ocean acidification, seafood, and food security · ocean acidification, seafood, and food security...
TRANSCRIPT
Ocean Acidification,
Seafood, and Food Security
Mark J. Spalding
President of The Ocean Foundation | CEO and President of SeaWeb
February 1, 2016
We Are Changing Ocean
Chemistry
Global Ocean Acidification
= Global Crises
Ocean Acidification Over Time
Global Ocean Acidification
Affects More Than The Ocean Creates Food
Security Issues
Stifles Development
No Poverty Alleviation
Refugee Crises
National Security
Terrorism Movements?
Photo Credit: Balazs Gardi, Flickr CC
Seafood = Food Security
Ocean Acidification and Food Security
• OA affects the very base of the food chain: the krill
and pteropods that bigger fish feed on that, in turn,
allow them to grow big enough for human
consumption.
• Eradicating the base of the food chain will have
rippling effects throughout the food webs that
depend on them.
• Coral reefs, very susceptible to the changing ocean
chemistry, are key to food security and the
economic well-being of developing countries
• Communities rely on reef fish and lobsters for their
livelihoods. When coral reefs are healthy, people
and communities are healthy.
Photo Credit: NOAA
• Commercial fish species are likely to experience direct physiological
changes that impact metabolism, growth and reproduction.
• The food web that supports commercial finfish is likely to be altered as the
prey at the bottom of the food chain declines (e.g., pteropods, which require
calcium carbonate structures).
• Coral reefs are harmed by lower pH, as are kelp forests and other habitats.
• Coastal upwelling of deep ocean water to the surface provides critical food
and nutrients for marine species AND can produce localized acidification.
Changes in ocean chemistry + water that is deeper and
warmer + shifting ocean currents + destructive fishing methods
= DISASTER
Ocean Acidification And Fisheries
Photo Credit: C. Wolcott Henry
Fishing & the Economy • Small-scale artisanal fisheries employ 90% of the world capture
fishers, and are important to food security and poverty alleviation.
• Fisheries in subsistence communities provide an income stream that enables the purchase of other staple foods like rice.
• Fisheries and aquaculture production, distribution and marketing employs 660-800 million people, representing 10- 12% of the world population.
• Seafood is a primary source of protein for one billion people
9
Photo Source: WorldFish, Flickr CC
OA & The Economy Ocean acidification will have direct costs on the world
economy
Commercial fishing
• Pteropods , which form the base of the food chain and are heavily affected by
OA, provide a food source for commercially caught fish, including salmon.
• OA puts commercially and culturally important species such as lobsters, clams
and oysters at risk.
Fishermen and the aquaculture industry
• A 2009 study found that mollusc sales could drop between $75 and $187 million
annually due to acidic ocean conditions.
Coral Reefs
• The most significant losses come from the erosion of coral reefs, which will cost
the world economy $1.09 trillion per year at the end of the century.
OA impacts on the food web will directly affect the seafood industry: both the calcifiers we harvest
(lobster, shrimp, scallops, crab, and oysters) and the pollock, salmon, and tuna. In fact, all of the
commercial fish species who feed on phytoplanktonic calcifiers.
Fisheries at Risk • Globally, 80% of fish catch are
from areas of high productivity
like upwelling zones and
continental shelf areas (which
make up less than 10% of the
ocean).
• Productivity hotspots are
projected to be extremely
vulnerable to ocean acidification.
• Fish stocks, already declining due
to overfishing and habitat
destruction, now face the threats
posed by OA.
Photo Cred: C. Ortiz Rojas, Wikimedia Commons
12
Fisheries at Risk
The world’s most productive fishing grounds are located in
major hotspots.
Source: UNEP 2010. UNEP Emerging Issues: Environmental Consequences of Ocean Acidification: A Threat to Food Security.
Commercial Fishery At Risk:
Molluscs & Crustaceans • Every life stage of a mollusc is affected by ocean pH
• Lower pH reduces larvae survival and hampers shell
growth in the survivors
• Molluscs and crustaceans comprise 22.8% and
9.7% of of the world production of farmed species,
respectively, representing $15.857 billion and
$30.864 billion.
• Molluscs are food for commercial fish such as
haddock, halibut, herring, flounder and cod. Clams,
scallops, mussels, oysters, abalone and conchs
provide direct protein sources for island and coastal
communities and are valuable commercial fisheries.
Molluscs account for 7% of the global marine catch and
crustaceans account for 6%.
Three examples of damage to oyster
larvae from ocean water acidity and low
available carbonate, compared with
healthy larvae on left. Micrograph by OSU.
Commercial Fishery At Risk:
Wild Salmon
Some effects of OA on salmon1: • If pteropods decline, a key food source, there is a
good chance we could see a collapse in salmon
fisheries, a keystone species.
• Hatchling and juvenile salmon exposed to higher
levels of CO2 were significantly smaller than those
raised at today’s levels. Smaller fish are at higher risk
of predation in streams and as they enter the ocean.
• The olfactory sense of the salmon seemed to be
impaired at higher CO2 levels, making the fish less
likely to respond to the proximity of a predator, putting
them in further danger.
• Freshwater and ocean acidification stunts growth of
developing pink salmon
• When ocean acidity increases due to increased CO2,
the neurological pathways in their brains are affected
1Nature Climate Change 5, 950–955 (2015)
Most of these impacts are
not unique to salmon, but
rather most commercial
finfish.
Austin Gallagher/Marine Photobank
Commercial Fishery At Risk:
Farmed Salmon
Some effects of OA on salmon 1:
• Salmon aquaculture is the fastest growing
food production system in the world—
accounting for 70 percent (2.4 million metric
tons) of the market.
• In-water penned salmon have slower
growth rates, and lower resistance to
pathogens
• Sources for fish meal may be adversely
affected by raising costs
• Some concern has been raised about
nutrition/taste of salmon and other finfish in
warming, lower pH waters
1Nature Climate Change 5, 950–955 (2015)
Most of these impacts are
not unique to salmon, but
rather most farmed finfish.
Photo Credit: NOAA
Commercial Species At Risk:
Shrimp
Shrimp is the most valuable traded marine product
in the world today.
In 2005, farmed shrimp was a 10.6 billion industry.
Today, production is growing at an approximate
rate of 10 percent annually—one of the highest
growth rates in aquaculture.
Philip Chou/SeaWeb/Marine Photobank
Commercial Species At Risk: Shrimp
1 First Evidence of Altered Sensory Quality in a Shellfish Exposed to Decreased pH Relevant to Ocean Acidification, Journal of Shellfish Research 33(3):857-861. 2014
2 Effects of CO2-induced pH reduction on the exoskeleton structure and biophotonic properties of the shrimp Lysmata californica, Scientific Reports 5(10608). 2015
• Rising ocean acidification is likely to
cause wild shrimp stress and
negatively alter their taste.1
• Increase in carbon dioxide in
seawater could lead to a decrease in
transparency of shrimp
exoskeletons.2
• Larval and small juvenile shrimp are
vulnerable to spikes in OA
• Food supply for larval and small
juveniles diminishes in low pH
waters
Philip Chou/SeaWeb/Marine Photobank
Some effects of OA on
shrimp:
Trade & Commerce
• One study estimated that if the slowed shell growth predicted
for 2100 had occurred in 2006, mollusc fisheries nation-wide
would have lost between $75-$187 million.2
1Oysters in deep trouble: Is Pacific Ocean’s chemistry killing sea life? Seattle Times, 14 June, 2009. Reported by Craig Welch,
http:://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2009336458_oysters14m.html 2Cooley, S. R. and S. C. Doney (2009). Anticipating ocean acidification’s economic consequences for commercial fisheries.
Environmental Research Letters, 4024007
• OA also poses a threat to international
commerce and trade in shellfish and
crustaceans.
• In the US Northwest, OA is already
costing the shellfish industry millions of
dollars and threatening hundreds of jobs.
• On the West Coast, the oyster industry
alone accounts for $111 million.1
National Security
Food insecurity can result in international security concerns
that emerge from competition over basic good resources,
forced migration and growing number of refugees.
When food access is restricted or denied, food insecurity
can become a catalyst of social unrest.
Terrorism
Will such refugee crises further feed
terrorism movements?
Solutions Global actions can help mitigate the effects
of ocean acidification
Photo Credit: Beth Scupham, Flickr CC
Solutions
• Address the root cause of the problem by linking OA to CO2
emissions
• Address co-occurring stressors that exacerbate ocean
acidification
• Maintain and enhance resilience in natural systems
• Experiment with methods such as habitat restoration and
phytoremediation
22
Photo Credit: Ian Britton, Flickr CC
Solutions
Photo Credit: Fabi Fliervoet Flickr CC
• Monitor environmental condition at
scales appropriate to management
objectives
• Education and outreach
• Reduce land-based sources of
marine pollution
• Move towards renewable energy
sources
• And, we can support
supplemental ways to establish
(sea)food security, such as
sustainable aquaculture
Addressing Ocean
Acidification • Reversing the rate of ocean acidification requires
addressing the problem on both a global and local scale.
• We need governance and a path for sustainable marine development.
• It is urgent that we address these threats.
• NGOs, industry leaders, governments, and other stakeholders must all work together in order to make a meaningful impact.
Photo Credit: Fernando Bretos, CMRC
Sustainable
Aquaculture • Planning to meet future
demand for seafood requires
collaboration, research, and
planning for aquaculture
expansion on land.
• We need to make sure
aquaculture is sustainable
because it’s already over half
our global consumption and it
will be more.
We cannot afford to have these
operations further harm our
ocean nor collapse when
needed most.
Abalone
farm
cages:
Gerick
Bergsma
2010/Marin
e
Photobank
Mollusc farm in WA:
Kathryn Townsend/Marine Photobank
Issues As Big As The Ocean
• In a system as big as the ocean, the complexity
of the threats it faces are daunting.
• Preserving the ocean requires major shifts in
long-standing beliefs and habits, reinforced by
agreed-upon, defensible, and enforceable legal
constraints.
• There needs to be a
collaborative,
international and
interagency response.
We All Play A Role
Philanthropists Provide Funding
NGOs Move the Needle on Public Opinion
National Government is
Spurred to Action
New National Laws
International Governments are Spurred to
Action
Photo Credit: C. Wolcott Henry
Partnership • All of us working on OA need partnerships with universities and
researchers
• We need to work with them to make sure their research is
– Interdisciplinary
– Action-oriented (urgency)
– Solution oriented (local and global)
• For example, the Washington Ocean
Acidification Center was established in July
2013 under direction from the Washington
State Legislature and Governor Inslee:
- The Center is led by the College of the Environment at the University of
Washington and includes faculty and staff from multiple departments and
disciplines.
- It allows the necessary fostering of connections among researchers,
policymakers, industry, and others.
Photo Credit: CEUW
GOA-ON
• The Ocean Foundation, along with local partners and through our work with the Global Ocean Acidification Observing Network (GOA-ON), is studying the problem and helping local and international leaders address ocean acidification.
• We are partnering with international, regional, and national climate and ocean acidification thought-leaders where there is momentum and opportunity at the state level (and that could also significantly influence the national discussion).
TOF’s Friends of GOA-ON
• Friends of GOA-ON will support the Network directly and indirectly
with grants and services.
• Provide financial resources to help deploy scientific ocean
observing systems throughout the world, especially in regions of
high vulnerability to ocean acidification.
• Additionally, it will provide financial and in-kind support to train
scientists from around the world, especially those in countries and in
areas that lack observation coverage.
• We have the means and encourage those involved in the
aquaculture operations to share relevant data to further our
understanding of ocean acidification.
TOF’s SeaGrass Grow
Seagrass meadows protect nearby coral reefs and other calcium-based organisms from the
effects of ocean acidification.
SeaGrass Grow • We created the SeaGrass Grow campaign to protect and restore
seagrass habitats and provide voluntary opportunities to naturally
offset greenhouse gas emissions in the ocean – known as “Blue
Carbon”
• Blue carbon can be quantified and its economic value can be
calculated, similar to how forests are currently traded as carbon
credits.
• The revenue from a blue carbon credit mechanism can then be
used to fund restoration efforts, which in turn generate more
credits.
• Corporations and individuals can use our
Blue Carbon Calculator (relaunched in
January 2016) to calculate their footprint and
offset it by helping fund seagrass restoration
projects.
European Project on Ocean
Acidification (2008-2012)
The EPOCA consortium
brought together more than
160 researchers from 32
institutes and 10 European
countries. It produced a
book (Ocean Acidification)
which includes best
practices.
MedSeA Project (2011-2014)
This project included 13 institutes from 10 nations to
assess the chemical, climatic, ecological, biological, and
economical changes of the Mediterranean Sea driven
by increases in CO2 and other greenhouse gases.
“Alkalinity is always much higher than in the Atlantic
waters, which might indicate a higher than usual
buffering capacity towards ocean acidification, even at
high concentrations of dissolved inorganic carbon.”
Further Studies Elsewhere
• Work under way in India to monitor pH.
• Studies under way in Indian Ocean to determine
impacts of OA on fisheries and livelihood of coastal
communities.
• Indonesia estimates that 40% of its fishing jobs are at
risk from OA, as well as its current self-sufficiency in
fish production.
• Concern throughout the Pacific that OA threatens
recovery from extreme coral bleaching events such as
the 2014-2015 event.
Conclusion
Photo Credit: Fernando Bretos, CMRC
OA is Happening NOW…
• OA is happening now, is measurable, and will increase as
more CO2 is emitted!
• OA is occurring alongside other climate-related ocean
stressors, like ocean warming, sea-level rise, and changes
in frequency and severity of storm events.
• These stressors are compounded by non-climate related
impacts, like overfishing and pollution, adding pressure to
an already strained marine environment.
…So We Need to Act NOW! • We need to invest in addressing the
problem now, rather than wait and try to
respond to the upheaval caused by
individual crises.
• Restoration of degraded ocean
ecosystems creates jobs and is part of the
“Blue Economy.”
• Restoration of the ocean’s resilience and
ability to take up carbon has immediate
economic benefits: – Habitat for fish
– Natural storm buffering
– Protects existing shellfish-related jobs
– Increases food security
Progress
Globally, tens of thousands of people are
working to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions at the international, national and
local levels.
NGOs are working with key decision-makers
to share and introduce legislation to address
ocean acidification at every level.
Together we can collect data, raise
awareness, protection and ocean
stewardship, towards a more secure world.
On our Ocean Acidification Initiative resource
page you can learn about the work we are doing
to research and understand OA in order to
mitigate its effects.
https://www.oceanfdn.org/resources/ocean-
acidification
@oceanfdn The Ocean Foundation @theoceanfoundation
THANK YOU
oceanfdn.org
Mark J. Spalding: [email protected]
Ocean acidification
what can we do about it?
Phil Williamson Natural Environment Research Council & Univ of East Anglia UK Ocean Acidification research programme: Science Coordinator
Malta 1 Feb 2016
Ocean acidification
what can we do about it?
1. Reduce emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2)
2. Improve scientific understanding
3. Monitor changing ocean chemistry
– and biological response
Malta 1 Feb 2016
Ocean acidification
what can we do about it?
1. Reduce emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2)
2. Improve scientific understanding
3. Monitor changing ocean chemistry
– and biological response
4. Aquaculture: remedial responses
Malta 1 Feb 2016
Where we were heading
for: “business as usual”
Effect of different IPCC CO2 emission scenarios on future ocean acidification
Good news: we’ve
(probably) averted the worst Paris Agreement: 21st Conference of Parties of
UN Convention on Climate Change, December 2015
“…hold increase in global average temperature to well below 2⁰C”
“… pursue efforts to limit increase to 1.5⁰C” “…achieve balance between anthropogenic emissions by sources and
removals by sinks of greenhouse gases in the
second half of this century”
Reduce emissions of CO2
Where we were heading
for: “business as usual”
Effect of different IPCC CO2 emission scenarios on future ocean acidification
National commitments
(INDCs)* made at Paris
Good news: we’ve
(probably) averted the worst Paris Agreement: 21st Conference of Parties of
UN Convention on Climate Change, December 2015
“…hold increase in global average temperature to well below 2⁰C”
“… pursue efforts to limit increase to 1.5⁰C” “…achieve balance between anthropogenic emissions by sources and
removals by sinks of greenhouse gases in the
second half of this century”
*Intended Nationally-Determined
Contributions (for emission reduction)
Reduce emissions of CO2
Where we
would like to be
Where we were heading
for: “business as usual”
Effect of different IPCC CO2 emission scenarios on future ocean acidification
Good news: we’ve
(probably) averted the worst Paris Agreement: 21st Conference of Parties of
UN Convention on Climate Change, December 2015
“…hold increase in global average temperature to well below 2⁰C”
“… pursue efforts to limit increase to 1.5⁰C” “…achieve balance between anthropogenic emissions by sources and
removals by sinks of greenhouse gases in the
second half of this century”
*Intended Nationally-Determined
Contributions (for emission reduction)
Reduce emissions of CO2
National commitments
(INDCs)* made at Paris
"We recommend a major international research effort be launched into this relatively new area of research". Royal Society report on ocean acidification (2005)
The research community responds to the challenge
240 papers
on OA
Data from OA-ICC, also ISI World of Science searches by Howard Browman
~300 papers
on OA between
2005 and 2009
2009-10: Start of
many national and
international OA
research programmes
Improve scientific understanding
240 papers
on OA
> 2000 papers
on OA
Data from OA-ICC; also ISI World of Science searches by Howard Browman
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0 2
00
1
20
02
2
00
3
20
04
20
05
20
06
20
07
20
08
20
09
20
10
20
11
20
12
20
13
20
14
>2000 papers
on OA up to
end of 2014
More than 6-fold increase in number of OA publications in past 5 years
~300 papers
on OA between
2005 and 2009
"We recommend a major international research effort be launched into this relatively new area of research". Royal Society report on ocean acidification (2005)
The research community responds to the challenge
Improve scientific understanding
USA 644
UK 309
Germany 264
Australia 240
France 106
China 96
Japan 76
Sweden 66
Canada 71
Italy 53
New Zealand 45
Norway
38
Spain
50
Netherlands
37
Israel
27
Switzerland
21
Portugal
25 Monaco
16
Belgium
22
Korea
17
India
11
Denmark
9
Finland
7
Greece
7 Mexico
8
Chile
12
Poland
6
Ocean acidification publications 2005-14 OA-ICC* data based on first authors' addresses
*OA-ICC: Ocean Acidification International Coordination Centre, hosted by IAEA in Monaco
Improve scientific understanding
USA 644
UK 309
Germany 264
Australia 240
France 106
China 96
Japan 76
Sweden 66
Canada 71
Italy 53
New Zealand 45
Norway
38
Spain
50
Netherlands
37
Israel
27
Switzerland
21
Portugal
25 Monaco
16
Belgium
22
Korea
17
India
11
Denmark
9
Finland
7
Greece
7 Mexico
8
Chile
12
Poland
6 UKOA EU: EPOCA
& MedSEA
BIOACID
US OA
program
Wider collaboration and coordination provides mutual benefit
Improve scientific understanding
USA 644
UK 309
Germany 264
Australia 240
France 106
China 96
Japan 76
Sweden 66
Canada 71
Italy 53 Spain
50
Netherlands
37
Israel
27
Switzerland
21
Portugal
25 Monaco
16
Belgium
22
Korea
17
India
11
Denmark
9
Finland
7
Greece
7 Mexico
8
Poland
6
IPCC
CBD IGBP Importance of reviews, assessments & syntheses
US OA
program
UKOA
BIOACID
EU: EPOCA
& MedSEA
Improve scientific understanding
… and communicate more widely
2 July 2015 The Oceans are DYING
Not true! Although based
on Gattuso et al
(2015) Science
349
… and communicate more widely
Improve scientific understanding
2 July 2015 The Oceans are DYING
6 August 2015 Are climate scientists doom-mongering?
Bulk of research on impacts of ocean acidification
is FLAWED, new study finds
Not true either! Although based on Cornwall
& Hurd (2015) ICES J Mar Sci
Not true! Although based
on Gattuso et al
(2015) Science
349
… and communicate more widely
Improve scientific understanding
Peters et al (2012) The challenge to keep global warming below 2⁰C. Nature Climate Change (online 2 Dec)
CO
2 in
atm
osp
her
e (p
pm
) increased CO2 in the atmosphere…
Hawaii (Mauna Loa) South Pole
IPCC (2013) WG I, Summary for Policymakers, www.ipcc.ch
Monitor changing ocean chemistry
Peters et al (2012) The challenge to keep global warming below 2⁰C. Nature Climate Change (online 2 Dec)
… increases CO2 in the upper ocean C
O2 in
up
per
oce
an (
μat
m)
CO2 in Atlantic Ocean CO2 in Pacific Ocean
CO
2 in
atm
osp
her
e (p
pm
)
IPCC (2013) WG I, Summary for Policymakers, www.ipcc.ch
Monitor changing ocean chemistry
Peters et al (2012) The challenge to keep global warming below 2⁰C. Nature Climate Change (online 2 Dec)
… and decreases upper ocean pH (increases H+)
8.12
8.09
8.06
IPCC (2013) WG I, Summary for Policymakers, www.ipcc.ch
pH in Atlantic Ocean pH in Pacific Ocean
CO
2 in
up
per
oce
an (
μat
m)
CO
2 in
atm
osp
her
e (p
pm
)
pH
Monitor changing ocean chemistry
Peters et al (2012) The challenge to keep global warming below 2⁰C. Nature Climate Change (online 2 Dec)
pH
8.12
8.09
8.06
IPCC (2013) WG I, Summary for Policymakers, www.ipcc.ch
pH in Atlantic Ocean pH in Pacific Ocean
CO
2 in
up
per
oce
an (
μat
m)
CO
2 in
atm
osp
her
e (p
pm
) how will that change in future? ?
?
Monitor changing ocean chemistry
acidic more H+
Deep sea vents
Surface seawater
Alkaline lakes
pH scale: logarithmic
1 0 3 2 5 4 7 6 9 8 10 12 11 14 13
0.3 decrease in pH = doubling of H+ concentration
decrease is considered to be "acidification" wherever on the scale it occurs
Ocean acidification: increase in hydrogen ions
basic less H+
Monitor changing ocean chemistry
increase
Increased CO2 and H+ affect the 'carbonate chemistry' system
Monitor changing ocean chemistry
increase
increase
decrease
increase Carbonate CO32 -
0 +100 +200 +300
% change in atmos CO2 %
ch
an
ge
in g
lob
al su
rfa
ce o
ce
an
-
100
0
+
10
0 +
20
0
Hydrogen ions
H+ (acidity)
Bicarbonate
HCO3+
Data from Royal Society
OA report (2005)
Increased CO2 and H+ affect the 'carbonate chemistry' system
Monitor changing ocean chemistry
increase
increase
decrease
increase
HCO3+
CO32 -
0 +100 +200 +300
% change in atmos. CO2 %
ch
an
ge
in g
lob
al su
rfa
ce o
ce
an
-
100
0
+
10
0 +
20
0
Affects 'omega' (Ω), carbonate saturation state
when Ω < 1.0, unprotected CaCO3 dissolves with effect greatest at cold temperatures
H+ (acidity)
Increased CO2 and H+ affect the 'carbonate chemistry' system
Monitor changing ocean chemistry
increase
increase
decrease
increase CO32 -
0 +100 +200 +300
% change in atmos. CO2 %
ch
an
ge
in g
lob
al su
rfa
ce o
ce
an
-
100
0
+
10
0 +
20
0
H+ (acidity)
• many factors affect carbonate chemistry particularly in coastal waters
• pH is not easy to measure directly it is usually calculated
• organisms can respond to any of these changes and biological
responses can be highly variable
River inputs
Photosynthesis
Respiration
Upwelling
HCO3+
Increased CO2 and H+ affect the 'carbonate chemistry' system
Monitor changing ocean chemistry
pH pH
Seawater pH can vary spatially at scale of metres (water depth) and km (local/regional)
pH (total) 25 C
7.2 7.4 7.6 7.8 8.0
Depth
(m
)
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
Float 7672
HOT 2009/11
Float 8514
pH
surface seafloor
North Sea survey,
summer 2011 Greenwood &
Pearce/Cefas
Argo profiling float in
central Pacific Johnson et al
pH
Monitor changing ocean chemistry
Findlay et al: unpublished
pH at L4 site off Plymouth
2008-2015
Monitor changing ocean chemistry
Seawater pH changes seasonally – as well as long-term trend (driven by atmospheric CO2)
Monitor changing ocean chemistry
Globally-coordinated effort to measure ocean acidification – and its biological impacts
Direct effects of
CO2 and pH Indirect effects on:
Community
processes
Food web &
biodiversity
changes
Coastal protection
Climate
processes
Ecosystems Ecosystem services
An
ima
ls, p
lan
ts &
mic
rob
es
P
eo
ple
(co
sts
& v
alu
es
)
CO2 increase
Biogeo-
chemical
processes
Impacts on
organisms
(positive &
negative)
Impacts on chemistry
Monitor changing ocean chemistry … and biological impacts
Direct effects of
CO2 and pH Indirect effects on:
Impacts on organisms Community
processes
Food web and biodiversity changes
DMS, dimethylsulphide; DMSP, dimethylsulphoniopropionate; Ω, CaCO3 saturation state.
Williamson & Turley (2011), after Tyrrell
Photosynthesis
Respiration, energetics
and growth
C:N and C:P ratios
N2 fixation and
nitrification
Sulphur metabolism
(affecting DMSP & DMS)
Decrease in abundance
of commercially-exploited
fish and shellfish
Changes in assemblage
or abundance of:
• primary producers
• secondary producers
• decomposers
• habitat-structuring organisms
Decrease in food quality
Reduced biogenic CaCO3
production
Biogeochemical processes
Change in dissolved
DMS
Reproduction,
behaviour and survival
Impacts on chemistry Reduced Ω, shoaling
of saturation horizon
Calcification
Reduced resilience to
other environmentalpressures
Biodiversity loss due to
reductions in reef habitat
Increased CaCO3
dissolution
Coastal protection Increased erosion due to
reductions in reef habitat
Climate processes
Reduced strength of
biological carbon pump
Change in N2O and
DMS release affecting
climate forcing
Changes in dissolved
NOx and NH3
Ecosystems Ecosystem services
CO2 increase
Peo
ple
(co
sts
& v
alu
es
) A
nim
als
, p
lan
ts &
mic
rob
es
Monitor changing ocean chemistry … and biological impacts
Direct effects of
CO2 and pH Indirect effects on:
Impacts on organisms Community
processes
Food web and biodiversity changes
DMS, dimethylsulphide; DMSP, dimethylsulphoniopropionate; Ω, CaCO3 saturation state.
Williamson & Turley (2011), after Tyrrell
Photosynthesis
Respiration, energetics
and growth
C:N and C:P ratios
N2 fixation and
nitrification
Sulphur metabolism
(affecting DMSP & DMS)
Decrease in abundance
of commercially-exploited
fish and shellfish
Changes in assemblage
or abundance of:
• primary producers
• secondary producers
• decomposers
• habitat-structuring organisms
Decrease in food quality
Reduced biogenic CaCO3
production
Biogeochemical processes
Change in dissolved
DMS
Reproduction,
behaviour and survival
Impacts on chemistry Reduced Ω, shoaling
of saturation horizon
Calcification
Reduced resilience to
other environmentalpressures
Biodiversity loss due to
reductions in reef habitat
Increased CaCO3
dissolution
Coastal protection Increased erosion due to
reductions in reef habitat
Climate processes
Reduced strength of
biological carbon pump
Change in N2O and
DMS release affecting
climate forcing
Changes in dissolved
NOx and NH3
Ecosystems Ecosystem services
CO2 increase
Peo
ple
(co
sts
& v
alu
es
) A
nim
als
, p
lan
ts &
mic
rob
es
Monitor changing ocean chemistry … and biological impacts
Seattle
Aquaculture: specific remedial responses
Where pH is naturally low (e.g. US Pacific coast, due to upwelling), water treatment may improve survival in oyster hatcheries
Millpoint Aquaculture, NC
San Francisco
San Francisco
Seattle
Aquaculture: specific remedial responses
Where pH is naturally low (e.g. US Pacific coast, due to upwelling), water treatment may improve survival in oyster hatcheries
Millpoint Aquaculture, NC
Unlikely to be viable for
'open sea' aquaculture or
capture fisheries
