Iranian calligrapher, Amanat Khan from Shiraz. He is also credited with the Akbar mausoleum at Sikandra and Madrasah Shahi Mosque at Agra.

• Gift-giving Handkerchiefs are not given as gifts as they suggest parting or tears.


• Inventions (Islamic, not just Arabian) • experimental method in science to replace the Greek speculative method • telescope, by Adbul Hasan • pendulum, by Ibn Yunus (Egypt) • first watch, by Kutbi (Abbasid reign), given as gift to Charlemagne by Harun ai-Rashid • marine compass, adapted from Chinese needle to be used for navigation • astrolabe, by Muhammad Musa (Spain) • soap, by Arab chemists • windmills (Persia) • Giralda, first observatory in Europe, Seville • algebra, modified from the Greeks to become mathematical science • spherical trigonometry • zero, for mathematics • medical scientists: Razi (Persian), Avicenna (Persian), Alhazen • glass from stone, by Ibn Firnas • application of algebra to geometry

SOURCES/SUGGESTED REFERENCES

books: o Nine Parts ofDesire Brooks, Geraldine o The Prophet Gibran, Kahlil . o Le Prisonierre Oufkir, Malika o The Saudis Mackey, Sandra o Passion and Politics Mackey, Sandra o Princess Sasson, Jean P.

Cragg, Kennethl Islam from Within Speight, Marston

Dar Wa Maktabat AI Hilal The Guide to English Grammar 1986 .

Farah, Caesar E. Islam The New Encyclopaedia Vol. 22 15th Ed. Britannica

Toronto Star Arabs Betray Tradition of Learning SiddiqUi, Haroon July 11, 2002

Watt, W. Montgomery Muhammad· Prophet and Statesman

WEBSITES • cecilmarie.web.prw.net • krysstal.com • ciaworldbook.com • lonelyplanet.com • countrywatch.com • sakkal.com • ethnologue.ccom • sals.edulvital.htm • genealogy.about.com • unesco.org • islamicart.com • last-names.net

Linguistic/Cultural "ambassadors": Seza Sarimazian, Shahnaz Roohani


o - staff.wrdsb.castaff.wrdsb.ca/ell/files/2012/02/arabic-lang-profile.pdf · green o 1{;()2(lokm ....

Documents