Groups Positives/Negatives

FB 1865-72AAs were technically free but homeless/unemployed -> FB set up by government to find

homes/jobs/food/education/medicine. Howard –> war hero -> genuinely wanted to help AAs -> supported Unis+created UoW for AAs. Minority -> 95% illiterate AA/15% whites. Closed in 72 -> RR’s declined in Congress as

Reconstruction ended

KKK - 1865

Forrest created to enforce segregation through fear/disfranchise AAs to take Republican votes -> mentality that white dominance was ‘God-given’. Violence (66 Memphis – 50 killed/67 Orleans – 100 injured) unprecedented/terror

remained. 1915 REVIVAL -> widened target to all non-WASPs and supporters. Membership; 100,000 in 21 -> 5 million in 24 -> openly parading/beating/murdering. 30 -> 30,000 members remained because of lack of threats to

supremacy.

NAACP - 190908 Springfield Riot -> 84 yo AA lynched -> Du Bois+others created NAACP. Eager for white members to prove racial

supremacy ideals wrong. Peaceful/constitutional. Long-term, slow successes for individuals. SC backing. Inspired NUL to focus on social issues. Leaders were white/unable to connect to everyday AAs. Lynching campaign – unsuccessful

but decreased acts. Members -> 20; 90,000. 30; 50,000. 45; accused of Communism -> involvement dropped.

UNIA – 1916-25Garvey took advantage of post-war climate to introduce UNIA into US to improve AA economic prospects/white

acceptance/independence. Ideas appealed to everyday AAs -> thought integration would fail. Lacked strategy/money/tensions calmed/KKK meeting/TU+NAACP opposition. Set tone for Black Power but less important

after Garvey’s deportation.

SCLC – 1957Reacted to events not (NAACP) individuals. Staged Sin Ins/Freedom Rides/Marches. Non-violent but confrontational – authorities had to act (if violently – caught on TV. If not – segregation has ended). By 61 – 810 southern towns were

desegregated. Declined after MLK’s death.

Black Panthers – 1966Black Power group -> national attention because of parades/uniforms against police brutality. Declined in 69 after

police shot-outs. Founded by Newton/Seale -> Seale continued to fight for AA economic/social justice. 10 Point Programme (all-AA juries). Showed how broken CR movement was – other groups couldn’t get white support because

of militant style but brought back Garveyeque views of pride in heritage.

Freedman’s Bureau – 1865-18721) Background:• Apart from voting/a few politicians,

most AAs had no political role.• Most were technically free but

homeless/unemployed.• Set up by federal government to aid

AAs in finding homes/employment and providing food, education and medicine with Congressional funding.

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

2) General Howard 1830-1909:• Surprising success under Howard

who was noted for his military success in the war with one arm and a genuine interest in AAs welfare.

• Supported universities and created the University of Washington to further advance AAs – it trained future lawyers/scientists/teachers

• Was only the minority: 1890, 95% of AA school age children were illiterate compared to 15% of white.

3) End:• Decline of RR at end of Reconstruction

in Congress in 1872 was a sign that the north were losing interest.

• AAs were left to poverty because of poor education and no de facto CRs.

• Some moved to southern cities but numbers remained small.

• Housing remained primitive and educational support was withdrawn at the Bureau’s end.

• Fear of violence was high.

Ku Klux Klan - 1865 CIVILIAN GROUPKKK 1920’s revival

1) Background:• Segregation was de facto, but was becoming

de jure with educational segregation an insight to white mentality (AAs corrupting white children and unable to appreciate such high teaching levels).

• AAs relied on places of worship to escape and that became the place for most campaigners and self-help groups.

2) Nathan Forrest:• Created the KKK to use terror not

encouragement to enforce segregation in 1965, Tennessee.

• Opposed enfranchised AAs voting Republican to guarantee white supremacy as their domination was ‘God given’.

• Violence to AAs/supporters was unprecedented and although this wave dwindled quickly, the terror remained.

• Example:• Memphis 1866; 3 days of violence after

AA/white carriage crash. Ended with 46 dead and 5 raped.

• New Orleans 1867: attack on AA voters. Ended with 34 dead and 100 injured.

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People - 1909

CIVILIAN GROUPNAACP in 40s

NAACP SC cases by 41NAACP IN 1945-55

1) 1908 Springfield Riot:• Serious race riot in Illinois which began

over rape allegations.• Police refused to hand over AA – white

residents rioted/attacked/burned AA homes/businesses.

• Most AAs fled the city.• 84 year old AA Donnegan was lynched

over the crime of being married to a white women for 32 years.

• Not the violence that caused change, but location – Lincoln lived/died there and Donnegan was rumoured to be his shoe maker.

2) Impact:• As a direct response, Du Bois teamed up with

other prominent AA leaders at the New York National Conference of the Negro to form first proper, national AA CR organisation.

• They issued a passionate enunciation of this treatment.

• Du Bois was eager (unlike Trotter) for white members as he was convinced that the scientific community were realising racial superiority was stupid and the group gained many supporters of both races.

• It remained a peaceful and Constitutional organisation.

• Successes were not spectacular but important in the long-term.

3) NAACP operation:• Aim was to investigate then publicise racism, then make

legal solutions to enforce the law/Constitution to ensure CRs.

• Adopted a constitutional approach to lawsuits as though persecution was against constitutional amendments.

• BACK BY SUPREME COURT: Guinn vs. US stated that the Grandfather clause was unconstitutional.

4) 1911 Nation Urban League:• Early NAACP successes inspired

development of the NUL to focus on AA welfare in north.

• Although not a CR campaign group/no southern power, the NUL did campaign against housing/job discrimination.

5) Du Bois:• Despite Du Bois, most early NAACP leaders were

white which lead to race-cooperation questions which continued into the 1960s.

• Played crucial role by editing magazine for 20+ years to increase awareness.

Marcus Garvey 1887-1940CIVILIAN

CAMPAIGNER

1) Garvey state-side (1916):• He exploited WWI social changes briefly and

efficiently after arriving from Jamaica • Rapidly gained dynamic followers within a year

but downfall was just as fast. • Main AA leader for those years and although his

policies did not have immediate affects, they shaped next generation of campaigners by creating ‘Black Power’.

2) Ideals:• Inspired by BTW’s TI, he created the 1914

Universal Negro Improvement Association in Jamaica to go further than BTW and improve economic prospect/white acceptance/AAs taking control of problems.

• Saw the only solution to move back to Africa but was vague on details. Short term, believe AAs should focus on building education/businesses/pride in being AAs.

3) UNIA:• Aim; to campaign for equal rights and the

independence of AAs rather than absorption into melting pot.

• Did not ask for government help, but told AAs to develop their own means of salvation through self-help groups/own industries/factories.

4) Why successful:• In tense atmosphere, his movement made

progress.• His 1917 Harlem speech was cheered and he

moved his base to NY.• Made use of growing interest in AA newspapers to

laugh ‘The Negro World’, funded by northern AA middle-class.

• Talented speaker.• Aided by BTWs death and post-war tensions.• Idea that AAs had to be proud of heritage appealed

to ghetto AAs as they could relate.• Disagreed with Du Bois that integration would work

which also appealed to poor AAs who felt true equality would never happen.

• Black Eagle Star Steamship line (4 ships) to raise capital was popular but then became broke.

5) Why failure:• Lacked political strategy/more bothered with

fancy ventures than immediate social and economic problems.

• Ran out of money.• As immediate post-war tensions calmed, so did

support.• Suspicion increased when he talked to the KKK

in 1922 and colleague (Easton) was murdered soon after.

• ‘Garvey Must Go’ – attack in popular magazines. AA TU/NAACP opponents created Friends of Negro Freedom to highlight his failures.

• Arrested in 1925 and deported in 1929 on release back to Jamaica – leaving AA CR behind.

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People - 1909

CIVILIAN GROUPNAACP beginning

NAACP SC cases by 41NAACP IN 1945-55

1) Background:• Southern AAs were to busy surviving to

become campaigners and didn’t have the skills because of poor education.

• Whites were worried that northern campaigners would pass federal anti-lynching laws which they would have to obey.

• Growing AA middle-class got opportunity for AA lead mass movement and Oscar de Priest was the 1st AA to be elected into Congress since 1900 in 1928, but he was alone.

2) Post-war impact:• NAACP embodied AA campaigning after

Garvey’s arrest. Led by both races, was a more vigorous legal campaign that BTW’s.

• National, it focused on CR not social conditions

• 1920s Secretary (James Johnson) targeted changes in desegregation, voting and education; continued by 1930s leader Walter White.

3) Policies:• Races should live/work/be educated

together. Would take federal/Supreme Court rulings to make changes.

• Non-violent, raising money to defend accused AA rioters.

• Lobbying, not mass action. Campaigned unsuccessfully for anti-lynching laws but it did raise awareness nationwide and decreased lynching.

• Growth rose rapidly after 1915 – by 1920, it has 90,000 members but that decreased to 50,000 in 1930.

• Developed reputation of caution and bureaucratic outlook.

• Run by middle-class and so failed to relate to working class

4) North situation:• Opposition was normally peaceful in north, but whole

southern population was violent towards it, discouraging leaders from speaking out.

• Its only successes were winning court cases; in the tragedy of Arkansas 1919, after 2 white men where shot in discussions, mobs of whites attacked the AA community and all AAs were arrested/killed (death toll from 20-250). NAACP appealed to SC to overrule convictions.

KKK revivalCIVILIAN GROUPKKK beginning

1) Background:• Showed southern attitudes to

AAs.• Revival in 1915 in Atlanta,

Georgia by William Simmons 1880-1945 (followed old Klan ideas but did introduce new features like burning crosses as a sign of KKK activity).

• Communist growth aided revival.

• 1915 film The Birth of a Nation glorified old Klan and presented a brutal stereotype of AAs.

• 1922 – Hiram Evans 1881-1966 (widened target of hatred to other races/religions that were not White Anglo-Saxon Protestants) took over.

• Created view of AAs as pitiable creatures, who’s threat level was less that Catholics/Jews/Communists.

• Split Democrat Party in south.

2) Support:• North: group remained shady and had

limited support.• South: its views on capitalism, religion and

‘traditional’ American virtues increased its membership to over 5 million by 1924 from 100,000 in 1921.

• Hooded members openly paraded, burned crosses, intimidated, beat, mutilated and murdered victims.

• 1930 – 30,000 members remained as segregation/white way of life went unthreatened.

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People - 1909

CIVILIAN GROUPNAACP beginning

NAACP SC cases by 41

1) Background:• Accusations of Communism in 1945

meant they were less directly involved in protests than before the war.

• Continued to challenge systems of segregation/discrimination in employment/voting/education.

2) Successes:• Employment: by 1953, 20 states implemented

Roosevelt’s fair employment regulations.• Votes: 1944 Smith vs. Allright outlawed all white

primary in Texas, meaning that AAs registered to vote rose from 2% in 1940 to 12% in 1947. Few AAs were elected for state legislatures but none in Deep South. Powell was elected to HoR. NAACP launched voter registration drives to encourage AA voters but these were opposed in DS. Especially difficult for AA women to vote.

• Education: attempted to challenge P vs. F separate but equal ruling in education. 1949 – South Carolina, $179 was spent on white students and $43 on AAs. Pupil-to-teacher ratio was 20% better in white schools. NAACP sued on behalf of children. Thurgood Marshall 1908-93 (AA lawyer who fought SC rulings for NAACP and won almost all of them – including Brown vs. Board. Appointed first AA SC judge by Johnson in 1967) argued that the legal system should acknowledge/tackle inequality in education.

• Slow but effective.

3) Roy Wilkins 1910-1981:• Leader from 1955 until death.• Continued White’s moderate policies –

uneasy with confrontational policies by other 60s CR groups.

• Around at same time as MLK and continued his cautious and legal approach.

1) Background:• Born in Atlanta was brought up in well off

family but suffered from inequality.• Forced to move north to Boston to gain his

PhD.• Became a Baptist Minister in 1954 to 1960

after which he returned to Atlanta and ran his fathers church and became fully involved in the CR campaign.

• Assassinated in 1968.

Martin Luther King – 1929-1968 CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER60s

2) Turing point?:• Chosen for his cautious reputation, was an

effective organiser, brilliant speaker and great motivator.

• Organised night-time church rallies that recharged AA commitment and determination.

• By articulating all AAs frustrations in persuasive way, made vital link between CR campaigners and less educated general public (NAACP/Du Bois failed at).

• Non-violence argued throughout life which set next 10 years of campaigning agenda.

• Set up the Southern Christian Leadership Conference in 1957 – widened CR field to react to events, not individuals (NAACP)

1) Background:• 1960 – 4 AA students staged

sit-in in Woolworth’s in North Carolina (who were proud of race relations)

• State hesitated which allowed numbers to grow rapidly.

• Started concept of sit-ins which spread to neighbouring states.

Sit-ins CAMPAIGNER LEGLISLATION

2) Ella Baker 1903-1986:• Ran AA voters campaign in

30s.• Joined NAACP in 40s.• Moved to Atlanta to assist

MLK/SCLC in 57 and convinced him to visit protesting students.

• Disliked his style and so encouraged students to form the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee in 60s (which organised swim-ins, read-ins, watch-ins and shoe-ins. Spilt by BP in 70s)

3) Impact:• Protests were not violent but more

confrontational than boycotts as it forced authorities to respond.

• If response was violence, press showed it on TVs (1949 – 1 million houses had TVs which rose to 45 million by 1960. King/Baker deliberately used this attention).

• This increased public support.• If state did not act, then it ended

desegregation.• Meant that by 1961, 810 southern towns

had desegregated facilities.

Black Panthers - 1966CIVILIAN GROUP

1) Development:• A Black Power group starting in California.• Received national attention quickly

because of armed parades for ‘self-defence’ against police brutality in distinctive uniform of berets/dark glasses.

• 3 years – focus of CR attention and had 1000s of members but declined after shot-outs with police in 1969.

2) Newton and Seale:• Huey Newton (1942-89) had little formal

education/self-taught. Bobby Seale (1936) from air force.

• Met in San Fran. School of Law and formed BPs.

• 1967 - Newton was shot, arrested and convicted of violent offences.

• 1971 – Seale dropped a murder charge.• 70s – both moved from violence• 1974-7 – Newton fled to Cuba.• 1989 – Newton shot dead in California.• 1973 – Seale ran for Mayor and came 2nd • 1981 – wrote history of BP and then

worked to improve economic/social conditions in AA neighbourhoods.

3) Aims:• Both wanted to end

white capitalism and police brutality.

• Emphasised economic improvements for AAs and were clearly influenced by X and Black Power.

• Developed a 10 point programme with similar demands to mainstream CR activists and some more distinctive (request for AA-white juries was common but Black Panthers demand for all-AA juries indicated emphasis on self determination/racist views towards whites.)

• Long way from SCLC/NAACP and the fact that it gained SNCC support showed just how broken CR movement was.

4) 10 Point Programme:1. Freedom – power to

determine own destiny 2. Full employment3. End to discrimination4. Fit housing5. Truthful education6. Conscription exemption7. End to police brutality8. Freedom for jailed AAs9. AA juries10. Land entitlement

5) Help or hindrance:• Plan of gaining powerful

white support was working in 65/6 but militant BPs were ruining it.

• BUT- redefined CR question so as AAs were proud of heritage and didn’t want to integrate and ever received MLK’s support.