odyssey - 2014 issue

N E W D I R E C T I O N S I N D E A F E D U C A T I O N VOL. 15 • 2014

ODYSSEYODYSSEYODYSSEY

Their Importanceand Influence

High

for All

• “A mastercan tell you

what heexpectsof you. Ateacher,though,

awakens your own

expectations.”~ Patricia Neal

Expectations

“Every great dream begins with a dreamer. Always remember,you have within you the strength, the patience, and thepassion to reach for the stars to change the world.” ~ HarrietTubman • “Great teachers empathize with kids, respect them,and believe that each one has something special that can bebuilt upon.”~ Ann Lieberman • “Children need to be challengedand pushed, not to the point where they give up but to thepoint where they think, ‘Wow, look at me go!’”~ Robert John Meehan• “Believe you canand you’re halfwaythere.”~ TheodoreRoosevelt• “You’re not obligated to win. You’re obligatedto keep trying to dothe best you can every day.” ~ Marian Wright Edelman • “Whensomebody tells me I can’t do something, all I do is say, ‘Watch me.’”~ Derrick Coleman • “When we do the best that we can, we neverknow what miracle is wrought in our life, or in the life of another.”~ Helen Keller • “High achievement always takes place in theframework of high expectation.” ~ Charles F. Kettering • “Youmust do the thing you think you cannot do.”~ Eleanor Roosevelt

27889_ODYSSEY SPRING 2004** 4/22/14 10:31 AM Page C1

ODYSSEY • CLERC CENTER MISSION STATEMENT

The Clerc Center, a federally funded national deaf educationcenter, ensures that the diverse population of deaf and hardof hearing students (birth through age 21) in the nation areeducated and empowered and have the linguisticcompetence to maximize their potential as productive andcontributing members of society. This is accomplishedthrough early access to and acquisition of language,excellence in teaching, family involvement, research,identification and implementation of best practices,collaboration, and information sharing among schools andprograms across the nation.

Published articles are the personal expressions of theirauthors and do not necessarily represent the views ofGallaudet University or the Clerc Center.

Copyright © 2014 by Gallaudet University Laurent Clerc

National Deaf Education Center. The Clerc Center includesKendall Demonstration Elementary School, the ModelSecondary School for the Deaf, and units that work withschools and programs throughout the country. All rightsreserved.

The activities reported in this publication were supported byfederal funding. Publication of these activities shall not implyapproval or acceptance by the U.S. Department of Education ofthe findings, conclusions, or recommendations herein. GallaudetUniversity is an equal opportunity employer/educational institutionand does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, sex, nationalorigin, religion, age, hearing status, disability, covered veteranstatus, marital status, personal appearance, sexual orientation,family responsibilities, matriculation, political affiliation, source ofincome, place of business or residence, pregnancy, childbirth, orany other unlawful basis.

On the cover: These quotations from various well-knownindividuals convey the power and inspiration of highexpectations. Cover design by John T. Consoli

We would like to thank all of our student, parent, andteacher models from the Clerc Center, as well as SkylerWithrow, for their assistance in illustrating this issue.

ODYSSEY

Subscription information: Please e-mail [email protected] your mailing address if you would like to receive your copy ofOdyssey in the mail, or give us your e-mail address if you wouldlike us to notify you when Odyssey is available online. Website: http://clerccenter.gallaudet.edu.

T. Alan Hurwitz, President, Gallaudet University

Edward Bosso, Vice President, Clerc Center

Susan Jacoby, Executive Director, Planning,

Development, and Dissemination

Elizabeth Meynardie, Director, Training,

Products, and Dissemination

Catherine Valcourt-Pearce, Managing Editor,

[email protected]

Glenn Lockhart, Director, Public Relations and

Communications, [email protected]

Susan Flanigan, Coordinator, Marketing and Public Relations,

[email protected]

Cathryn Carroll, Editor

Patricia Dabney, Circulation, [email protected]

John T. Consoli, Image Impact Design & Photography, Inc.


N E W D I R E C T I O N S I N D E A F E D U C A T I O N

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FEATURES

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C L E R C C E N T E R N E W S

79 Seeking Submissions for the 2015 Odyssey

92 KDES Welcomes OSERS Assistant Secretary

Michael Yudin

92 Senator Harkin Visits the Clerc Center for the

24th Jr. NAD Biennial Conference

93 Clerc Center Strategic Plan 2020 Provides

Road Map for Next Five Years

94 Clerc Center Offers Public Input Summary

95 New from the Clerc Center

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2014 ODYSSEY 1

LETTER FROM THE VICE PRESIDENT

By Edward Bosso

AN EDUCATOR’S PERSPECTIVE: FIVE “E’S”

TO SUCCESS WITH COMMON CORE

STANDARDS

By Christy M. Neria

TEACHERS, PARENTS, AND—ABOVE ALL—

STUDENTS “BUY IN” TO RAISE

EXPECTATIONS

By Christopher Hayes

THE POWER OF EXPECTATIONS:

TWO STORIES

By Laurene E. Simms

HIGH EXPECTATIONS + READING

INTERVENTION PLAN = BIG JUMP IN

STUDENTS’ READING SCORES

By Greta Palmberg and Kendra Rask

RAISING COURTNEY JUST LIKE HER

SISTERS: FORGING HIGH EXPECTATIONS

By Amie A. Stelmack

HOW CAN WE MOTIVATE STRUGGLING

LATINO ADOLESCENTS TO READ?

By Melissa Herzig

EXPECTING THE BEST: THE ESSENTIAL

LESSON FOR TEACHERS

By Carl B. Williams

EXPECTATIONS LEAD TO PERFORMANCE:

THE TRANSFORMATIVE POWER OF HIGH

EXPECTATIONS IN PRESCHOOL

By Ye Wang, Karen S. Engler, and Tara L. Oetting

A CO-TEACHING MODEL: COMMITTED

PROFESSIONALS, HIGH EXPECTATIONS,

AND THE INCLUSIVE CLASSROOM

By Karen Wise Lindeman and Kathleen Magiera

HIGH EXPECTATIONS REQUIRE

SUPPORTING NEW TEACHERS,

EDUCATING THE SCHOOL COMMUNITY

By Heidi M. MacGlaughlin and Donna M. Mertens

ESTABLISHING AND MAINTAINING HIGH

EXPECTATIONS FOR DEAF/BLIND

STUDENTS USING A TEAM APPROACH

By Kimberly Mockler

ON THE HOME FRONT: HIGH EXPECTATIONS

MEANS NEVER SAY “NEVER”

By Felicia Johnson

USING DATA TO ENSURE HIGH

STANDARDS—AND STANDARDS TO

ENSURE HIGH EXPECTATIONS

By Susan Lane-Outlaw, Cheryl Lange, and DyanSherwood

PARENTING WITH HIGH EXPECTATIONS

By Benna Hull Timperlake and Genelle TimperlakeSanders

MAINTAINING HIGH EXPECTATIONS

By Roger Williams and Sherry Williams

READING FOR REAL: OUR YEAR WITH

READING BUDDIES

By Patricia Ross

REFLECTIONS ON EXPECTATIONS

By Joseph Santini

THE LAW AND THE IEP: ESTABLISHING AND

MAINTAINING HIGH EXPECTATIONS FOR

DEAF STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

By Michael Fitzpatrick and Raschelle Theoharis

MEETING HIGH EXPECTATIONS: HEALTHY

THINKING, RESILIENCY, AND DEAF AND

HARD OF HEARING CHILDREN

By Lisalee D. Egbert, Todd LaMarr, Tami Hossler,Carrie Davenport, and Jodee Crace

ACADEMIC RIGOR

By James E. Tucker

THE BACK PAGE:

HARD WORK, PERSEVERANCE, AND A

BELIEF IN ONESELF IMPACT ACHIEVEMENT

By Claudia Gordon

27889_ODYSSEY SPRING 2004** 4/22/14 12:57 PM Page 1

LETTER FROM THE VICE PRESIDENT

In classrooms across the nation, the expectations that teachers set for their studentsare foundational in terms of how they then interact. Quite simply, expectations forstudents directly correlate to academic outcomes, and it does not take long forstudents to begin to exhibit behaviors consistent with those expectations andestablish deep-rooted beliefs about themselves. Henry Ford may have refined theassembly line, but he was right in that individual ambition is a predictor of success;children who are encouraged to strive in academics are more likely to thrive in them.

All too often we encounter comments and stories that exemplify a pattern of lowexpectations for deaf and hard of hearing students when we know that those studentscan thrive in environments where their language, communication, and educationalneeds are met in a framework of high expectations. Imagine a deaf or hard of hearingstudent arriving to school every day being greeted by teachers who hold highexpectations for every student, where those expectations are shared by families andmaintained through strong collaborative partnerships—partnerships that ensurestudents receive the supports they need to thrive and succeed.

I do not believe that any teacher sets out to have low expectations for students, andin many cases teachers may be unaware of the difference in expectations they formtoward students. However, one thing is for certain: those expectations, high or low,have a lasting impact on student performance. We must work together to ensure thatdeaf and hard of hearing students have access to the highest academic standards andthe opportunity to learn in a culture of high expectations in school and at home.

The stories of professionals and parents contained in this issue of Odyssey illustratevaried perspectives regarding expectations. The articles provide us with a uniqueopportunity to learn from others, gain new insights, see examples of the measurableimpact of high expectations, and reflect upon our own expectations for ourselves andothers. It is my hope that these articles will bring the topic of expectations front andcenter and lead us to examine our own practices, engage in critical dialogue with ourcolleagues, and work together to ensure that we have high expectations for allstudents.

As always, I extend my sincere appreciation to those who contributed to this issueof Odyssey. I am confident that it will serve as a valuable resource as we strive toexpect the most from our students and give them the necessary supports to achieve atthe highest level. Let us aim high for all students and expect excellence, they deservenothing less.

Thanks for joining the readership of this issue. Be sure to share your thoughts andcomments with us at [email protected].

—Edward BossoVice President Laurent Clerc National Deaf Education CenterGallaudet University

“Whether you think you can,or think you can’t—

you’re right.”~ Henry Ford

2014 ODYSSEY 3


ODYSSEY 2014

T

4

An Educator’sPerspective

As a result of the implementation—and rigor—of the Common Core StateStandards, many educators are looking for a different teaching approach tomake content accessible to all students. Successful implementation of thesestandards for deaf and hard of hearing students can be achieved throughwhat I call the “Five E’s.” These are: Engagement, Encouragement,Expectations, Expression, and Experience.

ENGAGEMENTIt’s in the EnvironmentTo develop interest, attention, and motivation to participate in learning, students mustfirst engage. Appleton, Christenson, and Furlong (2008) report: “Engagement is apredictor of academic performance.” Furthermore, Schlechty (2002) suggests “authenticengagement” is key to helping students make meaning, solve problems, and find value indaily learning tasks. Schlechty (2002) notes that authentic engagement must include astudent’s desire to make meaning, figure out problems, and have an interest in the topic.

What contributing factors within the classroom will foster this type of authenticengagement? Like most educators, I strive to create an engaging academic environment inwhich my students flourish. Several strategies I use are as follows:

• Connect content with what students enjoy or know. Use illustrations and initiatediscussions about events students have experienced, bring up popular topics, movies,or shared knowledge, and use language students can comprehend while weaving inlanguage about the content.

• Invent captivating attention grabbers. Create interest in a topic with a relatedfunny anecdote, visual demonstration, image, or video clip.

• Promote inquiry. Raise questions and seek answers from the students throughstudent-centered discussions.

• Use technology. Use movie-making software to support inquiry and documentstudent work as well as other software for presentations.

Christy M. Neria,PhD, has worked as asign languageinterpreter andeducation specialistwith deaf and hard ofhearing children withinthe Covina-ValleyUnified School Districtin Covina, California,for 21 years.Additionally, she worksas adjunct facultywithin the School ofEducation SpecialEducation Departmentat Azusa PacificUniversity in Azusa,California. Neriawelcomes questions andcomments about thisarticle at [email protected].

By Christy M. Neria

Photos courtesy of Christy M. Neria

Five “E’s” to Success with Common Core Standards

Right: Posted signs on

students’ desks are a

positive reinforcement.


2014 ODYSSEY 5

• Support creativity. Give students opportunities to createoutcomes based on their learning (i.e., based on theircoursework, they create stories, art, plays, movies, models,documentaries, presentations, group projects, journals, andphotos).

• Focus on the student. Listen to and support each student,encouraging his or her ideas and interests.

• Enrich the environment. Make the classroom environmentsafe and inviting with clear expectations posted, visuallyappealing walls, printed messages displayed, andcomfortable centers to explore, read, and collaborate.

When students are engaged, they participate fully in theirlearning. For example, when I inform my students that theywill make a movie related to the content of a novel after weread it, engagement ensues. As I read, my students pay closeattention to the storyline and characters because they knowthey will reenact the events of the novel themselves, exploringliterature through making it into a movie. On completion ofreading, the students are led through a variety of pre-writingactivities to help them plan for writing their movie script.

Their scripts may be based on the novel itself, a parallel theme,or a creation of their own based on the characters from the text.During the week of the performance, students bring incostumes, props, and plans for their roles. When the filming isunderway, students direct, collaborate, and decide how to createeach scene. Students use either a video camera or Vizzywig, anediting software application for the iPad, to film theircreations. When the filming is complete and edited, I transfertheir work onto a DVD. Upon completion of the project, thestudents hold what we call a red carpet event, bringing otherstudents and often their families to view their creations. Asstudents show their films, they take turns reading and signingthe text that is woven into scenes to help build fluency inEnglish and American Sign Language (ASL). Through this useof drama and technology, I have engaged the students andmade learning fun.

ENCOURAGEMENTIt Begins with the TeacherAs a child, I remember my fourth grade teacher posting asaying on the wall: “I will try!” This mantra followed me intomy career as an educator where I, too, promote students giving


ODYSSEY 2014

new tasks a valiant effort. Tangible encouragement coupled withsocial and emotional support allow students to believe inthemselves as they master the tasks implicit in the CommonCore State Standards.

Deaf learners often struggle with literacy and academiclanguage (Luckner, Slike, & Johnson, 2011; Marschark, 2007);therefore, it is critical that educators of deaf and hard of hearingstudents raise the expectations in the classroom environmentthrough encouraging words and actions. Ways that I makeencouragement tangible in my class are by:

• posting signs that say “I will try!” on the walls and desks.

• beginning the day and sometimes each lesson by remindingstudents to try despite perceived difficulty.

• reminding students of their triumphs throughout the day.

• promoting peer support in the classroom through constructivefeedback from classmates and celebrations of achievements.

• reviewing students’ growth and learning weekly withteachers and paraprofessionals.

EXPECTATIONSClear and Visual The Common Core State Standards require students’ movingfrom the simple to the more complex (Davis, 2012). In order tohelp students move along this continuum successfully, educatorsneed to be able to explain processes explicitly while modelingbehaviors for inquiry. “Students who are deaf or hard of hearingmay need instruction and accommodations in activatingbackground knowledge, organizing how content is presented tothem, and direct instruction in important concepts” (Luckner,Slike, & Johnson, 2012). For procedural lessons (i.e., how tosolve a math problem or conjugate a verb), educators must makeour explanations explicit. Writing down learning objectivesrather than just speaking or signing them is critical to ensuringstudents are exposed to academic vocabulary. Additionally, step-

by-step procedures should be clearly defined, modeled, andwritten on the board to support students visually.

In my classroom, making objectives and steps simple andvisually available helps support students’ vocabulary acquisition.When students work in small groups, the procedures andobjectives are posted for students to see and read. My studentssee, and are required to read, the academic vocabulary. Aftergoing over the vocabulary from the objective several times,students begin to feel more confident when they see the samevocabulary in their textbooks. Overall, by keeping pertinentvocabulary and procedures visually accessible, my students haveshown improvement in their ability to read vocabulary in theirtexts and solve problems systematically.

EXPRESSIONThis Comes from Students, Too“The Common Core State Standards stress the importance ofstudent discovery” (Davis, 2012). Research in cognitivepsychology suggests that when students present and exploreinformation, memory and comprehension are heightened(Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001). Thus, student discoveryand expression are important factors for educators to consider intheir lesson design. Research indicates that young deaf childrenhave a great propensity for creativity during play sequences(Marshark, 2007). Therefore, educators should look for fun,engaging activities that foster student expression to extendlearning.

6


2014 ODYSSEY

Additionally, the level of understanding of text required bythe Common Core State Standards (Kendall, 2011), bothnarrative and expository, is rigorous. One way I promote studentexpression in response to various texts is through writingworkshops (Calkins, 2006). Students work either in small groupsor individually in response to their reading. For example, afterteaching a unit on the solar system, my students created theirown science fiction stories during writers’ workshops. Whenthey learned about the westward movement and read Little Houseon the Prairie by Laura Ingalls Wilder, my students created aparallel historical fiction that was made into a class book and aniMovie. When students are prompted to create something fromtheir newfound content knowledge, they also strengthen theiracademic language and knowledge base. Ipromote this type of discovery and self-expression by:

• telling students to “make a movie in theirmind.” Students think first and try tovisualize a sequence or event.

• using the visual arts and telling studentsto illustrate what they are thinking of foreach event or concept.

• having students express through signs andspeech what they intended in their art.

• encouraging collaboration in groups, withpeers, or with the teacher.

• encouraging student writing, includingfor students who need to dictate theirideas to someone.

• extending knowledge through creating apersonal or class book, an iMovie, or astory to read aloud.

To measure success, students are monitoredthrough each process. If a student isstruggling with one of the steps, then wework one-on-one to ensure mastery. For example,if a student is having trouble tapping into priorexperiences or knowledge, I will do an activitywith that student, or retrieve photos of thestudent from the family or from a previousevent, and then model steps for thestudent to retrace. Over time, I guide thestudent from the familiar to the moreabstract. Once students realize they cancreate an idea, the possibilities are endless,and guiding students to move from theconcrete to the abstract helps them as theyapproach the abstract constructs embeddedwithin the Common Core State Standards.

EXPERIENCEThe More and the More Academic, the BetterAcademic prowess is enhanced when students experience contentfirsthand. Marzano (2004) suggests that the more experiencesstudents have with academic content and language, the moresuccessful they will be in the acquisition of backgroundknowledge. Creating experiences in the classroom is key tohelping my students understand content. Therefore, when Iteach I try to make abstract concepts concrete through studentinvolvement. Here are just a few examples:

• Creating iMovies: Students write stories, perform, direct,and edit their movies. Students bring finished DVDs hometo enjoy with their families.

• Re-creating science concepts:Students act out the water cycle, forexample, by having each studentrepresent the sun, water droplets,clouds, and run off and physicallyinteract to demonstrate the sequencesof the water cycle.

• Reenacting historical events:Students learn about the gold rush, forexample, by acting out staking theirclaim, panning for gold, and writingletters home.

• Developing word problems: Studentscreate, act out, and solve wordproblems in small groups—andvideotape the result.

• Taking class trips: Students takepictures, write narration, and makeclass books or movies about these out-of-school ventures.

• Dancing: Students create silly andrhythmic movements to developautomaticity with math facts.

• Using ASL mnemonics: Studentsdevelop stories with ASL handshapesto memorize math concepts (Mullins,2013).

• Creating models: Studentschoose materials, design,develop, and build content-related models, such asvolcanoes, missions, andecosystems; they might alsocreate a model to make avisual book report.

.

7

When students

are prompted to

create something

from their

newfound content

knowledge, they

also strengthen

their academic

language and

knowledge base.


Putting It All TogetherThe implementation of the Common Core State Standards putspressure on everyone—and there is no magical pedagogicalequation to ensure students’ mastery—but these five principlesmay be stepping stones in supporting students on this rigorousjourney. In order to initially motivate and connect withstudents, educators must strive for authentic engagement(Schlechty, 2002), and this means allowing our studentsto experience learning in a multitude of ways.Along the way, we need to encourage studentsto maintain engagement and emotional andacademic investment. Next, we need toclearly delineate expectations for eachlesson. Further, we need to supportstudent expression, creativity, andinnovation in order to develop higher-level thinking skills. Finally, studentsneed to experience much of the contentarea. As the students’ primary academicsupport for meeting the Common CoreState Standards, we, as educators, journeywith them, making content and deliveryaccessible for all learners, including those whoare deaf and hard of hearing.

Appleton, J. J., Christenson, S. L., & Furlong, M. J.(2008). Student engagement with school: Criticalconceptual and methodological issues of the construct.Psychology in the Schools, 45(5), 369-386.

Calkins, L (2006). A guide to the writing workshop, grades3-5. Portsmouth, NH: First Hand.

Davis, L. (2012). 5 things every teacher should be doing tomeet the Common Core State Standards. Larchmont, NY:Eye on Education.

Kendall, J. (2011). Understanding Common Core StateStandards. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervisionand Curriculum Development.

Luckner, J. L., Slike, S. B., & Johnson, H. (2012).Helping students who are deaf or hard of hearingsucceed. Teaching Exceptional Children, 44(4), 58-67.

Marschark, M. (2007). Raising and educating a deafchild (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.

Marzano, R. J. (2004). Building background knowledgefor academic achievement: Research on what works in schools.Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision andCurriculum Development.

Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D. J., & Pollock, J. E.(2001). Classroom instruction that works: Research-basedstrategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria,VA: Association for Supervision and CurriculumDevelopment.

Mullins, S. (March, 2013). ASL mnemonics: Usingstudent-developed memory strategies for math.

Presentation at California Educators of theDeaf and Hard of Hearing annual

conference, Marina Del Rey, CA.

Schlechty, P. C. (2002). Working onthe work: An action plan forteachers, principals, andsuperintendents [Kindle edition].San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Ingalls Wilder, L. (1935). Littlehouse on the prairie. New York:

Harper & Brothers.

References

Resource

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ODYSSEY 201410

“Throughout history, deaf people have faced a gamut of perceptions andattitudes that have influenced the quality of educational opportunities” (Lang,2003), and too often this influence has been negative. For the deaf or hard ofhearing student in the mainstream—today’s environment in which allchildren are expected to learn more, produce more, and be assessed more—thehigh pressure coupled with low expectations can be overwhelming. Withoutthe right team and the right attitude, the risk of each student not achievinghis or her full academic promise mounts.

We, the teachers of deaf and hard of hearing students, are thus at a point where it is crucialto establish high expectations both for ourselves and for our students—and to encourageparents to support these high expectations as well. Since many students with hearing loss havedifficulty speaking and using English, administrators and mainstream teachers sometimesmisunderstand their academic potential. According to Antia, Stinson, & Gaustad (2002):

General academic classroom teachers might have low academic and behavioralexpectations for [deaf and hard of hearing students] because they see them as “special”and consequently may ignore misbehavior and missed homework. They also may nothold [these students] accountable for content knowledge and academic skills that theyexpect from other students. (p. 220)

As an itinerant teacher working to secure effectiveness and consistency among all theteachers with whom my students interact, including some who lack the skill set to effectivelysupport deaf and hard of hearing students, I find myself in a “big sell” to alleviate the lowexpectations that can be so crippling to deaf and hard of hearing students in academicenvironments. What is necessary is “teacher and parental buy-in” to the idea that deaf andhard of hearing students can and will succeed.

The idea of “teacher buy-in” came to me recently when I was trying to describe to ourschool audiologist the importance of training staff to work with deaf and hard of hearingstudents. As we talked, I felt I faced the lingering and dated idea of the “poor deaf student”—

ChristopherHayes, MA, has abachelor’s degree indeaf studies from theUniversity of Arizonaand a master’s degree indeaf education from theUniversity of Arizonain Tucson. He has beenteaching deaf and hardof hearing students foreight years as anitinerant teacher inrural Florida. Hayeslives in Sebring,Florida, with his wife,Rachel, and their twochildren. He welcomesquestions andcomments about thisarticle at [email protected].

Photos by Christopher Hayes

Teachers, Parents, and—Above All—Students

“Buy In” to RaiseExpectations

By Christopher Hayes


2014 ODYSSEY 11

to be pitied, to be seen as automatically disadvantaged andtreated with concern. In this fortunately outdated model,expectations are typically very low and levels of academicachievement follow suit. The challenge lies in getting schoolstaff, especially teachers, to look at the students with hearingloss in a new way and helping them to understand that theymust expect more. Antia, Jones, Reed, & Kreimeyer (2009)argue that students with hearing loss “in general educationclassrooms can achieve at a higher level than reported byprevious researchers and also can make adequate progress inthese classrooms.”

This speaks directly to the idea of educating teachers to buyinto the education of the deaf and hard of hearing children intheir classes, to see these children’s potential, and, with theright accommodations, to support their ability to succeed.The remnants of the model of the “disadvantaged deafstudent” must be expelled, and teachers must change theirperspective in order to see potential and create realisticexpectations. According to Cross (2008), teachers, in general,who hold high expectations for their students:

• explicitly state their expectations for achievement tostudents;

• spend equal amounts of time interacting with high- andlow-achieving students; and

• teach students about the relationship between effort andachievement and what it means to be smart in theirclasses.

Although educating teachers is important, it is also criticalthat parents buy into and maintain a high level of expectationfor their deaf or hard of hearing child. Bodner-Johnson (1986)noted that acceptance of a child’s hearing loss and highexpectations for his or her academic success are the two bestways to predict deaf students’ academic achievement. I findthis often in my own teaching: children of parents whomaintain close contact with me as well as with their child’sclassroom teacher seem to do better academically and withthe continuity of services they receive throughout their entireday. Maintaining a good rapport with parents allows us, as

Right and

below:

Empowering

those who work

the closest with

students will

help the impact

of buy-in across

the board.


ODYSSEY 2014

educators, to develop a strong education plan based on highexpectations. Reed, Antia, & Kreimeyer (2008) listed thecharacteristics of families for deaf and hard of hearing childrenwho achieve above-average results:

• The family has high expectations.

• The parents are very involved in all aspects of the child’slife.

• The parents are knowledgeable of all received and neededservices for the child.

• The parents are in frequent communication with thechild’s teacher of the deaf.

The Route Changes, Not the DestinationHigh expectations mean that deaf and hard of hearing studentslearn to the best of their ability on par with their hearing peers;high expectations do not mean that deaf, hard of hearing, andhearing students should be expected to learnin the same way.

Teachers, including general educationteachers, need to be aware that visuallearning means that the teaching approachfor deaf and hard of hearing students mustbe different as all material must bepresented visually. This may mean writingconsistently on the board andcollaborating with an interpreter and theteacher of the deaf in class. It may alsomean accommodating the swift-movingspoken dynamics of the classroom that canresult in students who are dependent onvision being overlooked. The proliferationof high stakes education testing hasincreased the importance of understandinghow to respect the educational needs ofdeaf and hard of hearing children andimplement a visual approach for them inthe classroom.

The nature of visual learning also meansthat while it is important for us, asteachers, to have high expectations for ourstudents, it is even more important thatour students learn that they have the same right to accessinformation as their hearing peers (Anderson & Arnoldi, 2011).Once they understand this, students with hearing loss are ableto advocate for their needs. Knowledge of their right to accessand confidence in their potential for high academicachievement enables students to support their own learning byhelping the teacher set up the classroom environment necessaryfor them to be successful.

Self-advocacy may include the use of “strategies for usinginterpreters effectively, participating in classroom discussions,

repairing communication breakdowns, and self-advocating toimprove communication environments” (Antia et al., 2009).For this reason, after driving from school to school, checking inon students and training teachers and staff, transportingequipment, taking equipment for repair, troubleshooting,meeting with teachers about progress, and directly teachingcontent, I spend a majority of my time encouraging students todevelop self-advocacy skills and self-determination.

Self-advocacy skills and a belief in self-determinationempower our students to function as independently as possibleand to exert control over the environment around them. As aresult, the level of expectation from their teachers increases,and it becomes obvious to parents and teachers that studentsare capable of controlling their own lives. Luckner and Muir(2002) argue that students who possess effective self-advocacyskills are aware of their strengths and weaknesses, and thepotential impact of their strengths and weaknesses on theirperformance. They are able to identify the support they need to

succeed and to advocate for this support in apositive and assertive manner. As noted bySmith (2008), “Once we have given ‘thespoon’ back to deaf children and expect themto use it like any other child, we will findthat they can effectively ‘feed themselves’ andlive fuller and more independent lives.”When students are able to take control oftheir hearing loss and their education, it “canresult in teachers making appropriateacademic demands on students and alsotaking responsibility for adjusting theenvironment to allow the … student toparticipate fully in classroom activities”(Antia et al., 2002).

Finally, I think it is crucial to keep threemessages (Saphier, Haley-Speca, & Gower,1997) in mind. In all our interactions withstudents, we must convey the highexpectations that we have for them. Do thisby telling the student:

• “This is important.” Students mustknow that the teacher believes thecontent is essential.

• “You can do it.” Students must know that the teacherbelieves in their abilities.

• “I won’t give up on you.” Students must know that theteacher will not abandon them.

If teachers and parents buy in to achieve their children’ssuccess, deaf and hard of hearing children will buy in as well,and this, above all, will ensure they receive the education theydeserve.

12

Self-advocacy

skills and a belief in

self-determination

empower our

students to function

as independently

as possible and to

exert control over

the environment

around them.


2014 ODYSSEY 13

Anderson, K. L., & Arnoldi, K. A. (2011). Building skills forsuccess in the fast-paced classroom: Optimizing achievement forstudents with hearing loss. Hillsboro, OR: Butte Publications.

Antia, S. D., Jones, P. B., Reed, S., & Kreimeyer, K. H.(2009). Academic status and progress of deaf and hard-of-hearing students in general education classrooms. Journal ofDeaf Studies and Deaf Education, 14(3), 293-311.

Antia, S. D., Stinson, M. S., & Gaustad, M. G. (2002).Developing membership in the education of deaf and hard-of-hearing students in inclusive settings. Journal of DeafStudies and Deaf Education, 7(3), 214-229.

Bodner-Johnson, B. (1986). The family environment andachievement of deaf students: A discriminant analysis.Exceptional Children, 52(5), 443-449.

Cross, N. (2008). The power of expectations. PrincipalLeadership, 9(3), 24-28.

Lang, H. G. (2003). Perspectives on the history of deafeducation. Oxford Handbook of Deaf Studies, Language, andEducation, 1(9).

Luckner, J. L., & Muir, S. (2002). Suggestions for helpingstudents who are deaf succeed in general education settings.Communication Disorders Quarterly, 24(1), 23-30.

Reed, S., Antia, S. D., & Kreimeyer, K. H. (2008). Academicstatus of deaf and hard-of-hearing students in public schools:Student, home, and service facilitators and detractors. Journalof Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 13(4), 485-502.

Saphier, J., Haley-Speca, & Gower, R. R. (1997). The skillfulteacher: Building your teaching skills. Acton, MA: Research forBetter Teaching.

Smith, D. H. (2008). Giving the spoon back: Higher teacherexpectations of achievement for students who are deaf. TheQualitative Report, 13(4), 657-694.

References


ODYSSEY 201414

I remember very well as a girl in school feeling the condescension of myelders. I was poor, black, and deaf, and I could tell the teachers’ feelingsand their beliefs about me from their facial expressions. They wouldhand me worksheets. I knew it was busy work, but I did it anyway. Iwas seen as having a low IQ and even being mentally retarded. I couldsee—and feel—their expressions of pity.

A part of me must have believed those teachers were right, and I might still believethey were right if not for the impact of a single teacher in seventh grade. He was JesseSmith, a white, deaf man who taught math at the Indiana School for the Deaf. Mr.Smith said to me one word that made all the difference and changed my life. I can’tremember the first time he used the word, but I remember how that wordreverberated through my soul. That word was “CAN.” I saw that word and woke up.Until that moment, I had been written off. Then Mr. Smith challenged me with hishigh expectations and firm belief in my potential. “You can!” he told me, and I wastransformed. After seventh grade, holding firm to a growing belief in my own ability,I began to earn good grades. I studied as hard as I could and did the best I could inevery class. I would graduate as valedictorian.

However, there was a chemistry class and its teacher—and from these, thanks to myfather, I would learn something, too. Even as I look back, I find that teacher wassimply, forthrightly, and manifestly lousy. He was not interested in teaching us. Hehad us memorize the names of the elements, never bothering to tell us what any of theelements were or what they did. Of course we figured out that oxygen was theelement that we breathed in the air, and that two hydrogen atoms and one oxygenatom equaled a molecule of water. However, that was only accidently because of him.He rarely answered our questions, and when he did, we couldn’t figure out what hesaid. Equally inexcusable, he dressed sloppily in soiled clothing—and he had rottenbreath. The man should not have been in a classroom. Still there he was, and despite

Photo courtesy of Laurene E. Simms

Laurene E. Simms,PhD, is a professor inthe Deaf Educationprogram at GallaudetUniversity. Aftergraduating from theIndiana School for theDeaf in Indianapolis,she earned herbachelor’s degree inelementary educationfrom the University ofNebraska, Lincoln; hermaster’s degree in deafeducation from WesternMaryland College (nowMcDaniel College) inWestminster, Maryland;and her doctorate inlanguage, reading, andculture from theUniversity of Arizona inTucson. She is an experton using American SignLanguage and Englishas the languages ofinstruction in theclassroom. Simmswelcomes questions andcomments about thisarticle at [email protected].

The Power of Expectations:

Two StoriesBy Laurene E. Simms

Right: As a child,

Simms attended the

Indiana School for the

Deaf.


2014 ODYSSEY

my efforts, I got a C in his class. I had done the best Icould, but there it was among my A’s and B’s.

My father always insisted upon good grades. Goodgrades meant success, success meant survival, andperhaps a ticket out of the cycle of poverty. Educationwas of supreme importance, and he had to be strict. Weall had to work very hard. The last of seven children andthe only deaf child in the family, I understood. I knewmy father would be upset when he saw that C. Myfather was very tall, around 6-and-a-half feet. I was 5feet 2, a very short high school kid who trembled in hisshadow. I had fallen short of his expectations, and I wasterrified. Before I approached him, I wrote out anexplanation for that C. I argued that the teacher’s styleof teaching was vague, and that his indifference madethe material difficult to absorb. I had tried hard, Iwrote, but inadequate teaching had resulted in my less-than-stellar performance. My father took the note,looked it over, and then set it aside. Even though I

believed I posed some good points,the quality of the teacher’sperformance didn’t seem to matterto him in the least.

My father, like so many of hisgeneration, had been instructed notto use sign language, but we hadsome home gestures and I couldread his lips and read his face. Iunderstood what he said next justfine. There will always be badteachers, just as there will alwaysbe good teachers. There will alwaysbe bad police officers and goodpolice officers. There will always belousy doctors and good doctors, andso on. This would be the case formy entire life, my father said, sowhat happened was up to me. I hadto make the decision to double myefforts in the face of someone else’sinadequacy. “It’s up to you,” he toldme. In my father’s eyes, it didn’tmatter if my teacher was good ornot, just as it didn’t matterwhether I was deaf or not, a femaleor not; it was my job to study, read,and write, always to the full extentof my ability, regardless of whether

or not I had a good teacher. My father taught me that there will always be those

who look down on us and oppress us, and there willalways be those whose incompetency and indifferencemake our lives more difficult. Regardless, it is up to usto decide to overcome those obstacles and fight for oursuccess. I had to decide to read and study hard; I had tomake the decision to refuse to allow a lousy teacher tocontrol my grade. I had to control my destiny. I had todetermine my future.

Today, I am grateful for the faith and strictness of myfather and for that first teacher who looked at me andsaid, “You can!” In their different ways, those two menenabled me to fulfill my potential and stand up to thosewho had so misclassified me. Thanks to them, becauseof the high expectations of a father and a teacher, Iworked as hard as I could to learn and grow into theperson I am today. Thanks to them, I knew I could besuccessful. I am forever indebted.

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ODYSSEY 201416

Big Jump

Our students had postsecondary dreams.

Leng wanted a career in computers. Leng’s postsecondary goal on hisIndividualized Education Program (IEP) was to attend a technicalcollege, but his college placement score in reading was too low to beaccepted for the coursework. The door to a computer degree was closing.

Shayne wanted to be a chef, and a job in a neighborhood restaurantfueled this dream. College placement testing revealed he did not have thereading skills required by the culinary arts program at the technicalcollege. His reading score placed him at approximately the fourth gradelevel—not at the developmental level required for entrance into theprogram.

Fadumo wanted a career as a certified nursing assistant and tookcoursework in this field as part of her transition plan. She excelled in thehands-on portion of the coursework and passed the state’s skills test.However, despite intensive supports, she was still unprepared to meet thereading and literacy requirements and failed the written portion of thestate test. Fadumo wanted to develop the reading skills that would allowher to pursue a health career.

Leng, Shayne, and Fadumo were among our bright and ambitious deaf and hard ofhearing students who lacked the reading skills to enter even the developmentalcoursework at our local technical college. Further, as with all the students in the

Photos courtesy of Greta Palmberg and Kendra Rask

Greta Palmberg,MEd, is a transitioninstructor in theVocational Education,Community Training, andOccupational RelationsProgram (VECTOR) inBrooklyn Park,Minnesota. She has servedon the Deaf and Hard ofHearing Advisory Boardfor the MinnesotaDepartment of Educationand worked nationallythrough PEPNet toprovide professionaldevelopment in the area oftransition. A recipient ofthe Shaklee TeacherAward, a national awardto recognize outstandingteachers of children withdisabilities, Palmbergreceived her bachelor’sdegree from Illinois StateUniversity and hermaster’s degree from theUniversity of Illinois. Shehas teaching experienceand certifications in theareas of deaf/hard ofhearing, learningdisabilities, emotional/behavioral disorders, anddevelopmental cognitivedisabilities and is themother of a deaf youngadult.

By Greta Palmberg and Kendra Rask

HIGH EXPECTATIONS +

READING INTERVENTION PLAN =

in Students’Reading Scores


2014 ODYSSEY 17

Vocational Education, Community Training,and Occupational Relations Program(VECTOR), the nationally recognizedtransition program that serves 18- to 21-year-olds in Brooklyn Park, Minnesota, thesestudents were running out of time. In a fewshort years, they would be 21 years old and nolonger eligible for services. Precious minuteswere ticking away.

VECTOR serves a variety of students withdisabilities, about one-third of whom are deaf,hard of hearing, or deaf/blind. As part of whatthe federal government calls a “traditionallyunderserved population,” our students comefrom the homes of immigrants and refugees,homes in which there is only one parent, andhomes where neither parent speaks English,or they experience other factors that makethem educationally vulnerable. (See Figure 1.)

Since 1987, we have been customizingtransition services for students who are deaf,hard of hearing, and deaf/blind. In the springof 2012, the VECTOR staff for deaf and hardof hearing students teamed up to design thereading intervention that we knew wasimperative.

Bringing reading research, transitionprogram philosophy, and high expectationstogether would be critical. Our goal was toincrease our students’ skills in meaningful,measureable ways that would allow them toread their college texts and benefit them overa lifetime. A reading specialist who was also aformer interpreter confirmed that when a textis above a student’s instructional readinglevel, frustration sets in and it becomesdifficult for learning to occur. This, of course,has implications for a student’s entireeducational experience.

We put other postsecondary coursework onhold and enrolled nine deaf and hard ofhearing students in our newly-designedCollege Reading Readiness class. Weincreased the time students spent reading andselected a new text focused on academicreading in the college setting. We used an on-line program that included use of the Lexilesystem to measure text difficulty and toanalyze students’ reading levels as the levelschanged over time.

We also looked for ways to motivate ourstudents and keep their expectations high.

Kendra Rask, BS, isan Intermediate District287 special educationinstructor in theVECTOR Program. Sheserves as a classroomteacher as well as thepostsecondary liaison forstudents who are seekingto pursue postsecondaryeducation. She receivedher bachelor’s degree inelementary educationfrom Saint Cloud StateUniversity, an AAS ininterpreting from St.Paul Technical College,and special educationlicensures in emotional/behavioral disorders andspecific learningdisabilities from BethelUniversity. Rask is acertified American SignLanguage interpreter,National Association ofthe Deaf, Level 4Advanced, and a proudCODA (child of deafadults). She believes thathigh expectationsempower and, bydefinition, improveoutcomes for both theindividual and ourworld.

The authors welcomequestions and commentsabout this article [email protected] and [email protected].


ODYSSEY 2014

Motivation was inspired through avariety of strategies: students chartedtheir reading growth; guest speakersspoke about college careers; and HowardA. Rosenblum, chief executive officer ofthe National Association of the Deaf,sent our students an encouraging letter.“Deaf and hearing people are equals,” hewrote. “The most important tool forequality is language. Improve yourreading and writing, and you will bemore powerful!” This became our classmotto.

At the end of the year the studentswere tested, and the results showed asuccess greater than any of us hadanticipated. (See Figure 2.) Our studentshad achieved unprecedented growth inacademic reading. Every studentincreased his or her reading betweenthree and five grade levels, and the classaveraged a 394-point increase in Lexilescores. Six students had raised theirscores enough to take collegedevelopmental coursework and pursuetheir postsecondary goals. Three otherstudents committed to continue in thecourse another year. Just as importantly,our students became active learners,empowered and determined to holdthemselves to a higher standard.

And Leng, Shayne, andFadumo?

Leng increased his reading by five gradelevels. A few weeks before graduatingfrom VECTOR, he re-took the collegeplacement test and increased his score bynine points. This nine-point differencewas what he needed to enroll indevelopmental reading at a technicalcollege. Today, he is an independentcollege student, taking three courses atthe technical college and pursuing acomputer career as a desktop supportspecialist.

Shayne increased his reading by morethan four grade levels and his collegeplacement test score by five points. Hecommitted to a second year of intensivereading instruction and enrolled insecondary vocational culinary artsclasses. His college goal is closer now,and he is determined to make it happen.

Fadumo increased her reading by fourgrade levels and her Lexile score by over400 points. She increased her collegeplacement test score by 36 points! Thisscore not only elevated her to thedevelopmental reading level at thetechnical college but allowed her to skip

the first developmental reading classaltogether. She adjusted her goals whenher reading scores improved. Instead ofbecoming a nursing assistant, Fadumohas decided to pursue a career inradiologic technology.

As news of the success of our programspread, we were asked to open anotherclass, this time for hearing students. Weagreed to do so—with the provision thatthe classes for hearing and deaf studentsremain separate—and we now teach twocourses instead of one.

We had hoped that the CollegeReading Readiness course would resultin reading gains. We saw our studentsbecome active learners, forge aheadmultiple grade levels in reading, andgain college-ready skills. A pathway tocollege was opened.

We hoped for reading gains; what weachieved was so much more.

The dedicated and amazing staff thatdevised and implemented the reading programfor our deaf and hard of hearing studentsincluded: Dori Beach, Kayla Beccue,Kathy Manlapas, Donna Moe, GretaPalmberg, Kendra Rask, and TinaSunda.

18

Above: In this chart, the demographics of the deaf and hard of hearing students

in VECTOR reflect the program’s exclusive focus on those the federal

government defines as “traditionally underserved.” Right:This chart shows the

improvement experienced by students who undertook a reading intervention

in VECTOR in Brooklyn Park, Minnesota.

Reading Readiness 2012-2013Deaf and Hard of Hearing StudentsVECTOR

2012-2013

*Student 5 initial score was not valid due to problems in testing.

ABE (for Adult Basic Education) is a reading level below developmental that makes astudent ineligible to continue coursework at the technical college.

DEV (for Development) means that the student can take developmental readingcourses at the technical college along with other college coursework.

Lexile reading levels, a tool that measures learners’ progression as their reading skillsimprove, were determined from MyReadingLab (on-line remedial reading materialpublished by Pearson).

Figure 1: Figure 2:

13%


2014 ODYSSEY

When the Clock isTicking

Designing a College Reading Readiness CourseBy Greta Palmberg and Kendra Rask

Looking back on the course we designed, we recognize that thecatalyst to success was the commitment to incorporating fivecourse components: substantial instructional minutes,authentic academic reading material, various instructionalgroupings, instruction on vocabulary and backgroundknowledge, and modeling of college expectations. Alone, eachcomponent was effective; together, they were powerful. Here isa look at these five critical components.

SUBSTANTIAL INSTRUCTIONAL MINUTES

A dramatic increase in time spent on reading was required forstudents to make unprecedentedgrowth and to develop college-reading skills. Each class wouldbe twice as long as our normal50-minute class period.Students would commit to acourse that met Mondaythrough Friday for 100-minuteblocks. Further, the class wouldnot follow regular quarter ornine-week scheduling; it wouldcontinue for a solid year.

AUTHENTIC ACADEMIC

READING MATERIAL

Staff focused on academicreading, giving studentsstrategies to move beyondlearning to read and equippingthem to begin reading to learn.After much research, the textwe chose was Reading for Life byCorinne Fennessy, a collegedevelopmental text for students at a sixth to ninth gradereading level. Reading for Life was chosen because each chapterengages students with stories and vocabulary around differentcareers, and this matched our transition program’s focus. Toenhance career knowledge and motivate student interest, theclass took quarterly field trips to a variety of area businesses,met with human relations personnel, and had guest speakerscome to talk about the careers we were reading about in class.

Further, each chapter focused on developing a differentreading skill. These skills, the backbone of our instruction,included identifying the main idea, stated and implied;understanding supporting details; and recognizing patterns of

organization. They also included making inferences, drawingconclusions, developing vocabulary, and thinking critically.

Our text was paired with Pearson’s MyReadingLabTM, an on-line program specifically created for the developmentalreader at the college level that delivers instruction beginningat the fourth grade level. This on-line program uses the Lexilesystem to measure text difficulty and to analyze students’reading levels as the levels change over time. Our studentsbegan, on average, at the 600 Lexile level. We predicted thatstudents would need to raise their scores to between the 1,000-1,100 Lexile level to get into a developmental college-levelreading course.

VARIOUS INSTRUCTIONAL GROUPINGS

We chose a hybrid model of instruction that included groupinstruction, small group work, and individual practice. Weintroduced specific reading skills or modeled effective readingstrategies to the students in a large group. Students worked insmall groups to process their learning, to practice reading

skills, and to work oncertain skills necessaryin postsecondarytraining andemployment, such ascollaborating witheach other to findanswers and workingwithin time limits.They workedindividually whenthey pulled upMyReadingLab andperformed exercisesand did diagnostictests that measuredindividual growth.

“I really likedworking together,”noted one student,looking back. “Thewhole class helpedeach other. Learning

how to work in agroup, discuss stories, and answer questions helped meunderstand my reading better.”

INSTRUCTION ON VOCABULARY

AND BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

Due to the English language difficulties experienced by ourstudents, vocabulary instruction was expanded. In addition tothe vocabulary activities in the book, we worked on extendingbackground knowledge before each story was read. Although itwas time consuming, the addition of teaching and discussingeach story’s background paid off as students read. Having

19


ODYSSEY 2014

explicit background knowledge not only increasedcomprehension but equipped students with the knowledge theyneeded to discuss story concepts using critical thinking skills.As one of our teachers remarked, “Sometimes you just have tostop what you’re doing and explain who Paul Bunyan is, even ifyou live in Minnesota!”

Vocabulary development focused not only on definitions buton learning multiple meanings of words in context. Studentswere encouraged to look up words online that they did notknow in the MyReadingLab passages. The instructional team,including the interpreter, teacher, and educational assistant,worked together to promote vocabulary. Staff signed,fingerspelled, and wrote vocabulary words on the board duringinstruction. In addition, students were expected to holdthemselves accountable for increasing their own vocabulary—not only for a good grade but for their own future success incollege and the workplace.

MODELING OF COLLEGE EXPECTATIONS

Students were instilled with a lofty goal—to increase readinglevels by more than one grade. The primary learning activitywas simple: students were expected to read. On the first day ofclass, the teacher displayed a paragraph on the SMART Boardand asked the students to read it. To her amazement, all eyesturned instantly to the interpreter. The students were waitingfor the interpreter to sign the paragraph to them!

This was the pivotal moment when we realized that ourstudents had become passive. We knew that the first college-level expectation we would instill in them would be that ofactive learning. After so many years of frustration, they had

stopped asking questions; not understanding was their norm.We cultivated a classroom in which students felt comfortableasking questions and taking an active role in their learning. Weincreasingly and incrementally raised the level of the materialand classroom expectations. We wanted our students to realizetheir reading growth was ultimately under their control.

We took time to talk about and demonstrate other skills—how to organize a notebook, how to take notes from thetextbook, how to create a planner to keep track of assignments.We also worked on teamwork and test-taking skills. All of thistook time away from reading, but these critical skills arenecessary for students wanting to succeed in the postsecondaryenvironment.

VECTOR started out with a goal—to assist our students inbecoming better readers. All of the research, teaming, and hardwork paid off when these five components helped us establishliteracy as the foundation of academic achievement, and ourstudents excelled amid high expectations.

20

Reference

Fennessy, C. (2010). Reading for life. Upper Saddle River,NJ: Pearson Longman, Inc.

Resource

Pearson’s MyReadingLabTM, www.pearsonmylabandmastering.com/northamerica/myreadinglab


http://gradschool.gallaudet.edu/programs/c-itforhttp://www.gallaudet.edu/CCS/Certificate_Programs


ODYSSEY 201422

As a parent, I had high expectations for each of my children, even whilethey were in my womb. When Courtney was 9 months old, theseexpectations briefly shattered. It was September 13, 2001, two daysafter 9/11. My husband and I traveled into Boston for Courtney’ssedated Auditory Brainstem Response (ABR) appointment. I had beenconcerned about her hearing and requested a hearing test. The initialassessment had been done locally and although she had no otoacousticemissions (i.e., her cochlea emitted no soft sound as is typical for thosewho hear normally), those who tested Courtney reported that she wasresponding to speech at loud conversational levels. With thisconflicting data, they suggested we have her sedated in order to have amore comprehensive hearing test—an ABR, which measures how wellsound travels along the nerves that conduct the sound to the brain.

After waiting what seemed like several hours, my husband and I were brought intoa small room with our screaming, groggy infant, a nurse, and an audiologist. Courtneywanted to nurse. She hadn’t eaten in many hours due to the sedation, but she had towait another moment. My husband, Ted, and I wanted to know the results of thetesting. The audiologist gave us the news: Courtney didn’t just have a hearing loss;she was deaf. The conversation continued and much more was said, but I heardnothing other than “deaf” and the sound of crying—crying from Courtney, whoneeded to nurse, and crying from myself. I could not stop. I needed to get out of thatroom. I needed to nurse my daughter, and I needed to get back home. Both myhusband and I wanted the comfort and peace that only our home and family couldprovide.

Amie A. Stelmack,MED, earned herbachelor’s degree in earlychildhood education andgeography from WorcesterState College, inWorcester, Massachusettes,and her master’s degree indeaf education from SmithCollege, in Northampton,Massachusettes. Themother of three daughters,Stelmack resides in theAtlanta, Georgia, area andworks full time as a teacherof deaf students in an oralschool. She welcomesquestions and commentsabout this article [email protected].

Courtney Stelmackis 13 years old and attendsa public middle schoolwith a seventh grade classof approximately 500students. She enjoyswriting and reading anddislikes math and physicalexercise.

Photos courtesy of Amie A. Stelmack

Raising Courtney Just Like Her Sisters:Forging HighExpectations

By Amie A. Stelmack


2014 ODYSSEY

For nine months, Courtney had been treated like ahearing child, expected to enjoy the stories we read andthe songs we sang. She was expected to be comforted byour familiar voices, expected to hear her sisters when theycame home from school. Now we knew differently, andwe believed we had denied our daughter access tolanguage. Guilt overwhelmed us—and guilt quicklyspurred us into action. The only language we knewwithout a doubt she could learn and understand was signlanguage. Our family would learn immediately, and sowould Courtney. Sign language began in our home thevery next day.

As one week led to the next, we began hearingfrightening things about children who were deaf. Manypeople—including professionals—told us about shockingstatistics. The statistics indicated that deaf children oftendidn’t read beyond upper elementary level. They seemedto suggest that this would become our expectation forCourtney. Professionals told us that even with hearingaids our precious baby girl would never have access to

spoken English. An audiologist briefly mentioned adevice called a cochlear implant, but this seemed strangeto us: it would require surgery, drilling into her skull; itdidn’t guarantee she would speak; and it would changeher hearing to a mechanical process controlled by acomputer which was programmed by an audiologist.Further, even if we wanted to explore a cochlear implant,Courtney was too young. Ted and I decided to devote ourenergy to things we could do right away. Our family andfriends rallied to support us, and anything we asked forwas immediately granted.

Meanwhile I obsessed about the reading prediction thatI felt had been made for my daughter. “Why?” I keptasking myself. If she were just deaf, why would she notread? What could be so detrimental? How is deafnessrelated to reading? As a family we went to the libraryevery other week and came home with literally no lessthan 30 books each time. We read at least 10 children’sbooks every day. Reading nurtures us. It is what feeds oursouls. It is our daily bread. Courtney’s soul could not be

23


allowed to starve simply because shecould not hear. What a ridiculousthought! After several weeks offeeling devastated andoverwhelmed, my husband and Iand the rest of our family simplydecided we would not accept thestatistics—at least not as theyapplied to Courtney. If Erica andMonika, my older daughters, wouldread 10 stories a day, then Courtneymust need double. Courtney wouldread, just like her sisters. We wouldaccept nothing less.

Over the next month, wecontinued to seek assistance fromprofessionals. Hearing aids wereordered. Although the audiologistinitially believed that Courtney hadaccess to speech with the hearingaids, that opinion quickly changed.We invested in the best, but theydid not provide sufficient access tosound; hearing aids would not workfor Courtney. Early interventionspecialists came to our home and offered us one hour a week ofspeech-language therapy. One hour a week? It didn’t seem likeenough. If a child who is deaf is offered one hour a week ofservices, what is a child who has a mild hearing loss offered?We were told that one hour a week was the typicalrecommendation to start, and that more services were notalways better for the family and child. To me, this did not seemright. How was one hour a week of speech-language therapygoing to help her speak the same language as her family? Ithought this would consign Courtney, who was likely nevergoing to hear speech, to not being able to talk. I needed timewith expert professionals to learn; Courtney needed time formore therapy. I contacted the early intervention programdirector who reluctantly agreed to more time weekly with aspeech-language pathologist and promised to add weekly groupvisits from the professionals from school once we selected aschool for Courtney.

Ted and I reached out to professionals in special schools forchildren who are deaf. We felt that they would know best andprovide us with information to assist us on our new journey. Wevisited the special program nearest to us, and decided that thiswas where Courtney needed to be. We would travel to theprogram twice a week. Courtney would attend a parent-infantprogram for two hours each time. In addition, we, as parents,would participate in a parental support group once a week for90 minutes. Siblings were also sometimes allowed to come tothe groups, and the school offered free American Sign Language(ASL) classes one night a week for two hours. Further, we

learned about a family sign languageprogram offered by the state. We couldhave 20 weeks of ASL taught in ourhome. This service was free, and wecould invite family, friends, andcaregivers to attend at no cost.Although exhausted by the thought ofall these new weekly activities andlessons, we signed up for everythingthat was offered.

Courtney began signing almostimmediately. Her eyes would look atthings, then dart up toward us for theword. Courtney loved the speech-language pathologist who camebiweekly. At Courtney’s biweekly playgroup at the school for the deaf, shewatched her peers and seemed toabsorb everything. However, I still feltthat something wasn’t right. Duringone of our visits, I was explaining myconcerns to an audiologist when aparent overheard what I was sayingand told me about her daughter, whohad a condition called “auditory

neuropathy.” She suggested that we contact their audiologist atBoston Children’s Hospital. Although neither of us knew it atthe time, that conversation would change our lives.

Marilyn Neault, the audiologist at Boston Children’sHospital, was experienced, patient, loving, and kind. She sawus at night after a long day and explained not only the type ofhearing loss she believed Courtney had but also more aboutlanguage development, and she told us about cochlear implants.Marilyn scheduled an appointment for another ABR to confirmher suspicion. We left knowing three critical things: 1) wemust enjoy and love Courtney, 2) we must continue to provideher with language, and 3) we should never doubt ourselves asparents.

Courtney was finally diagnosed with auditory neuropathyand, at 22 months, she got her first cochlear implant. At thattime, Courtney’s ASL skills were age appropriate, bothreceptively and expressively. Although she made all kinds ofnoises with her voice, those sounds did not appear relevant tospeech. Courtney’s therapy increased once she was implanted.She joined another group at The Learning Center for the Deafin Framingham, Massachusetts. This group, exclusively focusedon children with cochlear implants, focused on learning tolisten. Her weekly therapy at home with the speech-languagepathologist changed to listening therapy and time spent on thisincreased as well. By this time, we, as a family, had completedour ASL program, and we all had basic skills. But nowCourtney began to talk. Almost as quickly as she had learned tosign, she was learning to speak. Slowly, she stopped using signs.

ODYSSEY 201424


2014 ODYSSEY

The road she was traveling was shifting, and as her parents wehad to continue to figure out what Courtney needed. Ourexpectations never changed—just the road along which wewould travel. We continued to explore and advocate for optionsto assist Courtney in reaching her full potential.

Three months before her fourth birthday, Courtney could usespeech, her cochlear implant, and lipreading to communicate.She entered the same private Montessori school as her sisters.When she was 8 years old, she began to advocate for a secondimplant. Now she wears two, and the second implant has madeanother substantial difference in her life. On the rare occasionwhen a battery dies and she has to function with only oneimplant, she is miserable. She has a friend with a cochlearimplant, and she says she doesn’t know how her friend manageswith one implant only.

Looking Back—Looking ForwardAlmost 13 years ago a miracle came into my life. That miraclechanged our family’s life and the lives of many others. WhenCourtney started the Montessori school, I returned to college tofinish my degree in early childhood education and to pursue amaster’s degree in deaf education at Smith College. I soughtthis field of education to assist other parents in helping theirchildren with hearing loss reach their full potential.

I realized my passion, and I am now a teacher of deaf andhard of hearing students. The students with whom I work areencouraged and pushed. They are challenged to be independent,to advocate, to listen, to be proud, to read, and to want to learn.Parents are expected to do their part and assist in theirchildren’s development as unique individuals. Working witheach family as a team, we create goals so that these childrenwith hearing loss will read on grade level and becomeacademically successful.

Professionals and parents should not accept that thedeplorable statistics involving deaf children and reading fitevery child or that these statistics are not subject to change.Parents should not lower their academic expectations due to adiagnosis of hearing loss. Children with hearing loss shouldnever be limited by expectations based on statistics garneredpreviously and from other children. Trust yourself as a parent.Love your child, keep your expectations high, and never giveup. Together, we will raise our children and change thestatistics for students who are deaf and hard of hearing.

The Extra Steps—Speaking OutBy Courtney Stelmack

When her mom asked her to write a short paragraph about herexpectations for herself, Courtney agreed and requested that a poemshe wrote recently during a 50-minute language arts period bepublished. The teacher asked Courtney to read the poem to hermainstream public school class, and it was selected by her teacher tobe displayed on the author’s tree. The poem has not been edited.

Hi, my name is Courtney. I am deaf, and I wear two cochlearimplants. I have very high expectations for myself—to alwaysdo my best, even when it gets tough, and to never give up onmy hopes and dreams. Life has always been challenging for mebecause, being deaf, I have to make some extra steps to get tosuccess. One of my biggest hopes is that I will one day becomea well-known author. I have always enjoyed reading andwriting. It has never been tough for me to understand lettersand words.

Recently, I wrote a poem for my seventh grade language artsclass on some things that are very difficult, e.g., bullying andsuicide. Don’t worry, the poem is not about my life but a sadreality of how many teens feel today.

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The GirlBy Courtney Stelmack

The girl with a broken smileShe’s had it for a whileHer eyes, exotic as a rare and wilting jungle flowerHer personality was as radiant as the sunHer mind was dark and drearyThey judged her on her ethnicityThey did not bluffThey were not afraid to specify every flaw she hadThey played tough, never afraidThey looked at her with a menacing scowlShe buckled under the ferocity of the words they saidHer initial reaction was to back down, and not defend herselfHer lip would quiver, her eyes red; about to cryNo one could tell that deep inside, she was brokenThey all thought she was outspokenShe acted okay with convictionTruly, she was slowly withering awayShe trudged to school every day with a heavy pain in her heartShe decided she didn’t want to stayThe blade and her skin merged togetherHer life ended that dayThey all pretended to careThey didn’t bother to shed a tearThey said they wished she was hereIt was nothing but a convoluted lieNow, the girl is free from her worries in the skyShe doesn’t have to deal with her chaotic thoughtsShe inevitability got rid of the chance of her life evergetting better


ODYSSEY 201426

Motivation: A Missing KeyWhen I worked as a teacher of deaf students, it was hard enough gettingteens to read even when they were good readers. My school was a magnethigh school just five minutes from the border of Mexico, where 95 percentof the students were Latinos. The deaf students’ experiences with languagesmay involve using American Sign Language (ASL), a sign language theymay have learned in their home country, English, and Spanish. I wanted tolearn more about the struggling Latino adolescent students’ attitudestowards reading, especially those with varied language backgroundexperiences, and if their attitudes towards the target language, English, mayhave been part of the reason they reported that they did not like reading.

I could see their frustration. Whenever my students were prompted to read, theyavoided it. They complained that they were tired or that they wanted to catch up withfriends. They depended heavily on me or another teacher to explain what the book said.

Research has shown that motivation plays an important role in literacy development,and motivation leads to differences in achievement within Latino families regardless ofsocioeconomic status or parents’ educational background (Baker, Afflerbach, & Reinking,1996; Guthrie & Wigfield, 1997).

Surely their frustration with English print was a barrier to motivation, and motivationwas critical to reading—and reading was critical; it was the key to the rest of theireducation. I expected my students to read and I had to hold them to that expectation, buthow could I motivate them? How could I induce my students to want to read? I wasanxious to find a way. I began by exploring motivation itself. It was so important.Without motivation, the students had much less chance of developing literacy.

Melissa Herzig,EdD, is the educationand research translationmanager for VisualLanguage and VisualLearning (VL2) andassociate director for theeducational neurosciencePhD program atGallaudet University.She is responsible fordeveloping and leadingassessments andevaluations of resourceswithin VL2 and forworking with schoolsaround the country,facilitating two-waycommunication betweenresearchers andeducators. Herzigreceived her bachelor’sdegree in biology fromGallaudet Universityand her master’s degreeand EdD from theUniversity of California,San Diego (UCSD). Shepreviously worked at theSalk Institute, San DiegoState University, and atUCSD as a scholarresearcher; she alsotaught deaf and hearingstudents at Chula VistaHigh School in ChulaVista, California. Herzigwelcomes questions andcomments about thisarticle at [email protected].

Photos courtesy of Melissa Herzig

By Melissa Herzig

How CanWe Motivate

Struggling LatinoAdolescents to Read?


2014 ODYSSEY 27

The Definition of MotivationTHE MOVING TARGET OF MOTIVATION

Guthrie and Wigfield (2000) definemotivation as “the cluster of personalgoals, values, and beliefs with regard totopics, processes, and outcomes ofreading that an individual possesses” (p.404). This is not the same as having aninterest, for one can have an interest inreading but choose not to read. Factorssuch as background experiences,emotions, and purpose are important.Put succinctly, motivation is whatmakes a person want to read.

KEY ELEMENTS

Biancarosa and Snow (2004) focused onmotivation and self-directed learning askey elements in successful readingprograms designed to improveadolescents’ reading. They noted that aneffective reading program would includethe following elements:

• Direct, explicit comprehensioninstruction

• Effective instructional principlesembedded in context

• Diverse texts

• Intensive writing

• Assessment (formative andsummative) of students and programs

• Extended time for literacy

Talking with StudentsBelieving that information aboutmotivation lay in the beliefs, experience,and backgrounds of my students, Iinterviewed four of them—three females(one ninth and two tenth graders) andone male (a twelfth grader). All fourstudents had learned ASL during theirelementary years. With the exception ofone mother, none of their families knewEnglish or sign language; all of thefamilies used Spanish at home.

I asked my students three sets ofquestions. The first set was about theirbackground and experiences with thelanguages they use. The second set was asurvey of questions with multiple-choice answers using the AdolescentMotivation to Read Profile (AMRP) asmodified for adolescents by Pitcher et

al. (2007). Rather than a closed-endedsurvey, I changed the format of thisquestionnaire to conduct semi-structured interviews by asking eachstudent for further explanation of his orher answers; I wanted to learn moreabout the students’ self-concepts, theirattitudes about themselves as readers,and about reading. The third and finalset involved open-ended interviewquestions in the AMRP. Thesequestions focus on narrative reading,informational reading, and generalreading, and are designed to provideinsights into students’ readingexperiences, attitudes, and motivations.I added several questions about issuesinvolving deaf people, such as questionsfocused on closed captions, television,and texting.

The AMRP is usually administered asa paper-and-pencil survey, but I signedeach question with each of the fourpossible answers and asked students tomake a choice. The interviews werevideotaped and checked for clarification.


ODYSSEY 201428

The FindingsATTITUDES TOWARD THEIR LANGUAGES

Given the frustrations of so many deafstudents with understanding how to useprinted language, and knowing thatAnglo deaf signers tend to includenegative school experiences withlanguages as a part of their life story asbilinguals (Tompkins, 2000), I hadexpected my students to report that theydevalued English. I was amazed,therefore, when my Latino deaf studentsreported that they value English quitehighly—along with Spanish and ASL.Attitudes toward language can influencestudents’ sense of self, their feelingsabout their community, and theirwillingness to use the language (Meltzer& Hamann, 2004; Cook-Gumperz,1981; Schumann, 1978). Therefore, thestudents’ positive attitudes arenoteworthy as they may positively affecttheir willingness to read.

In fact, my findings suggested thatthese students were not resistant towardreading at all. Reflecting the attitudesfound in children of immigrants (Valdes,1996), all of my students acknowledgedthat reading and writing in English is achallenge for them and that they getfrustrated at times, but none showeddisdain either for the language or forreading it.

READING: IT’S A SOCIAL ACTIVITY

My findings showed that my students’motivation to read seemed to be highlysocial. Their motivation grew fromsocial purposes and varied depending onwith whom they were reading, whatthey were reading, and their reason forreading. Opportunities to share textswith family and friends played a bigrole. The students also reportedparticipation in many out-of-schoolreading activities. Further, they reportedenjoying these reading activities. Whenreading meant watching TV shows withclosed captions, reading gossip magazinesabout stars and sharing them withfriends, texting with friends, and usingthe Internet, the students relished it.

However, the students did not classifythese activities—for which they held

natural interest and enthusiasm—asreading. Reading for my students wasdefined exclusively as an activity thatoccurred in the classroom, and theirmotivation flagged when they arrived atschool, where the activity that theyclassified as reading occurred. Therefore,they did not classify themselves asreaders because “readers” are people whoread well at school, and “reading” is aschool-based activity. In addition, being

a good school reader is not desirablesocially for these students. Two of mystudents reported that they viewed thestudents who are good school readers as“boring” and “nerdy.” My studentsrarely discussed the required schoolreadings outside of school. They saidreading, meaning the reading they didat school, was not interesting and notrelevant to their lives.

What Teachers Can DoCHANGING THE DEFINITION AND ATTITUDES

By Melissa Herzig

The findings imply that to change the students’ attitude toward reading and towardthemselves as readers, the students need to broaden their definition of reading. Theyneed to know that being a “good reader” doesn’t mean being good at an activity that isrestricted to the classroom.

This is where the teacher becomes important. We need to recognize the variousliteracy engagements that the students participate in outside of the classroom. Thisrecognition prompts us, as teachers, to broaden our scope, our strategies, and the textswe assign. In doing this, we can help maintain the students’ motivation and enablethem to fulfill our high expectations.

Here are some suggestions:

• Do a reading inventory. Help students be more aware of the reading they dooutside of the classroom. Note how they read for multiple purposes. This helpsstudents view themselves as readers.

• Expand the scope of acceptable reading material in the classroom. Includematerials from popular culture, lyrics from popular songs, the Internet, and magazines.

• Promote the social aspects of reading. Encourage students to read inenvironments in which they can share information with friends. For example, selectthe hot-selling books for teens and discuss these books in a literature circle or bookclub. Allow students to work in well-monitored pairs or small groups.

• Keep an eye out for upcoming movies based on books. Assign the book onwhich the upcoming movie is based and give students incentives to complete thebook before the movie is in theaters. The students can then compare and contrastthe book and the movie as a classroom activity.

• Identify and discuss vocabulary before assigning reading. In my study, studentssaid that vocabulary discussion that occurred before reading text was helpful.

• Use narratives or short stories as teaching strategies. Narratives capture thestudents’ attention, enable them to grasp the nuances of vocabulary, and help themanticipate and predict what the text will say.


2014 ODYSSEY

ASL and English INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD INFLUENCES

MOTIVATION

During the interviews, the studentsshared what helped them be motivatedabout reading in class, and their answersshowed that they enjoyed reading moreat school when they received supportfrom teachers. Also, they enjoyed thenarrative or visual aspects of what theyread. This finding is important as itshows that although they are strugglingreaders, they still show possibilities ofbeing motivated to read.

One said motivation was stimulatedwhen the teachers guided students withtheir reading assignment by readingaloud in ASL at the beginning of thelesson before letting them read the rest.

By readingaloud, theteachers did

not sign word forword but read the text in English andsigned it in ASL. When this occurs, theconcept in print remains the same, butASL grammatical structure replacesEnglish grammatical structure. Thestudents, regardless of their age, enjoyeda good read-aloud, and reading aloud inthis manner should not necessarily stopafter elementary school.

The reasons for the students’frustrations included use of the Englishvocabulary that they did not understandand lack of narrative connection. Thesefactors can adversely affect motivationfor struggling readers. Presentingbackground information and vocabularyreview to build on their prior knowledgeseems to be essential. The students are

comfortable with narratives because theyuse less technical language. However,with the support of vocabulary reviewand background information, thestudents can be encouraged to readexpository academic text. ASL providedaccess to content for many students.Pairing ASL with reading instructionand using it to ensure access to contentmaterial enhances the opportunities forstudents to learn and understand thematerial; for students who are not fluentin reading, it is critical.

These findings and the deaf Latinostudents in this study gave me and otherteachers a key to success in supportingtheir acquisition of better reading skills.The key is what enables them to performto the best of their ability and to live upto our high expectations. It is ourresponsibility to accept and use this key.

29

Baker, L., Afflerbach, P., & Reinking, D. (Eds.). (1996).Developing engaged readers in school and home communities. Mahwah,NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Biancarosa, G., & Snow, C. (2004). Reading next: A vision foraction and research in middle and high school literacy. New York:Carnegie Corporation of New York and Alliance for ExcellentEducation.

Cook-Gumperz, J. (1981). Persuasive talk: The socialorganization of children’s talk. In J. Green & C. Wallat (Eds.),Ethnography and language in educational settings (p. 25-50).Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Gerner de Garcia, B. (1993). Addressing the needs of Hispanicdeaf children. In K. Christensen & G. Delgado (Eds.),Multicultural issues in deafness (p. 69-90). White Plains, NY:Longman.

Guthrie, J. T., & Wigfield, A. (Eds.). (1997). Readingengagement: motivating readers through integrated instruction.Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Guthrie, J. T., & Wigfield, A. (2000). Engagement andmotivation in reading. In M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D.Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. III,pp. 403-422). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Meltzer, J., & Hamann, E. T. (2004). Meeting the literacydevelopment needs of adolescent English language learnersthrough content area learning. Part two: Focus on classroomteaching and learning strategies. Providence, RI: The EducationAlliance at Brown University.

Pitcher, S. M., Albright, L. K., DeLaney, C. J., Walker, N. T.,Seunarinesingh, K., Mogge, S., et al. (2007, February).Assessing adolescents’ motivation to read. Journal of Adolescent &Adult Literacy, 50(5), 378-396.

Schumann, J. H. (1978). The acculturation model of secondlanguage acquisition. In R. C. Gingras (Ed.), Second languageacquisition and foreign language teaching (pp. 27-50). Arlington,VA: Center for Applied Linguistics.

Tompkins, L. M. (2000). Deaf adults’ perspectives on theirbilingualism in American Sign Language and English. Doctoraldissertation, Gallaudet University, Washington, D.C.

Valdes, G. (1996). Con respeto: Bridging the distances betweenculturally diverse families and schools. New York: Teachers CollegePress.

Resource

Gambrell, L. B., Palmer, B. M., Codling, R. M., & Mazoni, S.A. (1996). Assessing motivation to read. The Reading Teacher,49, 518-533.

References


ODYSSEY 201430

Expectingthe Best:

“The beginning is the most important part of the work.”~ Plato

Effective teachers possess a repertoire of critical skills associated withstudent achievement. As one might expect, these skills relate to planning,implementing, and evaluating instruction. However, there is oneindispensable component that is not a skill in the traditional sense;nonetheless, it is an essential dimension of the learning process. I amreferring to high expectations and ensuring that teachers are able to sustainthem as they teach in the classroom. High expectations are significantbecause teachers’ expectations influence their actions and, by extension,student learning. Kauchak and Eggen (2014) describe the impact of teacherexpectations in this way:

Effective teaching begins with who you are—your beliefs aboutstudents and learning and how you interact with students as youwork with them. Your beliefs about students and learning set thestage for everything else that occurs in your classroom. (p. 349)

For example, a math teacher might feel that his middle school students are unable tohandle word problems. Therefore, he focuses primarily on computation and gives shortshrift to problems that involve words. At some point, the students take a statewide mathexamination that contains a sizable number of word problems. Predictably, the students dopoorly—not necessarily because they do not have the potential, but because they were notexposed to the concept of word problems and provided with strategies for solving them.

Carl B. Williams,EdD, is a professor inthe deaf educationteacher preparationprogram at FlaglerCollege in St.Augustine, Florida,where he has taught for25 years. Beforebecoming a teachereducator, he taughtsecondary language artsin the Deaf Departmentat the Florida School forthe Deaf and the Blind.He welcomes questionsand comments aboutthis article [email protected].

By Carl B. Williams

Photos by Susan Flanigan, John T. Consoli, and Heather Lightfoot Withrow

THE ESSENTIAL

LESSON FOR TEACHERS


2014 ODYSSEY 31

Worse, the cycle of low expectations is perpetuated because thepoor results serve to reinforce the teacher’s initial view that hisstudents could not be successful with word problems,whereupon he continues to omit problem solving from futurelesson plans.

Unfortunately, there are some commonly accepted notionsthat have become part of the narrative of deaf education. Theseinclude views that deaf and hard of hearing students are“concrete,” they “cannot achieve literacy levels on par withtheir hearing peers,” and they “can compute, but wordproblems are beyond their ability.” Andrews, Leigh, andWeiner (2004) caution against such stereotypes and stronglyencourage teachers of deaf and hard of hearing students to planin ways that are intended to maximize their academicachievement. This admonition is especially notable in light ofresearch indicating that effective teachers communicatepositive expectations for students and that these expectationsform a strong foundation for student learning (Good & Brophy,2008; Torff, 2011).

The challenge for teacher education programs is to prepareteachers to have high expectations. To achieve this outcome,teacher education programs can address positive expectationsas an integral part of their programs of study.

Discussion of expectations for students—and keeping themhigh—is a topic I approach every semester. “Giving the SpoonBack: Higher Teacher Expectations for Students Who areDeaf” (Smith, 2008) is a particularly relevant source forinitiating discussions because the article is a case study thatexamines a deaf teacher’s beliefs and the behaviors that reflectthe high expectations she has for her students. My students arealso required to write reaction papers in response to articlessuch as “A Deaf Child Learns to Read” (Rottenberg, 2001) and“Successful Students Who are Deaf in General EducationSettings” (Luckner & Muir, 2001), both of which convey thereality that younger and older deaf and hard of hearingstudents can achieve age-appropriate learning goals.

These studies are discussed in an attempt to counterbalancethe content of quantitative studies that paint a bleak picture ofdeaf and hard of hearing student achievement. As a teacher, Iemphasize that most research findings allow for generalizationsbased on average group statistics; these studies indicate littleabout the performance or potential of any individual deaf orhard of hearing child. At the same time, I find it crucial tounderscore instructional methods that demand more of deafand hard of hearing students. Simply having high expectationsis only part of the equation. Only to the extent that high-

Above and right: Keeping expectations high and

working with students on more complex concepts

helps them to excel (e.g., math word problems).


ODYSSEY 2014

quality expectations are translated into high-quality teachingdo they become meaningful. Teachers with high expectationsplan learning experiences with rigorous content.

Rigorous content in the deaf education classroom seemsespecially appropriate in light of the fact that 90 percent of thestates have adopted the Common Core State Standards (CCSS),which seek to elevate academic achievement to ensure thatstudents are well prepared for the demands of college andcareers. Undeniably, a higher standard of learning necessitates ahigher standard of teaching. Since the CCSS challenge studentsto pursue deeper levels of thought in the learning process,teachers will need to be able to implement instruction thatpromotes thinking skills. To this end, Bloom’s Taxonomy canbe of help.

Bloom’s Taxonomy, a framework originally developed in1956 and updated during the 1990s, is a classification systemthat identifies a hierarchy of six processes associated withlearning: remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing,evaluating, and creating (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Whilethe first three levels are important for establishing fundamentalinformation, higher-order thinking skills are cultivated whenteachers create assignments and ask questions at the top threelevels: analyzing, evaluating, and creating.

Some teachers may feel that their students are unable tooperate at higher cognitive levels. In these situations, teachersshould consider scaffolding, building on lower-level knowledgeand skills, until the student is able to handle higher-level work.For example, students might be nonresponsive when asked tocompare and contrast spiders and bees. However, the teachercan have the students list characteristics of spiders and of beeson separate charts. Placing these charts side by side, the teachercan have the students identify the characteristics that are the

same and those that are different. Inthis case, the teacher has used thecharts as a scaffold to raise students’participation from low-levelresponses (i.e., remembering) tohigher-level responses (i.e.,analyzing).

Educational outcomes thatchallenge students do not need toinvolve arduous instructionalplanning. In fact, many simple,straightforward learningexperiences can promote higherorder thinking skills. Consider thefollowing three examples ofactivities that require students toengage in analyzing, evaluating,and creating—the highest levels ofcognition. All three strategies canbe carried out individually, in smallgroups, or as a whole class. In

addition, they can be used in both language arts and content-area subjects in elementary and secondary classes.

Analyzing—Figuring Out RelationshipsStudents can do an activity List-Group-Label (Taba, 1967)which requires students to apply critical thinking to recognizethe relationships between words. The steps are as follows:

• Select a key concept from an upcoming lesson or unit, andhave students brainstorm related words. (List)

Key concept: Sources of EnergyWord list: coal, sun, water, natural gas, oil, wind

• Have students classify the words into semantic categories.Challenge them to explain their rationale for words theyinclude or discard. Suggest a “misfit” category for wordsthat do not seem to belong in established categories.(Group)

coal/natural gas/oil sun/water/wind

• Have students identify a heading for each group of words(Label)

sun/water/wind: unlimited; continually replenished =renewablecoal/oil/natural gas: finite; will run out = nonrenewable

renewable energy sources nonrenewable energy sourcessun coalwater oilwind natural gas

• Have students revisit their lists at the conclusion of alesson to modify the lists or category headings.

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Evaluating—Reporting on a Character Students can complete a character report card (Zwiers, 2010)which requires them to use evaluation skills to assess a literarycharacter or historical figure (e.g., explorer, scientist, president)from a content lesson. This process is consistent with the CCSSemphasis on having students provide text-based answers toquestions. The procedure is as follows:

• Decide on literary characters or actual people, living ordead.

• Identify four or five traits that the individuals wouldpossess in varying degrees.

• Develop a three-column table, identifying the character traitat the top, with the names in the left column. In columnstwo and three, place the headings “grade” and “comments.”Grades are based on behaviors exhibited throughout thebook (for literary characters) or throughout their lives (forreal people). There are several possible variations, but thecharacter report card below (shown with information for thebook Holes) is a basic format.

• Have students complete the grading process, emphasizingthe importance of the comments section because this is thespace in which they provide evidence from the reading tojustify their grades. Also, point out that multiple examplesof a trait strengthen their support for a particular grade.Teachers can use the traditional A-B-C-D-F system or anyother school-based assessment system with which theirstudents are familiar.

Creating—Writing PoetryStudents can use various short poetic formats to compose poetryrelatively quickly to represent their knowledge about a topic.Doing so engages them in deeper thinking processes as theymove from the role of reader to the more active role of writer.One format is the cinquain, a five-line poem. There aremultiple versions of this poem, but the pattern below is acommon one.

• Line 1 (noun)• Line 2 (two adjectives describing line 1)• Line 3 (three verbs ending in “ing” describing the actions

of line 1)• Line 4 (four-word phrase related to line 1)• Line 5 (synonym for, reference to, or restatement of line 1)

Here’s an example:RainforestTemperate, tropicalSelf-watering, evolving, disappearingEarth’s oldest living ecosystemBiodiversity

For Parents—AThinking Culture atHomeA culture of thinking canalso be fostered andreinforced at home. Likeeducators, parents can useactivities to develop theirchildren’s thinking skills.For example, they canallow children to plan adinner menu for a week—stipulating that it benutritious. Planning is acognitive process thatinvolves analyzing,evaluating, and creating.Parents can promoteanalysis by having theirchildren participate inorganizational household tasks, such as arranging table settings,sorting laundry, and putting items into recycling bins.

Moreover, parents can ask their offspring to considerquestions that require higher-level thinking skills. If the childis reading a book, for instance, rather than asking, “What is thebook about?” parents can ask questions such as, “How is thisstory similar to a previous book you’ve read?” or “What do youthink about how the main character behaves in the story?” or“What do you think will happen next?” These types ofquestions raise the level of thinking required for the child torespond.

2014 ODYSSEY 33

Above: Here is an example of a character report card for the book Holes.

CHARACTER REPORT CARD

BOOK: Holes by Louis Sachar

CHARACTER TRAIT: Supportiveness

Characters Grade Comments

Stanley A-

Zero B

X-Ray C

• After initially treating Zero badly, heignores peer pressure and forms afriendship with him.

• When Zero runs away, he follows himto make sure he is safe.

• In the desert, he shares his last jar ofsliced peaches with Stanley.

• He eventually apologizes for taking theshoes Stanley was accused of stealing.

• He stands up for Stanley when theother boys pick on him.

• Later, he treats Stanley with hostilitywhen Stanley befriends Zero.


ODYSSEY 2014

Opportunities for children to analyze, evaluate, and create athome as well as in school establish the consistency needed tomake critical thinking a habitual process for them.

For Teachers—Continuing to LearnStudents thrive in schools in which strong leadership supportsteachers’ ongoing pursuit of professional development toimprove their instruction because continuous learning is thehallmark of effective teachers (Sadker, Sadker, & Zittleman,2008). For teachers of deaf and hard of hearing students, theselearning experiences should not be limited to deafness-relatedworkshops and conferences.

A few years after I began teaching language arts to secondarystudents, my principal encouraged me to attend a summerwriting institute. After reviewing the information, I asked if herealized that this institute did not target deaf or hard of hearingstudents. I still remember his response: “That’s why I want youto attend. If teachers in public schools are learning aboutwriting strategies that help hearing students, we need thatinformation for our students, too.” After attending, Iimplemented many of the strategies I had learned and foundthem to be successful. After sharing some of my deaf and hardof hearing students’ written products with the coordinators ofthe institute, I was invited to do a workshop under its auspices.In the middle of my presentation, as I was displaying severalstudents’ writing samples, the irony of the situation becameinescapable. It struck me that I was standing in a filledauditorium in the nation’s eighth largest school district usingwritten products composed by deaf and hard of hearingstudents to exemplify writing techniques that teachers ofhearing students could use in their classes.

It is from this vantage point that I have been fortunate toappreciate the capabilities of deaf and hard of hearing studentsand formulate high expectations for them. And it is this type ofnarrative that teacher educators can share with their teachercandidates to tide them over until they begin to create successstories of their own with deaf and hard of hearing studentswhom they will one day teach.

When evaluating the competency of new teachers, objectivefactors such as grade point average and passing scores on teachercertification examinations are common criteria. What’s missingis evaluating the teacher’s disposition towards highexpectations; this is the disposition that would provide theimpetus for actually applying the teacher’s knowledge and theseskills with vigor and conviction. Since dispositions are notamenable to testing, teacher education programs can provideongoing opportunities for enabling teacher candidates, beforebecoming teachers, to reflect on their conceptions—andmisconceptions—about deaf and hard of hearing students’ability to learn.

Becoming certified as a professional teacher requires meetingcertain core competencies. While these competencies might

vary slightly from state to state, there is one standard that isconsistent—ethical practice—and ethical practice eschewslowering expectations for students. As Fielstein and Phelps(2001) remind us: “Ethical teachers have high expectations fortheir students; they believe all children are capable of learning.”This is, unquestionably, one of the most valuable lessons thatfuture teachers of deaf and hard of hearing students must learn.

34

References

Anderson, L., & Krathwohl, D. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy forlearning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy ofeducational objectives. New York: Addison Wesley Longman.

Andrews, J. F., Leigh, I. W., & Weiner, M. T. (2004). Deafpeople: Evolving perspectives from psychology, education, andsociology. Boston: Pearson Education.

Fielstein L., & Phelps, P. (2001). Introduction to teaching:Rewards and realities. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/ThomsonLearning.

Good, T., & Brophy, J. (2008). Looking in classrooms. Boston:Allyn & Bacon.

Kauchak, D., & Eggen, P. (2014). Introduction to teaching:Becoming a professional. Boston: Pearson Education.

Luckner, J. L., & Muir, S. (2001). Successful students whoare deaf in general education settings. American Annals of theDeaf, 146(5), 435-446.

Rottenberg, C. J. (2001). A deaf child learns to read.American Annals of the Deaf, 146(3), 270-275.

Sadker, D. M., Sadker, M. P., & Zittleman, K. R. (2008).Teachers, schools, and society. (8th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Smith, D. H. (2008). Giving the spoon back: Higher teacherexpectations of achievement for students who are deaf. TheQualitative Report, 13(4), 657-694.

Taba, H. (1967). Teacher’s handbook for elementary social studies.Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Torff, B. (2011). Teacher beliefs shape learning for allstudents. Phi Delta Kappan, 93(3), 21-23.

Zwiers, J. (2010). Building reading comprehension habits ingrades 6-12: A toolkit of classroom activities. Newark, DE:International Reading Association.


ODYSSEY 201436

High expectations are expected at all levels, but ideally are in place inpreschool. It is our job as early intervention providers to model for parentswhat high expectations look like and how to translate those expectations intofamily experiences. In our preschool program at Missouri State University,where we serve children with all communication modalities and all styles ofpersonal assistive listening devices, we emphasize the importance of highexpectations and model them. Here is a look at our program.

It began in 1989 when a Missouri State University professor, Dr. HaroldMeyers, was awarded a U.S. Department of Education grant through the Officeof Special Education to prepare future educators of students who are deaf orhard of hearing. It was through this grant that our preschool program, housedin the Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders Speech Languageand Hearing Clinic, was formed. Our preschool has supported the preparationof teachers while providing direct services to children, ages 3 to 6 years old,who are deaf or hard of hearing. We welcome children into the programregardless of communication modality and the presence of additionaldisabilities. We provide a family-centered intervention.

Infusing High Expectations into the ClassroomIn our program, we immerse deaf and hard of hearing students in expectations that they willbecome independent and literate from the moment they enter our classroom. We fill ourstudents’ environment with language, as language is the basis for all learning, whilesimultaneously involving them in emergent literacy activities. The development of language,

Ye (Angel) Wang,PhD, is an associateprofessor andcoordinator of theEducation of the Deafand Hard of HearingGraduate Program inthe Department ofCommunicationSciences and Disordersat Missouri StateUniversity.

By Ye Wang, Karen S. Engler, and Tara L. Oetting

EXPECTATIONS LEAD TO PERFORMANCE:

TheTransformativePower of

High Expectationsin Preschool

Photos courtesy of Ye Wang, Karen S. Engler, and Tara L. Oetting

Karen S. Engler,MA, is a clinicalassociate professor inthe Department ofCommunicationSciences and Disordersat Missouri StateUniversity.


2014 ODYSSEY 37

Left: A father and

daughter involved in

the Deaf Role Model

Program learn how to

sign I love you.

Far left: A mother

learns the sign family

from a deaf role model.

Tara L. Oetting,MS, is a clinical associateprofessor and preschoolteacher in the Speechand Hearing Clinic ofthe Department ofCommunication Sciencesand Disorders atMissouri StateUniversity.

The authors welcomequestions and commentsabout this article [email protected], [email protected], [email protected].

literacy, social, academic, speech, and auditoryskills is interfaced with the development of self-advocacy and independence.

Our language-intensive classroom uses arepetitive approach to vocabulary building. Itprovides students with multiple means throughwhich they can experience language and build abase for literacy. As with most preschool children,children who are deaf or hard of hearing appear tobenefit greatly from repetitive tasks, especiallythose that are more abstract in nature. The varietyof learning styles used in the classroom giveschildren the opportunity to experience languageand build literacy skills. The students constantlyreceive multiple exposures to signed, spoken, andwritten language throughout the school day. Forexample, all items in the classroom have a label,and the label includes a picture of the sign withthe printed word beneath it. This maximizes eachstudent’s opportunity to connect the printed wordwith the item itself and with its signed partner.

We use age-appropriate curricula and readingmaterials with adaptions for preschool. Forexample, as our curricular base for group reading,we use Section 1 of Reading Mastery I(SRA/McGraw-Hill, 2008), a scientifically basedreading program that has demonstrated positiveoutcomes with a wide range of students who areat risk for developing reading problems. Lessons

1-30 of Early Reading Tutor (SRA/McGraw-Hill,2007) provide additional instruction forindividuals, including 30 one-on-one, 10-minutesupplementary lessons. This also providesadditional information and allows the teacher toattend to students’ individual needs. Due to thediversity in degrees of hearing loss—many timesranging from mild/moderate to profound—and inlanguage environments in their homes, ourstudents vary significantly in their exposure andaccess to languages (spoken, signed, and written).Individual instruction, supplementing groupinstruction, is necessary to meet the needs ofthese students.

Also, in order to accommodate the uniqueneeds of students who are deaf or hard of hearing,we use multiple instructional strategies andtechnologies to adapt the mainstream curricula.For example, we use Visual Phonics, a system of46 unique hand cues and symbols that representthe sounds of English, to supplement the phonicsinstruction during both group and individualinstructions. Second, we use a digitalized PhotoLibrary to demonstrate the range of meanings foreach word presented in the word-readingactivities in the lessons of Reading Mastery I. Theextra pictorial representation of vocabulary fromthe Photo Library provides enhancedopportunities for students who are deaf or hard of


ODYSSEY 2014

hearing to develop their vocabulary,particularly words with multiplemeanings (e.g., the word “bat” has twopictures—one with the animal, one withthe baseball equipment). Third, lessonsused from Reading Mastery I werescanned into a file on a computer andshown on a SMART Board, whichenlarges the picture and print. TheSMART Board technology allowsteachers to have free hands for signingand for signaling students. SMARTBoards overcome a limitation oftraditional instruction by enablingstudents to have easy access to both theteacher’s signing and their readingmaterials; students do not have to lookdown at the print in their books. Withthe touch screen function, SMARTBoards transform the classroom into aninteractive, engaging learningenvironment. Coupled with wirelessmicrophones and built-in speakers,SMART Boards also increase students’access to spoken language.

Modeling and TranslatingBringing High Expectations Home We model high expectations for parentsof preschool children and help themtranslate those expectations into theirfamily experiences through weekly take-home DVD reading kits. The primarypurpose of the reading kits is to improvethe families’ sign language vocabulary.

Although exposed to both signing andspeech at school, a majority of thepreschoolers are not exposed to signingat home because their parents have littleor no signing skills. Free sign languageworkshops have been offered for theparents, but many parents have not beenable to attend. The reading kits arebeneficial in improving communication,therefore lessening stress, and perhapslead to increased language skills for thepreschool children.

Each reading kit consists of:

• One storybook appropriate forpreschoolers based on the Scholasticwebsite (www.scholastic.com)

• One DVD with two versions of thestorybook—one in American SignLanguage (ASL), the language thatdeaf and hard of hearing individualsuse within the Deaf community, andone in Conceptually Accurate SignEnglish (CASE), the system ofsigning conceptually correctAmerican signs in English wordorder—both of which are signed byeither the classroom teacher or agraduate clinician

• Two vocabulary packets ofapproximately 20 vocabulary wordsfor each storybook (one in ASL andone in CASE)

• A one-page handout that lists and

briefly explains the materialsincluded in the reading kit as well asinstructions on how to use the kit inthe most beneficial way

• A two-page handout that includes Tipsfor Enhancing Early Literacy in the Homeand Tips for Parents of Preschoolers

Parents typically check out one readingkit each week. A pilot investigationfound that these teacher-made, DVD-based, take-home reading kits wereeffective not only in improving signvocabulary and communication of thetwo families who participated but alsoin helping deaf and hard of hearingpreschoolers express themselves throughsigned language.

Measuring and MonitoringEnsuring Expectations Stay HighWe measure and monitor the impact ofestablishing high expectations throughvarious formal and informal assessments.For example, the formal assessments,administrated at the beginning and theend of the academic year, are:

• Test of Preschool Early Literacy(TOPEL)—The TOPEL is used totest for reading readiness in preschoolstudents and to determine areas ofstruggle that need extra assistance.There are two tested areas: PrintKnowledge, in which studentsdiscriminate between letters andother symbols and then move on toidentifying letters, and DefinitionalVocabulary, in which studentsidentify by name the picture providedand answer a question about whatthat item does.

• Word Associations for SyllablePerception (WASP)—The WASP isan assessment on auditory skilldevelopment. It includes 225 child-friendly picture cards representingthe English phonemes. It starts withsingle phonemes and simple syllabussounds (e.g., /m/, /baa/, and /s/). Thenit systematically introduces wordswith increasingly complexcombinations, such as consonant-

38


2014 ODYSSEY

vowel-consonant words.

• Goldman-Fristoe Test ofArticulation 2 (GFTA-2)—TheGFTA-2 provides information about astudent’s articulation ability bysampling both spontaneous andimitative sound production. Thestudent responds to picture plates andverbal cues from the examiner withsingle-word answers that demonstratecommon speech sounds. Additionalsections provide further measures ofspeech production. The GFTA-2measures articulation of consonantsounds, determines types ofmisarticulation, and comparesindividual performance to national,gender-differentiated norms.

• Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test 4(PPVT-4)—The PPVT-4, with 228stimulus words, quickly evaluatesreceptive vocabulary and requires noreading or writing skills.

• Woodcock-Johnson Tests ofAchievement-III (WJ-III)—Four ofthe WJ-III subtests—Letter-WordIdentification, Spelling, WordAttack, and PassageComprehension—are administered.Matching, identifying, copying, andreading symbols, including someletters and words, areincluded. A phoneticalreading of nonsensewords is also a partof the assessment.

In addition, we usemany formal andinformal assessmentsthroughout the year,monitoring progressmonthly. These include:

• Initial Sounds Fluency, asubtest from Dynamic Indicators ofBasic Early Literacy Skills, with letternames and letter sounds assessment;

• Length of Utterance, a calculationbased on collected language samples;

• Cottage Acquisition Scales forListening, Language & Speech

Analysis, based on a variety ofdiscourse skills, sentence forms, nounphrases, and subordination; and

• Woodcock-Johnson III, anassessment used for follow-up ofpreschool graduates in earlyelementary schools as well as at thebeginning and end of the academicyear for all students.

Success for Our Students!Moving Up with ExpectationsA follow-up study was conducted withthree of our preschool graduates upontheir entering elementary school, andeach of the students demonstratedoverall reading levels at or above theirage levels (Wang, Spychala, Harris, &Oetting, 2013). These three students—who had varying degrees of hearing loss,usage of amplification, and modes ofcommunication—demonstrated at leastsome use of phonemic awareness andphonics skills, and these skills weresustained in early elementary school,although their elementary schoolteachers used various reading programs.

For instance, when tested upon entryinto preschool, Emily*, who had a mildhearing loss, and Kristen, who used acochlear implant and a hearing aid,scored above average and/or average on

language- and print-based earlyreading skills compared with

their same-age hearingpeers, though eachperformed poorly onsound-based tasks. BothEmily and Kristenmade markedimprovement and

demonstrated readingskills approximately one

grade above their grade levelin early elementary school.

Nancy, with an unaided centralhearing loss and a severe languagedisorder, started our program withbelow average and significantly belowaverage scores on language- and print-based tasks, and she could not completeany sound-based tasks. Nancy required alonger time to respond to interventions

than her peers, but eventually she wasable to demonstrate an age-appropriatereading level. In early elementary school,she showed evidence of phonemicawareness and phonics skills, and sheeven performed at a slightly higher levelthan her hearing peers on some phonicstasks.

High ExpectationsAn Impact that ContinuesThe potentially transformative powergenerated from the expectations of theteachers and parents can have a massiveimpact on the development of children,particularly those who are deaf or hard ofhearing. With high expectations forpreschool deaf and hard of hearingchildren, our program at Missouri StateUniversity embraces effectiveinstructional strategies and multi-mediatechnology to meet the individual needsof each child and to ensure age-appropriate academic development onpar with that of their hearing peers. Thisis accomplished in an environment thatradiates a belief in the learning potentialof all children and embraces highexpectations for all. Our experiencedemonstrates that high expectations leadto high performance.

*All students’ names in this article arepseudonyms.

39

References

SRA/McGraw-Hill. (2007). Early readingtutor. Columbus, OH: McGraw-HillEducation.

SRA/McGraw-Hill. (2008). Readingmastery I. Columbus, OH: McGraw-HillEducation.

Wang, Y., Spychala, H., Harris, R., &Oetting, T. (2013). The effectiveness of aphonics-based early intervention for deafand hard of hearing preschool children andits possible impact on reading skills inelementary school: A case study. AmericanAnnals of the Deaf, 158(2), 107-120.


ODYSSEY 201440

“He was the only deaf student in the entire school. He had no one whocould communicate with him—not teachers, not students, not

anybody. This tugged at my heart, and I wanted to help.”~ Said by a first grade general education teacher when a child

who was deaf entered her classroom

When Jeffery* entered Woodlawn Elementary, a small, rural school inthe northeast United States, a committed team of professionals began towork collaboratively to provide services. Jeffery was born deaf andreceived a cochlear implant at the age of 4. He spent his first years ofschool in a self-contained classroom with students who had a variety ofdisabilities. After two years of using his cochlear implant and a signlanguage interpreter, Jeffery still had limited language skills though afew dedicated professionals saw his potential.

When he started first grade, Jeffery, at the direction of his Individualized EducationProgram (IEP) team, was placed in an inclusive general education classroom in whichhe was provided services, allowing him to have greater access to the curriculum and toimprove his socialization (Kluwin, 1999). For our school’s professionals, Jeffery’s entryinto an inclusive classroom was a new experience. We were a teacher of the deaf, a firstgrade general education teacher, a speech-language pathologist, an occupationaltherapist, and an interpreter. None of us had ever worked with a deaf student withcochlear implants or co-taught. We had a limited understanding of how this wouldwork. However, our high expectations and our strong desire to see Jeffery remain in thegeneral education classroom for as much of the day as possible drove us to work hard tosucceed. Each of us wrote separate goals reflecting our individual areas of expertise intoJeffery’s IEP. Now we each had to find ways to meet those goals in the context of a firstgrade curriculum, a general education classroom, and Jeffery’s same-age peers.

Karen WiseLindeman, PhD, isan assistant professor atEdinboro University ofPennsylvania, teachingin the Early Childhood/Special Educationprogram. Lindeman’sresearch interestsinclude supportingdevelopmentallyappropriate response tointervention in earlychildhood anddesigning inclusiveearly childhoodclassrooms for allchildren.

By Karen Wise Lindeman and Kathleen Magiera

A Co-TeachingModel:

COMMITTED PROFESSIONALS,

HIGH EXPECTATIONS, AND THE

INCLUSIVE CLASSROOM

Photos by John T. ConsoliCharts courtesy of Karen Wise Lindeman and Kathleen Magiera


2014 ODYSSEY 41

Researchers (Kloo & Zigmond, 2008;Scruggs, Mastropieri & McDuffie, 2007) haveindicated that the key to successful co-teachingis the planning of the general educationcurriculum by a team of professionals to bestmeet the needs of students with and withoutdisabilities. The general educator is “thecontent specialist,” while the special educationteam members are “the learning specialists.” Byinterfacing these skills, instruction in thegeneral education classroom can be enhanced tomeet the needs of a student with special needs,in this case, a student who was deaf (Kauffman& Hallahan, 2005).

That year, as we shared the responsibility forproviding Jeffery’s education and services, webecame a team. The results were amazing.Jeffery excelled both academically and socially.He earned high grades and made friends withmany of his hearing classmates. At the end ofthe year, the family, the administration, and theother teachers were amazed.

As professionals we looked back on theexperience as one of our most rewarding—andwe decided to take a closer look and reflect onour year to improve our own practices andhopefully help others. We wanted to explorewhy this collaborative model worked and how agroup of professionals from different

disciplines, each with different goals for thestudent and with no experience working with adeaf child with a cochlear implant, cametogether to make Jeffery’s year a success.Further, we wanted to see if we could use ourexperience and develop a co-teaching model tosupport other students with cochlear implantsin a general education classroom. In otherwords, what did we do right? Just asimportantly, what could we have done better?

How It WorkedCo-Teaching: A Framework We began, of course, with high expectations.We shared a faith in our student. We knew thatJeffery could do the work. We knew that if weteamed up effectively, he would be able tosucceed in his inclusive classroom.

The Magiera-Simmons Quality IndicatorModel of Co-Teaching (Magiera, Simmons, &Hance, 2008) delineates a “quality process” toensure that co-teachers collaborate successfullyand achieve the best results for their students.We received Institutional Review Boardapproval, and each team member agreed to beinterviewed and videotaped about herexperience. By viewing the videos andanalyzing them using the co-teachingframework created by Magiera et al. (2008), we

Kathleen Magiera,EdD, is an associateprofessor of SpecialEducation at the StateUniversity of New York,Fredonia. Magiera’sresearch interests includeco-teaching at theelementary and secondarylevels, developing highquality field experiencesin schools for teachercandidates, and usingblogs to coach teachercandidates during fieldplacements.

The authors welcomequestions and commentsabout this article [email protected] [email protected].


were able to see what went well and how we could improve ourinstruction.

Stage 1: PlanningDECIDING ON DISTRICT-WIDE COLLABORATION

At this stage, all the professionals who will be involved withthe student agree to collaborate, and this may involveidentifying and sharing an understanding of what co-teachingmeans. For us, the decision to collaborate came out of the desireto see Jeffery in the general education classroom. The decisionwas a grassroots effort from the teachers—an “out-of-necessitycollaboration” in the words of our speech-language pathologist.Support from the administration was vital. Noted the generaleducation teacher, “Our administration gave us the leeway toarrange things the way [they] needed to be.” Added anotherprofessional, “The administration trusted us to do what wasbest … they trusted each of us as professionals, each an expertin our area.”

Stage 2: Professional DevelopmentRECEIVING TRAINING IN CO-TEACHING DELIVERY

The general education teacher and the related service providersneed to establish a common vocabulary and consistent ideas forwhat co-teaching means (Magiera et al., 2008). In our situation,however, our team had no training. There was a lot of trial anderror. Observed the occupational therapist, “Collaboration wasall of us coming together as a team and just being there forsupport, encouragement, and problem solving.” Professionaldevelopment was an area in which our team was lacking andfrom which we could have benefited.

Stage 3: Setting StandardsDECIDING WHAT IS IMPORTANT

Successful collaboration requires explicit expectations for allstudents in the inclusive classroom, including the student witha disability. For us, standards evolved as the year progressed;however, we prioritized Jeffery’s inclusion in the generaleducation curriculum and his acceptance by his peers. Thespeech-language pathologist summarized, “We were alwayslooking at the curriculum, at the context. What did the studentneed to know? What were his peers learning? What will he beaccountable for? The [general education teacher’s] lesson planswere the driving force [that determined our services].” Thegeneral education teacher photocopied her weekly lesson plansand shared them with the team, but we needed time to “checkin” or, as the general education teacher said, “We needed [timefor] a sit-down discussion.” The speech-language pathologistremembered, “We had to get creative … to stay in touch.” Aweekly team meeting was instituted. We met during one of thegeneral education teacher’s preparation periods and eventuallyincluded a requirement for weekly meetings in Jeffery’s IEP.“Getting four different service providers in a room at the sametime each week was difficult,” noted the occupational therapist.“However, it was so important … really worth it.”

Stage 4: ReflectionCLARIFYING ROLES, REINFORCING LEARNING

Co-teaching professionals need time to ask questions andcompare strategies while they plan together. The weekly teammeetings were critical for this. For example, during themeeting, the speech-language pathologist would sharesomething that was successful in therapy with the team, andthe general education teacher would implement this strategy inthe classroom. These meetings allowed the collaborativeinstructional process to evolve in a positive direction. “Here iswhere he is struggling,” the occupational therapist might note,or “This was too difficult; let’s break it down,” the speech-language pathologist might observe. We took the time to seewhere Jeffery needed extra assistance or guidance and used thisinformation to help other team members design instruction forthe coming week.

42 ODYSSEY 2014

TerminologyWhat is the difference betweenmainstreaming and inclusion?

Mainstreaming refers to educating a child with specialneeds in a general education classroom when he or she isable to fit into the classroom. If special help, differentiation,or remediation is needed, the child is removed or ‘pulledout’ for these services.

In inclusive classrooms, all children are educated together—they are all included regardless of the differentiation orremediation needed. Typically modifications are made inthe general education classroom with no or limited pulloutservices. Extensive collaboration between professionals isneeded.

What is Collaboration?Collaboration is the process whereby special and generaleducation teachers implement the services (Magiera,Simmons, Marotta, & Battaglia, 2005).

What is Co-Teaching?Co-teaching, a specific form of collaboration, is a specialeducation service delivered to students with disabilities. Ithas shown promise for blending professional expertise tobetter serve students with disabilities within generaleducation classrooms (Muller, Friend, & Hurley-Chamberlain, 2009). Murawski (2012) has described co-teaching as “substantively different” than a solo-taughtclass with isolated services.


Stage 5: External ObservationPROCURING AN OUTSIDE PARTNER

Cramer and Nevin (2006) found that co-teachers, feeling underprepared tocollaborate, can find an outside partneruseful. This partner can be an outsideindividual, agency, or instructional toolthat helps in balancing self-study andreflection to identify strengths andconcerns about how the team isfunctioning. For us, the “outside partner”that allowed reflection was the Magiera-Simmons Quality Indicator Model of Co-Teaching (Magiera et al., 2008). Usingthis model allowed us to take a step backand analyze our work.

Stage 6: Student AchievementASSESSING THE STUDENT’S

PERFORMANCE

In this last stage, the impact of the co-teaching on student achievement isconsidered (Magiera et al., 2008). Jefferyimproved his scores on AIMSweb (ameasure of words read correctly perminute) each quarter, moved to the nextreading level at a rapid pace, beganwriting simple sentences on his own, andeventually did not need occupationaltherapy. The general education teacherwas especially excited to see that Jefferyhad met so many social goals. “[Jefferyhad] conversations at lunch,” she noted.“He was invited to a friend’s house. [He

was] invited to his first birthday party.” While these strides might seem normal for some students, for

this deaf child who was placed in an inclusive classroom in asingle jump and with some English language delays to boot,they were extraordinary. Seeing Jeffery’s progress and hearingthe stories of his success, the team was encouraged to keepworking and adjusted instruction to best meet his needs.

What We LearnedFrom reviewing the teachers’ reflections and aligning these to ahigh quality co-teaching model provided by Magiera and hercolleagues, we found the following critical to Jeffery’s success:

• COMMUNICATION

For us, the team meetings were essential. “[We used the teammeeting to] reflect on what was going on, for seeing progress andseeing our struggles,” noted the occupational therapist. “[Thesemeetings allowed us to] get on the same page and reflect.”

Most of the published co-teaching literature focuses onlogistics, ongoing co-planning, and compatibility inteaching philosophy of special and general education

2014 ODYSSEY 43

COOK, B. G., & TANKERSLEY, M. G. (2013). RESEARCH-BASED PRACTICES IN SPECIAL EDUCATION (1ST ED., PP. 120).

UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ: PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. REPRINTED WITH PERMISSION.

6Student Achievement

Impact “Collecting Outcome

Data”

5External Observations

“ExaminingCollaborative

Practices”

2Professional Development

“Starting theCollaborative Process”

QUALITY CO-TEACHING

4The Reflective Practice

“Supporting Co-Teachers”

3Setting Collaborative

Standards“Adopting a Model”

1Co-Teaching“Planning toCollaborate”

Magiera-Simmons Quality Indicator Model of Co-Teaching


ODYSSEY 2014

teachers (Bauwens, Hourcade, & Friend, 1989;Friend & Cook, 2010; Murawski, 2012). Specialeducation teachers respond positively tolearning more about the general educationcurriculum. At the same time, generaleducation teachers enjoy the assistance of a teamof specialized professionals. “I needed thesupport,” said the general education teacher. “Iwould not have been able to make as manygains with [Jeffery] … without having theadditional support.”

The speech-language pathologist spoke aboutthe importance of the easy and informalcommunication afforded by proximity. “Wecould talk before school, after school, in themiddle of the day in the hall. We were lucky.”By “lucky,” she meant that the teacher of thedeaf was not an itinerant teacher coming for 45minutes a day but rather a member of the schoolfaculty, enabling our team to have the teacher asa partner. The general education teachercommented, “Working with a deaf student wasvery different for me. I didn’t completelyunderstand how to approach things. Workingwith a teacher of the deaf helped me a lot.”

The speech-language pathologist noted thatcommunication allowed her to use the student’sclasswork as part of her therapy. “Honestly, if wedidn’t have the team meetings, I wouldn’t haveknown [these assignments were] happening. Wewould have been writing sentences [inisolation—in pullout therapy] about somethingelse … that would have been good as well butnot as functional.”

The team meeting was an important part of Jeffery’s successbecause it meant scheduled and regular communication; theinformal meetings were also critical.

• PROFESSIONAL RESPECT

“I am so fortunate to work with colleagues that are so enthusiastic,and everyone cares,” said the speech-language pathologist. “Itis really the bottom line.”

Scruggs et al. (2007), in their meta-analysis of 32qualitative studies on co-teaching, found thatcompatibility among professionals was the most importantelement in successful co-teaching relationships. Therespect, compassion, and sense of shared responsibility wereevident on our team. The general education teacher referredto the teacher of the deaf as an expert in deaf education.“The only thing I could have asked for was more of it,” shenoted. “More time to have the [teacher of the deaf] in theclassroom.” Additionally, she noted, “We shared

everything. We shared the room, we shared the otherchildren in the room, and we shared our student. Wetrusted each other to be honest when things were workingor weren’t working.” “I can’t take credit,” continued thespeech-language pathologist. “It was everyone workingtogether … none of us would have had the success we hadin isolation.”

• HIGH EXPECTATIONS

“We all were looking out for the student’s best interest,” said thespeech-language pathologist.

Not only did we respect each other professionally andpersonally, but each team member cared about Jeffery. Eachknew he could be successful. “We all were so invested in[Jeffery],” affirmed the occupational therapist. “There wassomething really special about that.” His behaviorimproved greatly as he began to see the teachers’ level ofconcern. “He could catch the vibe,” the occupationaltherapist said. “I remember he was surprised that we all

44

Planning ExampleScience Unit: Oceans

First Grade Common Core Standards for this Assignment*

English Language Arts Writing— Write informative/explanatory texts which name atopic, supply some facts about the topic, and provide some sense of closure.

English Language Arts Writing— Participate in shared research and writing projects.

English Language Arts: Speaking and Listening— Add drawings or other visual displaysto descriptions when appropriate to clarify ideas, thoughts, and feelings.

English Language Arts: Speaking and Listening— Produce complete sentences whenappropriate to task and situation.

*Retrieved from www.corestandards.org


2014 ODYSSEY

talked [about him]. He picked up on that.” “We all hadcompassion,” added the general education teacher. “If youdon’t have that, there is no reason to be [teaching].”

Compassion combined with our belief in Jeffery’s potentialsuccess and our planning to allow him to succeed and enabledJeffery to feel the teacher’s concerns, as did his classmates. As hebecame a full member of the first grade classroom, his self-esteem increased, his social goals were met, and he hadacademic success.

Common Core and Our WorkAs the general education teacher prepared her class to meetCommon Core State Standards, we joined her in designinginstruction, interventions, and accommodations for Jeffery. Thegeneral education teacher reported, “I would go over the mainpoints [of the lesson plan that] everyone in the classroom wasexpected to know. Then [the team would discuss] what

specifically we needed todo to enable [Jeffery toglean the same knowledgeand skills as his peers] andwe worked from there.”She continued, “Westarted with the goals forthe class for the week. Wepicked them to littlepieces; we took themapart.” With the CommonCore State Standardsimplemented in a majorityof states, it is essential forteachers of the deaf to use acollaborative approachwhile working withstudents in the generaleducation classroom.

By having a team thatcommunicated well,respected each other’s areaof expertise, and set highexpectations, a young deafchild was able to thrive inan inclusive classroom,both academically and

socially. Co-teaching and collaboration were the precursors tothis success—and we believe that most other students who aredeaf can succeed if the professionals involved in their programsare supported by this approach. Our collaboration enabled thehigh expectations that we had for our student to also be fairones. We are relieved and proud that we—Jeffery and the teamof professionals who supported him—succeeded.

*The student’s name in this article is a pseudonym.

45

References

Bauwens, J., Hourcade, J., & Friend, M. (1989).Cooperative teaching: A model for general and specialeducation integration. Remedial and Special Education, 10,17-22.

Cramer, E., & Nevin, A. (2006). A mixed methodologyanalysis of co-teacher assessments. Teacher Education andSpecial Education, 29, 261-274. Available fromhttp://tes.sagepub.com/

Friend, M., & Cook, L. (2010). Interactions: Collaborationskills for school professionals (6th ed.). New York: Longman.

Kauffman, J. M., & Hallahan, D. P. (2005). Special education:What it is and why we need it. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Kloo, A., & Zigmond, N. (2008). Co-teaching revisited:Redrawing the blueprint. Preventing School Failure, 52, 12-20.

Kluwin, T. N. (1999). Co-teaching deaf and hearingstudents: Research on social integration. American Annals ofthe Deaf, 144(4), 339-44.

Magiera, K., Simmons, R., & Hance, S. (2008). Secondaryco-teaching: A quality process. Impact on InstructionalImprovement, 34(1), 18-25.

Magiera, K., Simmons, R., Marotta, A., & Battaglia, B.(2005). A co-teaching model: A response to students withdisabilities and their performance on NYS assessments.School Administrators Association of New York Journal, 34(2),9-12.

Muller, E., Friend, M., & Hurley-Chamberlain, D. (2009,May) State-level approaches to co-teaching. Project Forum atNASDSE. Available from http://www.projectformum.org.

Murawski, W. M. (2012). 10 tips for using co-planningtime more efficiently. Teaching Exceptional Children, 44(4), 8-15.

Scruggs, T. E., Mastropieri, M. A., & McDuffie, K. (2007).Co-teaching in inclusive classrooms: A meta-analysis ofqualitative research. Exceptional Children, 75, 392-416.

Zigmond, N., Magiera, K., Simmons, R., & Volonino, V.(2013). Strategies for improving student outcomes in co-taught general education classrooms. In B. G. Cook, & M.Tandersley, Research-based practices in special education (p. 120).Upper Saddle, NJ: Pearson.

By having a team

that communicated

well, respected

each other’s area of

expertise, and set

high expectations,

a young deaf child

was able to thrive

in an inclusive

classroom, both

academically and

socially.


“The principal gave me the list of my students’ names and the location ofmy classroom and then ‘washed his hands’ of me. He did not require me tosubmit weekly plans like other teachers, and my students and I were notinvited to Field Day or even to assemblies. From the beginning it wasclear: I’d ‘only’ be teaching in sign language, and I was on my own.”

The quotation above is adapted from the remarks of a recent graduate ofthe master’s program at Gallaudet University, who began teaching studentswho were deaf and had an additional disability in a public school—and whowas astounded at the attitudes and practices she confronted there. She wassimply not prepared for the low expectations communicated by theprincipal or the exclusionary practices she and her students faced in theschool community.

A study at Gallaudet University revealed that she was not alone, either in facing suchpractices or in feeling unprepared to face them. The study showed one of the biggestchallenges teachers of deaf students and deaf students with disabilities face ismarginalization within their schools and programs. Teacher education programs do notpresent sufficient information for teachers about students with disabilities or for specialeducation teachers about strategies to work effectively with deaf students (Borders & Bock,2012), nor do teacher education programs prepare those who will teach these students forthe reality of the lack of understanding and indifference that they will face from theireducator peers.

It is a reality that has negative effects for the teachers, and, perhaps more importantly, fortheir students. Maintaining high expectations in the classroom is not simply a matter of

Heidi M.MacGlaughlin, EdS,is a program evaluationspecialist at the TexasSchool for the Deafproviding professionaldevelopment training inAmerican Sign Languageand English bilingualeducation to teachers andstaff. Her researchinterests focus on earlylanguage acquisition andliteracy among young deafchildren as well as on thetopics of research ethicsand social justice withinDeaf communities.

46 ODYSSEY 2014

Photo by John T. Consoli

By Heidi M. MacGlaughlin and Donna M. Mertens

HIGH EXPECTATIONS REQUIRE

SUPPORTING NEW TEACHERS ,

Educating theSchool Community


472014 ODYSSEY

teacher training and individual disposition. Itis much more complicated. The expectations ofschool administrators, other teachers, and evenother students factor into the achievement ofstudents (Mertens, Holmes, Harris, & Brandt,2007). Further, parental expectations arecritical (Marschark and Hauser, 2012). All ofthese factors make an already complex situationeven more complicated.

The evidence of discrimination andmarginalization is daunting. As one youngteacher noted:

“Teachers in the mainstream resist our [deaf andhard of hearing] students, especially [deaf]students with multiple disabilities.”

Still another new graduate wrote:

“Although my students … go to other[teachers’] classes, [these] teachers view me asresponsible for my students’ behavior anddiscipline throughout the day. For instance, ifmy students misbehave, other teachers come and

tell me to do this or that. I tell them that theyhave every right to discipline the studentsthemselves. Why come to me? What message doesthat send to regular students? That we’re not oneof them? It’s frustrating.”

These challenges are not present only inpublic schools and mainstream settings. Oneteacher from a residential school for deafstudents remarked on the same phenomenon.“It’s almost like the multiple disabilities/special needs section is totally separate, anisland opposed to the regular deaf school. I hatethe separation. I’ve worked there two years, andmany teachers at the regular deaf schoolbuilding look at me as if I’m a visitor,” she said.

One of our graduates noted that whilepreschool classes tend to integrate studentswith disabilities successfully, the separation ofstudents who are less traditionally abled beginsin the early grades. “Elementary teachers inregular education classes turn up their noses atus,” the graduate remarked. “High school kids

Left: Connie

Stevens, daughters

Grace and Tess,

and husband Dan

enjoy some family

time.

Donna M.Mertens, PhD, is aprofessor in theDepartment ofEducation at GallaudetUniversity where sheteaches graduate-levelresearch and evaluationcourses. Her researchinterests include theintersection of socialjustice and researchmethodology formarginalizedpopulations with a focuson transformation indomestic andinternational contexts.She recently authoredProgram EvaluationTheory and Practice withAmy Wilson, which waspublished by GuilfordPress in 2012.



ODYSSEY 2014

are separated, and their teachers havevery negative attitudes about our kids… . Their students internalize thisand pick on special needs and disabledstudents. [The attitude is] ‘What’swrong with them?’”

These experiences are painful, andthey can be demoralizing. How canyoung teachers be expected to maintainstrong expectations for their studentswhen they find their classes and theirwork—in fact, often their professionalselves—being constantly diminishedand devalued? How can they provideopportunities for their students whenthe message that they and their studentsconfront daily from all those aroundthem is one of irrelevance? Whatmessage does it send to students andteachers when the achievement ofstudents is meaningless to the rest of theschool?

As one of teacher remarked, “We needto coordinate to have equality.” Thiscoordination can begin in teachereducation programs.

Teaching Advocacy in theFace of Low ExpectationsThe teachers in our study suggested thatteacher education programs beginaddressing the environment that soon-to-graduate teachers will face—andteach these new graduates advocacyskills. By being prepared for the lowexpectations and negative attitudes ofmany in the professional community,new teachers would be better able toadvocate for appropriate inclusion. Asone recent graduate remarked: “I’d liketo see more general education teachershave information about specialeducation students. I would likemainstream students not to look downon students with disabilities. I’d likethem to learn to be more accepting.”The graduate went on to speculate thatinter-school socializing and participationin athletics might be venues in whichdeaf students and students withdisabilities could be included. Thecomplexity of this issue, however, seemsto call for providing ongoing support for

new teachers through access to advocacynetworks and experienced teachers.

Mentoring—pairing new teachersone-on-one with experienced teachers—may be especially helpful. Experiencedteachers can support the new teachersand perhaps meaningfully assist withproblems, including negativeperceptions of other teachers. Aftergraduation, only 47 percent ofbeginning teachers in the Gallaudetstudy had a mentor (Mertens et al.,2007). Further, finding the right mentorwas not easy, as this graduate explained:“They [wanted to give] me a mentor butthey couldn’t figure out who… . Afterseveral months, they finally gave mesomeone at my school, but she was not agood fit. If I’d had a mentor fromGallaudet, even if it was a second-yearteacher from Gallaudet who could havebeen my mentor, that would have beenbetter.”

One faculty member in a teachereducation program agreed that having a

mentor and ongoingsupport network wasimportant. “I would haveliked to see a mentoring-type relationship thatwould pair [new graduates]with a teacher the first yearand develop a mentorship.That would really help,especially for the first year ofteaching. That would have been anotherpiece that would have been really nice.The [teacher education graduates] needto be able to remain in contact with eachother… . We should also teach themthat it is their responsibility to mentoryounger teachers.”

When flesh and blood mentoring isimpossible, the Internet offers ways toprovide information and support.University programs can set up chatrooms or discussion boards where newteachers have access to other newteachers, more experienced teachers, anduniversity faculty. Teachers can usetechnology to discuss issues with otherprofessionals throughout the country,raising issues around the lowexpectations and marginalization of theirprograms. They can also access ideas formaterials, resources, and strategies, andways to help them advocate for theirstudents.

Resources include publications thatconcern inclusion strategies for deafstudents with additional disabilities,staff/professional developments,trainings, and community/parentmeetings. Organizations that haveresources for parents and schoolcommunities for advocacy activities fordeaf students include the following.Search these sites using the word“advocacy” and many resources willappear.

• Hands & Voices(www.handsandvoices.org)—Anadvocacy organization thatemphasizes the individuality of eachchild and the parents’ right todecide communication methods,Hands & Voices produces a guide,RAdvocacy and the New Vocabulary of

48

When flesh and blood

mentoring is

impossible, the

Internet offers ways

to provide information

and support.

University programs

can set up chat rooms

or discussion boards

where new teachers

have access to other

new teachers, more

experienced teachers,

and university faculty.


Power (Seaver, 2002), and a short paperon communication with childrenwhom they call “deaf plus,” meaningdeaf children who have additionalconditions (Beams, no date).

• Laurent Clerc National DeafEducation Center, GallaudetUniversity(http://clerccenter.gallaudet.edu)—TheClerc Center offers various materialsto help new teachers of deaf andhard of hearing children, includingthe 20 to 50 percent who haveaccompanying disabilities, withmaterial that can be downloaded forfree from its website, such asCreating a Multicultural SchoolClimate for Deaf Children and TheirFamilies (Sass-Lehrer, Gerner deGarcia, & Rovins, 1997). Alsooffered is the recently-launchedDeaf Students with DisabilitiesNetwork, a free, interactive networkthat provides families andprofessionals with resources relatedto deaf and hard of hearing studentswith additional disabilities.

• American Society for DeafChildren (ASDC)(www.deafchildren.org)—Perhaps theoldest advocacy organization forparents of deaf and hard of hearingchildren, ASDC publishes TheEndeavor, a magazine geared towardparents of deaf and hard of hearingchildren, and Autism in DeafChildren by Dr. Ann Moxley, a PDFfile that can be downloaded for free(check under “Resources”).

• Commission of Deaf, DeafBlindand Hard of HearingMinnesotans (www.mncdhh.org)—This state organization seems to bethe only one of its kind, and it listsa multitude of resources.

• Educational Resource Center onDeafness(www.info.texasdhhresources.org)—Located in Texas, this website has amyriad of resources available.

Positive experiences in schools for newgraduates do occur. One student in themaster’s program who did an internshipin a public school reported that theexperience was a constructive one. “Theinternship … taught me to feel ‘I can doit,’” she remarked. “It was verywelcoming. Everyone … was supportiveand willing to help.”

Raising expectations for deaf students,especially those with a disability, is amulti-faceted challenge. As members of

a community of educators, we need tohelp our newest teachers faceenvironments that are not alwayssupportive. We have to give them thetools they need to advocate forthemselves and for their students withintheir school communities. As onegraduate of the teacher educationprogram at Gallaudet summed up: We need our young graduates to teachadministrators, other teachers, andstudents that “the whole school needs totake responsibility of taking care ofeveryone.”

References

Beams, D. (no date). Deaf plus [On-line]. In Hands & Voices,Communication considerations A-Z.Retrieved October 1, 2013, fromhttp://www.handsandvoices.org

Borders, C. M., & Bock, S. J. (2012,February). Preparing teachers of the deaf for a complex student population.Paper presented at the meeting of theAssociation of College Educators-Deaf& Hard of Hearing, Jacksonville, FL.

Marschark, M., & Hauser, P. (2012).Deaf children learn: What parents andteachers need to know. New York:Oxford University Press.

Mertens, D. M., Holmes, H., Harris,R., & Brandt, S. (2007). ProjectSUCCESS: Summative evaluation report.Washington, DC: GallaudetUniversity.

Sass-Lehrer, M., Gerner de Garcia, B.,& Rovins, M. (1997). Creating amulticultural school climate for deafchildren and their families. Washington,DC: Pre-College National MissionPrograms, Gallaudet University.

Seaver, L. (2002). Radvocacy and thenew vocabulary of power. Greeley, CO:National Center on Low-IncidenceDisabilities.

2014 ODYSSEY 49


ODYSSEY 201450

In June of 2013, Daniella* became the first student from our deaf/blindprogram to graduate from St. Francis de Sales School for the Deaf inBrooklyn, New York, and last September she began high school at thePerkins School for the Blind. We felt special pride in this graduation, asDaniella’s achievement reflected the high expectations that we had forher—and have for all of our students.

The deaf/blind program was set up at St. Francis in December of 2009, and Daniella wasone of its original students. At first Daniella communicated through behavior, (e.g.,screaming, crying, biting, kicking). The school staff worked with her constantly,requesting that she use language in the form of signs and tactile symbols instead.

Daniella’s vision continued to deteriorate, but her behavior and use of languageimproved. Eventually she became blind, but this did not stop her. She became a Braillereader and proficient at tactile sign language. She expressed her needs and wants clearlyand sought out people with whom she could communicate. Her schedule was completelyBrailled, and she read and followed it independently.

Today four students are in the deaf/blind program. Two of the students, 14 and 15 yearsold, are blind. The other two students, 6 and 7 years old, have limited functional vision.All of the students work on a lower academic and cognitive level than their same-agepeers; their curriculum focuses on life skills, self-help skills, daily living skills, basiccommunication skills, and basic independence and mobility skills. None of the studentsread Braille and none use or understand sign language consistently, though tactile andvisual signs are used with them throughout the day.

Only one student, Tahreem, copies the signs we use, and she only copies a few basicsigns (e.g., “eat,” “drink,” “cooking,” “more”) usually just when prompted. Nevertheless,as our deaf/blind students begin to learn to extend their hands to feel our signing, we

Photos courtesy of Kimberly Mockler

Kimberly Mockler,MA, MEd, received herbachelor’s degree inhistory/ secondaryeducation from the StateUniversity of New Yorkat Geneseo and hermaster’s degrees in deafeducation and specialeducation, with aconcentration in mentalretardation, fromTeachers College,Columbia University.She has worked at theHelen Keller NationalCenter for Deaf-BlindYouths and Adults inSands Point, New York,and taught for two yearsfor the New York CityDepartment ofEducation as a teacher ofdeaf and hard of hearingstudents, first as anitinerant teacher andthen as a self-containedmiddle school classroomteacher. For the pasteight years, Mockler hastaught at St. Francis deSales School for the Deafin Brooklyn, New York,as an Upper Schoolteacher, a special needsteacher, and currently asthe teacher of thedeaf/blind class. Shewelcomes questions andcomments about thisarticle at [email protected].

High Expectations forDeaf/Blind Students

Using aTeam Approach

By Kimberly Mockler

ESTABLISHING AND MAINTAINING


2014 ODYSSEY

expect that they will learn somefunctional sign language and pairtheir signs with tactile symbols tocommunicate their needs and wants.

The students are in my self-contained deaf/blind classroom fulltime within the Special NeedsDepartment at St. Francis. All havevision services with the teacher of thevisually impaired three to five days aweek, for 30 minutes to one hour aday depending on their degree ofvisual loss. They also see an itinerantorientation and mobility teacher oncea week for 30 minutes to one hourdepending on their mobility needs.

Goals and expectations for each of

the deaf/blind students are created intheir Individualized EducationProgram through informal and formalobservations and assessments done bystaff. I create a student protocol thatoutlines behaviors, both positive andnegative, and how each behaviorshould be addressed at the beginningof each school year, and this isupdated regularly. The protocol alsoaddresses how each student functionsand communicates and his or herindividual needs, which may include aspecial diet, feeding procedures, orhow to safely transition fromwheelchair to floor mat. This protocolis shared with all staff that work with

the deaf/blind students to ensure thatconsistency and high expectations aremaintained.

As a teacher of the deaf as well asthe classroom teacher, I work veryclosely with the teacher of the visuallyimpaired. This involves sharing ideas,resources, and lesson plans for thedeaf/blind students. Our lessons andgoals are very similar and overlap inseveral areas. A major challenge forboth of us is maintaining highexpectations for our students whilestill presenting lessons at theappropriate cognitive level. Theteacher of the visually impaired and Iare presented daily with the task of

51

Clockwise from top left:

Tahreem works on a puzzle;

a variety of tangible symbols

hang on the Velcro board in

the classroom; Tahreem

locates the tangible symbol

for gym among a selection of

symbols on the classroom

Velcro board; and the

classroom Touch Wall has an

assortment of tactile objects

with interesting textures for

the students to explore

during sensory time.


helping the students learn to beindependent and not depend on promptsto perform basic tasks. For example,students should not have to beprompted to open and close doors, pullout and push in chairs, feed themselves,get dressed and undressed, or use thetoilet.

To address this issue, the teacher ofthe visually impaired created largetactile picture symbols for each part ofthe students’ day,including eating anddrinking as well asgoing to the toilet,physical education, thelibrary, vision services,speech, and on fieldtrips. These symbols,tangiblerepresentations ofimportant activities,are multi-layeredcardboard rectanglesbundled with whitetape and glued intowhite cardboardbacking. On the backof each is a strip of

Velcro. They arehung up in myclassroom on twolarge Velcroboards within easyaccess from boththe classroomdoorway and thehooks where thestudents keeptheir canes andfanny packs.

While none ofthe students yethas shown anunderstanding ofthis system ortheir schedule, the

expectation is that with daily modelingand use of this tactile communicationsystem and schedule, they will. In fact,we expect that they will begin tointernalize it and use it moreindependently.

Toilet training is one of the majorchallenges we work on daily with eachstudent. The expectation is that thestudents can and will be trained to usethe toilet appropriately. Each student

has a bathroom schedule, and each iskept on this schedule rigidly. Efforts aremade to reinforce the idea of thenecessity of toileting, the scheduling oftoileting, and the language surroundingtoileting. Each time the two classroomassistants and I bring the students to thebathroom, an event that occurs three orfour times a day, we follow the sameroutine. Before leaving the classroom,we tactilely sign “bathroom” to thestudents, who are then presented with atactile picture symbol for bathroom(which looks like a bathroom tile). Thestudents are prompted to sign back“bathroom” and to place the tactilesymbol into their fanny packs. Theythen take their canes off the hook andwalk to the bathroom as independentlyas possible. Once at the door to thebathroom, there is a plastic bin andVelcro strips on the door molding. Thestudents place the tactile picture symbolfor “bathroom” on the Velcro strip. Theyare again tactilely signed “bathroom.”This is done to help them connect thesign for “bathroom” with the tactilepicture symbol for “bathroom,” with theevent of toileting, and with the actual

ODYSSEY 201452

Right: Tahreem works

with her tactile schedule

while working on a puzzle.


location of the bathroom. Once theyfinish, they must take the tactile picturesymbol off the Velcro strip and place itin the plastic bin, which we call the“finished” bin. Staff then tactilely sign“bathroom finished” to the students,who are encouraged to sign “bathroomfinished” back.

This is how the staff at St. Francisconstructs every activity with deaf/blindstudents. Tactile American SignLanguage and the appropriate tactilesymbol are selected before the activitybegins. The tactile symbol is placed in abin, and the appropriate sign is coupledwith the sign “finished” to mark theactivity’s end. Each classroom that thedeaf/blind students go to (i.e.,occupational therapy room, physicaltherapy room, gym, art room, schoollibrary, speech room) has Velcro strips onthe door molding.

In my class, students also have astand-up horizontal cardboard schedulethat is placed in a box with a thickVelcro strip across the middle. There isan opening in the back where extratactile picture symbols are stored.Students are directed, with staffassistance, to place two or three tactilepicture symbols from left to right in theorder of the next two or three classes oractivities on their schedule. Theexpectation is that the students willbegin to internalize their schedule (whatis happening first, next, and last).

The deaf/blind program at St. Francisis continually improving to best meetthe needs of—and instill highexpectations in—its students. Throughutilizing a collaborative team approachto educating deaf/blind students, theteachers at St. Francis have been able toestablish and maintain high expectationsfor every deaf/blind student, from theirfirst day in school until their graduation.This school year, in June of 2014, we areproud to have another graduate—Tahreem—who will next attend highschool at the Guild for the Blind.

*This student’s name is a pseudonym.

Putting the“High” in Expectations

A L O O K AT A P R O G R A M F O R D E A F / B L I N D S T U D E N T S

By Kimberly Mockler

In December of 2009, a program for deaf/blind students was established

at St. Francis de Sales School for the Deaf. This program involved the

creation and maintenance of a collaborative team to establish and

pursue high expectations for the deaf/blind students. In addition to a full-

time classroom teacher who was also a teacher of the deaf, this meant:

• hiring a full-time teacher of the visually impaired to work with deaf/blindstudents as well as with all students who require vision services;

• hiring an itinerant, certified orientation and mobility teacher to work withdeaf/blind students as well as with all students who require vision services:

• hiring a full-time feeding therapist;

• setting up weekly meetings between the classroom teacher and the specialneeds department supervisor;

• working with the New York Deaf-Blind Collaborative on an ongoing basis,including monthly meetings and phone conferences between the New York Deaf-Blind Collaborative consultants and the St. Francis staff;

• setting up weekly meetings that include the classroom teacher, the teacher ofthe visually impaired, the orientation and mobility teacher, and the special needsdepartment supervisor;

• fostering regular communication between the classroom teacher, the teacherof the visually impaired, and the feeding therapist;

• fostering weekly communication between the classroom teacher and theorientation and mobility teacher;

• fostering daily communication between the classroom teacher and the familiesof the deaf/blind students;

• setting up additional meetings during the school year between the classroomteacher, special needs department supervisor, classroom assistants, speech teachers,occupational therapists, physical therapists, physical education teacher, artteacher, librarian, and school nurse;

• setting up weekly communication between the classroom teacher and all otherstaff (e.g., occupational therapist, physical therapist, speech teacher, physicaleducation instructor, art teacher, librarian, school nurse) working with thedeaf/blind students; and

• communicating as needed between the current and former classroom teachers.

2014 ODYSSEY 53


ODYSSEY 201454

Shelby was our first child. She came into this world tiny yet strong—and loud. I took her home seven days later, seeing only my perfect littlegirl. At 6 months old, she was diagnosed as profoundly deaf, at 10months old as an achondroplastic dwarf, and at 18 months old she wasdiscovered to be missing 50 percent of her myelin sheath. We had anidea of what it meant to be deaf and a dwarf; we learned that missing themyelin sheath, the fibers that surround nerves like a stocking around aleg, meant that Shelby would think and move slower than most. Thiswasn’t quite the beginning I had envisioned for my precious gift.

Portrait of a Young GirlShelby was walking at 15 months old, earlier than most dwarfs. She was writing hername at 2 years old and holding the pencil correctly. She could use scissors very well.Many dwarfs struggle with that well into third grade. She was riding horses at 4 yearsold, controlling the large animals successfully and alone.

Many people tried to help direct me on the right path for her. Most of them includeda negative in their instruction: “No sign language!” some said. “She will never speak!”said others. “She will never be tall!” still another added. The positively-stated advicewas just as problematic: “Signs are the best for her!” “Surgery will fix her heightproblem!” “Try growth hormones!” There were so many conflicting messages. I justhad to do what I thought was best, and that was to never say Shelby could not dosomething.

At 4 years old, Shelby was attending an oral deaf school where sign language wasforbidden. Although she liked it there and she spoke very well, we felt that she neededmore language and decided to homeschool her and introduce American Sign Language(ASL). When she was 5 years old, she received a cochlear implant. She is her mother’sdaughter and has loved to talk from the beginning. When she was 9 years old, I asked

Photos courtesy of Felicia Johnson

Felicia Johnson isthe wife of a combat medicin the U.S. Army andmother to six children. Shehas been active in the Deafcommunity throughIsaiah's Place, Hands &Voices, parent-to-parentorganizations, and otherorganizations that shefinds wherever the armytakes her with her family.She loves all thingsnatural, making thingsfrom scratch, and sharingwhat she has learned withothers. She operates awebsite, http://talkingfingers.weebly.com, for otherswishing to homeschoolspecial children. Johnsonwelcomes questions andcomments about thisarticle at [email protected].

ON THE HOME FRONT:

HighExpectationsMeans Never

Say “Never”By Felicia Johnson


2014 ODYSSEY

her, “Do you want to be oral or useASL?” Her answer? “I want to do both.Some people will never learn to sign,like my grandparents, and I want totalk to them, but I love ASL, so I wantto do that, too.”

Creating OpportunityBelieving in her independence, Irefused to do things for Shelby. At 4years old and two feet tall, she couldn’treach the light switches. She wouldgrab anything and try to touch theswitch. She had a short broom, ascleaning was something that she likedto do for fun, and my husband drilled anotch at the top of the handle. ThenShelby could lift the broom, hook thenotch around the switch, and suddenlyit was possible for her to turn the lightson and off. Stools entered our home andare positioned throughout. She usesthem whenever she wants. She ordersfood for herself at restaurants. She has

even used the videophone to buyher plane ticket, arrangeaccommodations, and fly alone.

Homeschooling has proven successfuland allowed Shelby to see all that shecan do. She could use power tools at 8years old. She sews, crochets, and knits.She has given public presentations tohearing crowds. She has done horseshows, ranch rodeos, and performedwith an equestrian drill team. She hasraised, milked, and shown goats. Sheplays the piano. She is an amazingphotographer, and she is nowvolunteering at a flower shop.

When she was around 10 years old, Ihad the opportunity to attend anAmerican Society for Deaf Childrenconference. Since no doctor had beenable to help me with her lack ofmyelin, a condition that has grownworse over the years, I was eager tomeet someone who might help meunderstand how to help her. I found a

55

Above and below: Shelby’s first horse

show; practicing hair cutting on her

brother; and her first finished quilt.


ODYSSEY 2014

neurodevelopmentalist who took thetime to talk with me. After I explainedmy daughter to her, she simply said, “Itis amazing what she has alreadymanaged to accomplish. Her brain musthave found a way to compensate, asmoving information [something that themyelin sheath does for most people] isvery difficult for her. Most people withthat condition would find simplefunctions difficult.” Her wordsoverwhelmed me and changed myperspective.

I am guilty of telling Shelby shecouldn’t do something—just once. I wasteaching her younger sister, Tobie, toplay the piano. Shelby asked if I wouldteach her, too. I regret to say that Ideclined; I just didn’t see the point.Then one day I came inside from thebarn and heard notes being played to“Home on the Range.” I stopped. Ihadn’t yet taught that to Tobie. I camearound the corner and saw Shelby at thekeyboard, beating out the song! Hersister had been drilling her on the value

of each note and had taught her whereeach one was found. Shelby had figuredout the rest. She had never heard thesong played on the piano before, yet shewas able to play it well enough that Irecognized the tune. I started teachingShelby that day. She now plays quitewell.

As Shelby entered high school, wefocused on vocational opportunities. Inan effort to give her every opportunity todevelop viable skills, we moved nearIsaiah’s Place. Isaiah’s Place is a deafretreat center in the heart of Texas.Shelby volunteers there, working withthe horses, teaching sign languageclasses, working with a Wednesdaynight deaf ministry, and so much more.Isaiah’s Place has also arranged for her tospend time interning at the local flowershop, a beauty shop, and with a localphotographer. All these opportunitiesnot only give her skills to obtainemployment later on but also the chanceto discover what she is good at andenjoys.

Shelby has struggled academically, butshe still believes that one day she will beable to read. At 15 years old, she has anamazing vocabulary. Sentence structure

in speech and reading is difficult for her.Our homeschooling focuses mostly onlife skills, but we practice reading everyday. Now at a first grade level, she isable to read stories to her youngersiblings. She has found that evenminimal skill in reading is useful andbeneficial. In fact, the only skills Shelbyhas tried and hasn’t mastered fully arereading and playing the violin. Ourfamily loves music, and so does Shelby.While the violin wasn’t something shewanted to pursue, she loves playing thepiano.

We have found that having highexpectations and never telling Shelbyshe can’t do something has made herready to try anything, and it has beenour pleasure to give her the opportunityand the tools and to see her succeed. Iwould like to take credit for thisamazing kid, but really it’s her. She isn’tscared to try new things, and she goesafter what she wants. In living her richlife, Shelby has enriched our lives aswell—immeasurably.

56

Left and below: Shelby tries her hand at

showing and milking goats.


ODYSSEY 201458

Meet Moua and Omar

Moua is 10 years old and moved to the United States two years ago fromLaos. Moua has little spoken language and relies on homemade gestures tocommunicate with her family members who speak Hmong. Her skills inAmerican Sign Language (ASL), however, are developing with the assistanceof an ASL specialist, her teachers, and her classmates. Moua does notparticipate in extracurricular activities at school because she watches her babybrother every evening. She enjoys using technology, watching stories in ASL,and reading books.

Omar is 13 years old and was born in Minnesota to a Somali immigrantfamily. At 2 years old, Omar was enrolled in a local oral program, and at 7years old he was placed in a local Total Communication program. This yearOmar entered the Metro Deaf School (MDS). His family attends all schoolmeetings and shows much interest in his development. Omar’s mother speakssome English and is beginning to learn signs. Omar, who shows greatinterest in math and science, has quickly made friends at school and isexcited to come to school each day.

Moua and Omar are two students who attend MDS, one of the first charter schools in thenation. MDS, located in Saint Paul, Minnesota, provides a bilingual environment in ASL andEnglish for deaf and hard of hearing students, ages 3-21, in pre-K through high school. In

Susan Lane-Outlaw, PhD, assistantprofessor, teaches in themaster’s program inSecondary Education ofStudents Who are Deafor Hard of Hearing atthe National TechnicalInstitute for the Deaf(NTID). Prior to joiningNTID, she earned herdoctorate from GallaudetUniversity and thenserved as the curriculumand bilingualcoordinator at theMinnesota North StarAcademy and the MetroDeaf School in St. Paul.

By Susan Lane-Outlaw, Cheryl Lange, and Dyan Sherwood

Photos courtesy of Susan Lane-Outlaw

Standards to EnsureHigh

Expectations

USING DATA TO ENSURE

HIGH STANDARDS—AND


2014 ODYSSEY 59

its 20 years of operation, MDS has seen its students become more diverse, andwith the diversity the school has adjusted and evolved to ensure expectationsremain high to meet the needs of its students.

When MDS first opened, the majority of students had hearing parents whowere eager to have their children in a bilingual learning environment withhigh standards where they could remain at home each evening. Since MDS wasthe first charter school for deaf students in the United States, the staff, parents,and students had tremendous pride in being a part of it. Parents advocatedfiercely for their children to be placed at MDS.

Students are instructed in all content areas using the ASL/English bilingualmodel. ASL specialists, a bilingual specialist, and speech-language pathologistswork closely with classroom teachers and students. The needs of the uniqueand diverse student population are addressed through assessment andmonitoring. This system establishes high expectations for all students as eachstudent pursues his or her individual learning goals, and each student’sbackground and learning needs are addressed.

Demographics and Needs ChangeExpectations Stay High From 2002 to 2013, the percentage of students who qualified for free andreduced-cost lunches at MDS jumped from 10 to 56 percent, students of colorincreased from 14 to 54 percent, and students listed as having a secondarydisability increased from 10 to 40 percent. Students’ home languages have alsochanged, both signed and spoken. Today home languages vary from ASL, toEnglish, to a variety of languages other than English, and some students have

Cheryl Lange, PhD,president of LangeResearch and Evaluation,Inc., has more than 30years of experience as aresearcher, consultant,evaluator, and educator.She began her career as aclassroom teacher and hasbeen a part of severalnational research projectsrelated to educationreform, schoolaccountability, schoolchoice options, andspecial education.

Dyan Sherwood,BA, has worked in thefield of deaf education for40 years as both a teacherand a schooladministrator. She is afounder and executivedirector of the MetroDeaf School in SaintPaul, Minnesota.

The authors welcomequestions and commentsabout this article [email protected],[email protected],and [email protected].


no signs used in their homes at all. Yet with these changescome wonderful families and students with diverse experiences,backgrounds, and rich funds of knowledge. At MDS, they haveenriched the other students, teachers, and staff. Further, themajority of students continue to be described as they havealways been—audiologically—as having a severe-to-profoundhearing loss in their better ear.

MDS has retooled and instigated an accountability systemthat provides and relies on data and information, not only forgauging school success but also for providing the instructionalfoundation needed to address all students’ needs. Throughaccountability, teachers as well as students can be held to highexpectations.

Attention to accountability has long been a focus. MDSformalized an accountability process in 1997, long before theNo Child Left Behind legislation mandated such practice. Atthat time, MDS used a consensus-building process to identifythe outcomes for students attending and graduating from theschool. Parents, community members, and professionals met tochoose outcomes and indicators using a “whole-child approach,”based on a model developed by the University of Minnesota’sNational Center for Educational Outcomes, which includesattending not only to academic outcomes but also to socio-emotional and language outcomes. These outcomes, the mostimportant measures of student success, are reviewed on aregular basis. The indicators, gathered annually and used forimprovement at the level of school, classroom, and student,include:

• Academic achievement• Personal responsibility and social development• Language/communication• Advocacy• Satisfaction

In recent years, the increased diversity ofthe student population made it impossibleto get an accurate picture of MDS byreviewing group-level data. With studentswho have diverse academic and social needs,the indicators of success have shifted tosetting individual goals and determining thepercentage of students who meet those goals.

The demographic shift has also resulted ina change in assessment. In previous years,nearly all the students were assessed in theacademic area using assessments thatincluded the state-mandated test. Theindividualized approach to accountabilityidentifies a menu of assessments. Goals areset in the fall of each year, and individualgoals are established for reading,mathematics, and ASL. There is recognitionthat the accountability goals for students

must remain rigorous, but they also mustmeet students at their enrollment level and take into

consideration the diverse circumstances that impact learning.Teachers use the goals and the data gathered through theindividual student assessments to address each student’slearning needs. Only in this way can meaningful expectationsremain high.

A recently published longitudinal study on the reading andmath growth of deaf and hard of hearing students who haveattended MDS (Lange, Lane-Outlaw, Lange, and Sherwood,2013) show academic goals were met. Further, this study foundthat deaf and hard of hearing students at MDS were makingacademic progress similar to or exceeding a nationally normedcomparison group. Thisstudy was completedprior to theindividualization oftesting, but we believethat the moreindividualized approachto accountability will beequally as successful.

How IndividualizedAccountabilityWorksMeeting Needsand KeepingExpectations HighMDS’s fifth gradecomprises six students:three are Hispanic, twoare Somali, and one isChinese. All but one of

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2014 ODYSSEY 61

the students live with biological parentswho immigrated to the United Statesfrom their home countries; allexcept one child, who wasadopted by her Americanparents from her homecountry at 5 years old, wereborn in the United States.All of the parents arehearing and all use theirnative languages in theirhomes. None of thestudents has a sibling withhearing loss. One of thestudents received a cochlearimplant at 5 years old; theremainder use personalhearing aids or no amplification.All of the parents have taken ASLclasses, and, although they valuecommunicating with their children,their ASL is in the early stages ofdevelopment.

With such diversity in the classroom, a multi-dimensionalapproach to accountability is essential. Immersing students inASL is key, not only for their language development but also fortheir reading and math progress. With the exception of thechild who joined the program this year, all MDS fifth gradershave shown tremendous gains in their receptive and expressiveASL; their skills in ASL have been increasing from the timethey enrolled.

Monitoring ProgressEvaluation Keeps Standards HighMonitoring the students’ progress has also proved critical. Dueto the diverse group of students MDS serves, an ASL immersionwas established. All students participated in the ASLimmersion class four times a week, for approximately two hourseach time, for four months. The class had three teachers: an ASLteacher who focused solely on ASL linguistic instruction, abilingual teacher who focused on effective classroom bilingualinstructional strategies, and a classroom teacher who focused oncontent, working with students all day every day. Students werescreened, both when they entered the program and when theycompleted it. The screening was an informal assessment focusedon overall signing skills, story retelling, and story creation.

The personal interview was used as a way to collect alanguage samples, with an overall signing skills rubric. Theassessment looked at the students’ overall signing skills,including sign production, vocabulary, grammar, discourse, andfluency. The students showed the most growth in their personalinterviews and overall signing scores. After four months ofinstruction, there was an overall score increase of 16.5 percent

in their overall signing scores. For the story retelling portion, the

students’ content was evaluated in thefollowing areas: main idea, story

elements, organization, and“linguistic spillover,” whichmeans language features seenin the retelling (e.g., seeingthe sign for “overwhelmed”in the story and then usingthe same sign appropriatelyin the retelling). Studentsshowed significant gains inthis area, with the overall

score increase being 14percent.The story creation assessment

was based on the 6+1 WritingTraits but adapted to ASL; it looked

at the students’ ideas, organization,voice, sign choice, fluency, and structure.

All students showed growth, but this assessmentdemonstrated the greatest variation. At the extremes of

the testing, for example, one student’s score increased 25percent while another student’s score increased 4 percent.

Individualizing AssessmentEssential to High StandardsMDS continues to monitor its students, maintain highstandards for accountability, and maintain high expectations forour students. MDS, with its bilingual educational philosophy,strives to achieve a balanced focus on language, curriculum,instruction, and assessment. Fulfillment of high expectationsdoesn’t just happen. Accountability links high expectations toevery adult in the school and incorporates high standards intothe school culture.

Like schools across the country, MDS is becomingincreasingly diverse. Additional learning needs are alsoincreasing. The changes are viewed as opportunities at MDS.MDS has long had a strong accountability plan, and with achanging student body came the opportunity to reevaluate ourassessments. Moving to individual accountability goals benefitsall students because it holds all—teachers, administrators, andstudents—to high standards.

Reference

Lange, C., Lane-Outlaw, S., Lange, W., & Sherwood, D.(2013). American Sign Language/English bilingualmodel: A longitudinal study of academic growth. Journalof Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 18, 532-544.doi:10.1093/deafed/ent027


ODYSSEY 201462

In the following article, Benna Hull Timperlake, who with husband Roger, raisedtwo hearing children in addition to their deaf daughter, Genelle TimperlakeSanders, and Genelle, now a deaf professional, share their reflections on Genelle’schildhood.

Academic SuccessSetting Expectations from the Beginning

BENNA HULL TIMPERLAKE: In some ways raising deaf or hard of hearing children is no differentthan raising hearing children; expectations must be established and periodically tweaked.When Genelle was first identified as deaf at 28 months old, we knew little about Deaf culture,educational opportunities, or sign language. I went to the library and got books for her as wellas They Grow in Silence, the groundbreaking book by Eugene Mindel and McCay Vernon, forme. That book about deaf children and language development began my realization thathearing loss didn’t have to prevent my daughter from achieving academic success. Myexpectations, formerly unmoored and adrift, were tweaked and re-established. Genelle couldlearn anything! It just had to be accessible.

In our family, the expectation is that each child finish high school, go to college, andgraduate with a well-rounded education. We found out how quickly Genelle could learn afterstarting to use signs and hearing aids. After four months, Genelle had an expressive vocabularyof over 300 words! Proud parents, we could see that college was a realistic goal for her.

Through her years of primary schooling, Genelle was placed in a variety of academicenvironments. Each was the correct placement at the time, and each placement had uniqueproblems. We worked outside of the classroom to provide access for Genelle. Using captionedvideos at home, I supplemented the early curriculum with repeated exposure to vocabulary. Wealso tried unique solutions to the ritual of the spelling test and other parts of school thatweren’t accessible through the eyes. I remember that some teachers welcomed my help, andsome wished I would stay away. The perseverance to find out what Genelle needed and to makethat accessible helped her make it through high school and prepared her for college academics.

Genelle is now a lifelong learner. She also set a great example for her siblings by finishing hermaster’s degree before they finished their bachelor’s degrees!

Benna HullTimperlake, aregistered nurse, earnedher degree at theUniversity of Texas andworked as a nurse for 10years. She is the motherof three, the oldest ofwhom was bornprofoundly deaf. Acertified interpreter,Timperlake is a pastpresident of theAmerican Society forDeaf Children, a formermember of the TexasCommission for theDeaf and Hard ofHearing, and a formerexecutive director ofThe Deaf and Hard ofHearing Center inCorpus Christi, Texas.

By Benna Hull Timperlake and Genelle Timperlake Sanders

Photos courtesy of Benna Hull Timperlake

Right: Ricky Sanders,

Genelle, Roger Timperlake,

and Benna smile for the

camera shortly after the

Texas A&M University

graduation ceremony

during which Genelle

received her master’s

degree.

Parenting withHighExpectations


2014 ODYSSEY 63

GENELLE TIMPERLAKE SANDERS: My parents’ expectations of top grades meant that I had toactively work to be sure I had access to classes and to speak up if I did not. Multiple times I cameclose to throwing in the towel, frustrated with my lack of access. Sometimes I fought back byusing my deafness as an excuse for lousy grades. I am grateful to my parents because they refusedto accept either my being denied access or my using this denial as a reason not to achieve. Theyworked with me to improve situations. As I grew older, they expected me to work with myteachers, identifying what was wrong, what needed to be done, and making sure that ithappened. I learned to identify superiors in charge of my education who could help me.

I was in advanced placement in high school, and I became frustrated with interpreters whocould not keep up with my level of academics. My parents and I discussed different strategies andwent to see the special education director to request interpreters with better skills. I resistedgoing but the visit was a success, and I realized the benefits once I was placed with a skilledinterpreter. My parents’ expectations not only assisted my knowledge growth, but “sticking tomy guns” increased my confidence.

Transition Begins at Birth Fostering Self-Advocacy and Independence

TIMPERLAKE: Training for independent living starts when we teach babies to express their needswith words instead of tears. I spent hours learning the signs for toileting and for discipline. It waswork to stay ahead of Genelle in sign vocabulary, but it was worth it since we couldn’t learnanything else until those early skills were mastered! As Genelle grew, I had to keep learning signsto help her become independent at each stage of her growth.

Genelle had to learn self-advocacy skills that her siblings didn’t need. We showed her the nuts

GenelleTimperlakeSanders, thedaughter of Roger andBenna Timperlake, isprofoundly deaf andcommunicates usingsign, speech, andhearing aids. Shereceived her bachelor’sdegree in rhetoric fromTexas A&M University-College Station and hermaster’s degree incommunications fromTexas A&M University-Corpus Christi. Sheworks full time as headof communications andmarketing for a localbusiness; is editor-in-chief of The Deaf Texan,a quarterly newsletterdistributed by the TexasAssociation of the Deaf;and serves on the Boardof Trustees of The Deafand Hard of HearingCenter.



and bolts of getting her communication needs met. When shewas a youngster, I made sure to interpret my conversation withher swim instructor when I asked for an interpreter. She hasseen us advocate for access at the movies, at church, in school,and in many other places. Along the way we have educatedpeople that barriers to communication with deaf and hard ofhearing individuals can be overcome.

Further, I wanted Genelle to understand that people may notunderstand her speech or signs. She would order for herself inMcDonald’s, and we would discuss the reaction and how tohandle it later. She focused on practicing pronunciation forwords that would help her become independent. I helped withspeech clarity and encouraged her to find other ways tocommunicate. Reading and writing havealways been strengths for her, beginningin preschool when her teacher helped herput to paper a story she made up. Weencouraged her to read and write, andliteracy has given her access to the wordsof millions of authors. The electronicdictionary, built right into the MS Wordprogram, was a huge time saver. Whenshe came across a big word, Genelle couldclick on the definition and read it herself!

SANDERS: My parents highly valued mysiblings and me becoming independentand capable of self-advocacy. Since I amdeaf, they were very hands-on; theyexplained behaviors and conversations tome, and answered every question aboutthings I observed. Reading and writingwere some of my favorite activities when Iwas young since they were solitary. Ididn’t need to work for access or worryabout missing information whenimmersed in my favorite stories. Myparents frequently discussed the stories with me, and they askedme questions such as what I would do if I were in a specificcharacter’s shoes. My parents used my love of reading as astrategy to help me learn what was appropriate socially.

Growing up, socialization was one area in which my parentsand I struggled. I felt awkward—thrust into groups of peoplewith my parents interpreting for me—and I rebelled. I’d turn

down their persistent attempts to interpret, insisting I couldhandle the interaction myself. I struggled mightily withaccessibility for those few years. Once I matured, I realized thatmy parents’ guidance had been beneficial because I was able tocompare previous discussions and experiences with my parentswith what went on day to day in the workplace. Not everyoneunderstands my signs and speech, but now I’m equipped tocope with that—it is part of functioning independently.

Interpersonal Skills Play Nice in the Sandbox

TIMPERLAKE: We had good friends whose daughter wasGenelle’s best friend in preschool. As the girls played and

fought, we taught them how their actions causedthe other to react. Over the years Genelle and Ihad many conversations about other people’sactions and reactions. Some of the nuances of lifewere not accessible to my daughter—forexample, gossip, radio, music—and I took timeto explain the things she missed so she wouldfeel less frustrated and left out. We found it wasimportant to learn through experiences in thedeaf world where everything was visuallyaccessible. Summer camp, Deaf communityevents, and interpreted events all helped her tolearn to “play nice,” and I am proud to hearcompliments from people she meets today.

SANDERS: In hindsight, I understand myparents’ reasoning for involving me with boththe hearing and deaf worlds. They expected meto develop the capability to navigaterelationships in both worlds, outside the familynucleus. Frequently after I arrived home from acamp or event, my parents and I would discussobserved behaviors and reactions so I couldprocess what was socially appropriate and what

wasn’t. Involving me in a variety of events and helping mepractice polite and friendly behaviors have helped me develophealthy relationships in both worlds.

Still, growing up as a deaf individual in a mainstream societywas difficult. Despite my parents’ best intentions, I felt lonelyand ostracized by my hearing peers and society as a whole. Inorder to foster my independence and socialization, my parents

ODYSSEY 201464

Our expectation—

and goal—from the

beginning was that

Genelle would be a

happy person. As

we learned more

about Deaf culture,

we saw that we

wanted her to be a

happy deaf person.


2014 ODYSSEY

enrolled me in multiple camps and events during the summer.A few were geared towards hearing children and a few for deafand hard of hearing children. Even though I was socializingwith a variety of children from both worlds, I very distinctlyremember the sobering feeling of not fitting in. I participatedin so many events! I was constantly moving from one to anotherwith rarely enough time to become close with a crowd offriends. As a result, there was a lot of personal angst and angerdirected at my parents. It wasn’t that I didn’t want to go toanother camp or event. I longed for a consistent group offamiliar faces.

Emotional Development Developing Stable Emotions and Perspective

TIMPERLAKE: Genelle wasn’t always happy, and that didthreaten her health for a while. Those times it was even moreimportant for us to let her know that her lack of hearing didn’tmake her less important or less loved.

We wanted Genelle to see her deafness as a reason to beproud. I learned from deaf friends that as a deaf person she has abirthright to be a member of a strong cultural group, with acomplex, unique language and a rich history. Learning to seethat as an asset wasn’t automatic in our mostly hearing family.We, as parents, had to point out the positives—that we havericher lives because someone in our family is deaf and twolanguages are better than just one. Our expectation—andgoal—from the beginning was that Genelle would be a happyperson. As we learned more about Deaf culture, we saw that wewanted her to be a happy deaf person.

SANDERS: Emotional development was a sensitive subject formy parents and me. Growing up deaf and female made me thetarget of several bullies. There was a period of time when I wasangry at the world and especially at my parents. Lots ofcommunication, resentment on my part, and therapy sessionshelped us when I was going through adolescence. I was lucky tohave a few great friends who tried their best to understand andwho included me when I needed it the most. My parentsconstantly encouraged me to socialize with those friends andmade an effort to ask about them and what we were up to.

Looking back, even though I didn’t appreciate their effort atthe time, I appreciate it now. I was not the easiest human beingto be around, but my parents stuck with me. They refused toallow me to withdraw from society and were constantly movingto help me find outlets for my resentment. Today, I have more

coping skills than I know what to do with!My skin has grown thicker. I cancommunicate and socialize with bothhearing and deaf people. I’ve learned toaccept my identity as a positive deafindividual in both worlds.

Religion Embracing Something Larger

TIMPERLAKE: Our wish for our children was that they wouldeach develop a personal relationship with God to inform andsustain them through life. We involved Genelle in religiousactivities with our family, sometimes interpreted andsometimes with discussion afterward. We answered herquestions and made sure she had reading materials about ourreligion and about the religion of others.

SANDERS: I have faith in God, believe in heaven, and believe intreating others as I would like to be treated. I’ve always beeninterested in learning more about the different forms ofreligion. Understanding various religions and learning moreabout different beliefs helps me understand individuals better. Ican compare and contrast part of their background with myown. My parents were always supportive of my curiositytowards other religions and even interpreted our neighbor’s BarMitzvah for me so I could access the ceremony. Their supportbroadened my perspective to understand that one mold doesnot fit all. I am now open-minded and accepting of differencesbetween people.

In ConclusionGrowing is Never Finished

TIMPERLAKE: Raising a deaf child was a great experience forRoger and me. We were always evaluating our expectationsbased on her actions and our research to make sure that wedidn’t set the bar too low, leaving her frustrated and notfulfilled, and to make sure the bar wasn’t too high, also causingfrustration and damaging her self-esteem. We didn’t always getit right, but we haven’t given up trying, and we hope otherparents in this situation can realize their own success throughreading our story.

SANDERS: My parents stuck with me and made clear theirexpectations. Communication and teamwork were vital. Theyexpected me to follow through on goals set and promises made.They celebrated my successes and helped me learn from myfailures. Their hands-on involvement combined with their basicexpectations created a stable environment for me. My parents’high expectations empowered me to become an independent,healthy adult.

TIMPERLAKE: Our ultimate expectation—empowering Genelleto become a responsible, independent adult—has happily beenfulfilled. We rejoice now when we see her successes.

65


In our house, as the saying goes: “‘Normal’ is just a setting on the dryer.”

We have six wonderful children, four of whom are deaf and adopted, two of whomare hearing and ours through birth. Author and husband, Roger, is hearing andsigns fluently, and author and wife, Sherry, is deaf and uses both speech and signsalthough she is most comfortable signing. As parents of children—deaf andhearing—we are determined to encourage our children to do their best, and wealways set our expectations high. We have found that parenting deaf children isharder than parenting hearing children, primarily because hearing children havemore options and because our adopted deaf children came to us as older childrenafter those critical early language learning years.

In some ways, as parents of deaf children, we feel like Christopher Columbus sailing theuncharted waters of the Atlantic to an unknown destination. Finding resources through theInternet and contacting other parents through social media have made some aspects of thatjourney easier, but the goal of raising a child to be an independent, working, happy adult is nevereasy. It is a journey of at least 18 years; the waters can be rough and the headwinds strong.

It is easy to get caught up in the day-to-day struggle of dealing with the school system toprovide the best educational program, but it is not enough to simply obtain the best teachers andinterpreters. The social and emotional aspects of a child’s development cannot be overlooked.

Self-esteem, essential to a child’s success and difficult to foster when a child may be the onlydeaf or hard of hearing individual in his or her class or even in the entire school, is essential. Self-esteem enables children to work hard and achieve because they feel worthwhile, and achievementis a fair exchange for their hard work. Success that comes with high self-esteem makes having highexpectations not only desirable but eminently fair.

We have used the following strategies with all six of our children. Some are appropriate aschildren enter their teen years; others may be implemented when children are very young. Hereare some ways parents can foster self-confidence in their deaf or hard of hearing child:

• Read to your child daily. This is especially important during your child’s earliest years.Reading—and talking about what you read—will help your child develop his or hervocabulary and enrich his or her language development.

Roger Williams,MSW, is the director ofServices for the Deaf andHard of Hearing withthe South CarolinaDepartment of MentalHealth. He received hisbachelor’s degree fromthe Rochester Instituteof Technology and hismaster’s degree in socialwork from theUniversity of Illinois atChampaign-Urbana.Williams holds acertificate oftransliteration from theRegistry of Interpretersfor the Deaf and Level 5,the top level, of theSouth CarolinaAssociation of theDeaf/NationalAssociation of the DeafInterpreter AssessmentProgram. As the parentof four deaf and twohearing children, alicensed foster parent,and the spouse of a deafadult, he is active inlocal, state, regional, andnational advocacy andsocial organizations,including serving as pastpresident of theAmerican Society forDeaf Children.

By Roger Williams and Sherry Williams

MaintainingHigh Expectations

66 ODYSSEY 2014

Photos courtesy of Roger and Sherry Williams


2014 ODYSSEY 67

Above and left: Do we need a caption for these

photos???

Sherry Williams,MBA, is an adjunctprofessor in theInterpreter TrainingProgram at SpartanburgCommunity College. Shereceived her bachelor’sdegree from theRochester Institute ofTechnology and hermaster’s degree inbusiness administrationfrom the University ofNorth Carolina atWilmington. Williamshas worked at two deafschools for a total of morethan 25 years as aresidence counselor, socialworker, and transitioncoordinator, and she hastaught both elementaryeducation and secondarysocial studies. She isactive in local, state,regional, and nationaladvocacy and socialorganizations, havingserved as president ofboth the South CarolinaAssociation of the Deafand the American Societyfor Deaf Children.


• Have your child order for him- or herselfat restaurants. At fast food restaurants, he orshe can write his or her order; at sit-downrestaurants, he or she can point to the item onthe menu. In both places, your child can usehis or her voice, gestures, or whatevercommunication strategies are most effective.

• Give your child regular chores around thehouse. This allows your child to beproductive in the family and encourages himor her to develop a sense of pride in his or herwork.

• Have your child help an elderly neighboror volunteer on a regular basis at a soupkitchen or at an animal shelter. In this way,your child learns a sense of caring andresponsibility for others—and experiences asense of empowerment at the same time.

• Make sure your child participates in his orher Individualized Education Program(IEP) meetings. Parents should resist the urgeto take over at IEP meetings and support theiroffspring, giving their child the opportunityto speak up and advocate for him- or herself.

• Encourage your child to think about his orher future. Does your child want to go tocollege, technical school, or graduate school,or does he or she want to get a job aftergraduation?

• Don’t always believe the experts, includingthe teachers. You know your child best, andthe experts are not always right.

• Be prepared for setbacks. We all have baddays, bad weeks, or even bad years. Don’tlower high long-term expectations on thebasis of short-term reversals. Continue to bepositive and patient with your child.

• Find deaf and hard of hearing adults inyour community who can be role models.This is easier for those who live in a city witha day school for deaf students. In Atlanta,Denver, Phoenix, and Minneapolis, forexample, children can commute to day schoolsfor the deaf and interact with a large group ofsuccessful deaf and hard of hearing adults on adaily basis. In a rural area, it is morechallenging. Look for deaf social events or adeaf church. Your child needs to know notonly deaf celebrities but the ordinary

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ODYSSEY 2014

successful deaf and hard of hearing adults in his or hercommunity who are gainfully employed and living in anapartment or house, paying their bills, and enjoying life toits fullest.

• Contact your state deaf association. This is easy in theInternet age: Google. Look for “(your state) deaforganizations.” Find out about the issues and activities fordeaf and hard of hearing individuals that are happening inyour area.

• Ask open-ended questions. Begin with simple queries:Do you think dogs should be on a leash? Why or why not?As your child gets older, ask him or her age-appropriatebut increasingly complex questions.

• Text. Get used to checking in via smartphones,videophones, and/or computers. This is especiallyimportant for children in residential programs. A simple“Hi, how was your math test?” can boost self-esteem andencourage your offspring to do his or her best.

• Maintain contact with your child’steachers and dorm staff. Keep up withyour child’s academic progress and nippotential behavioral problems in the bud.

• Be familiar with benchmarks for eachage group. Know your child is fully capableof meeting those benchmarks with orwithout help.

At our house, we have open discussions,sometimes heated debates, at the family table.We deliver Christmas gifts to needy families. Weare active in local and state deaf events andattend deaf festivals in other states. Each of usserved a term as president of the AmericanSociety for Deaf Children, and our deaf childrenhave access to an array of deaf role models bothat school and in our community. Roger has donepresentations in other states on a variety oftopics, including deafness, advocacy, mentalhealth, and mental health interpreting. Sherryhas taught deaf children and is an adjunctprofessor at the local community college.

We believe it is important to give back to theDeaf community and hope our children will dothe same when they get older. Indeed, ouryoungest deaf daughter, Kate, just recentlyattended the Junior National Association of theDeaf Leadership Training Camp last summer andis heavily involved with her school organizations.Kate has known from an early age that she wantsto be a chef in the restaurant business. She willgraduate from the Model Secondary School for

the Deaf in June of 2014, and she plans to enter a culinary artsprogram. Sarah, our oldest deaf daughter, came to this countryat age 13 from China, graduated from our local mainstreamprogram last spring, and is attending the English LanguageInstitute at Gallaudet University this fall. Her brother, Andrew,who graduated from the Model Secondary School for the Deaflast spring, has decided not to pursue college studies at thistime; he lives independently with his dog and works in foodservice at a local college. Our youngest child, Scott, just enteredhigh school and is still thinking about his future. Our oldestchildren, Heather and Brian, both hearing, live and work inWashington, D.C., and Seattle, Washington, respectively. Bothof them have taken on leadership roles at their jobs, yet theytake the time to contribute to their communities, too.

Our children know that we have high expectations. Weexpect each of them to work hard, respect the rules, maintaingood grades in school, and contribute to their communities.What’s more, we know that these expectations are alreadypaying off—because they are being fulfilled.

6868

Above and below: The younger Williams children on a rafting trip with their parents;

Andrew, Kate, Sarah, and Scott at their older brother’s wedding in 2011.


ODYSSEY 201470

When my high school students at the Phoenix Day School for the Deafbuddied up with elementary school students to improve their readingskills, amazing things happened. As they read to them, my students, partof our 2012-2013 Integrated Language Arts and Social Studies program,increased their reading scores and forged relationships with youngerstudents that may endure for a lifetime.

Here are some observations:

• As our high school class walked across the football field toward the third gradeclassroom, a young face peeked out. It was Paul*. When he saw us, his eyes widenedand a smile filled his face. Turning to his classmates, he shouted, “They are here!”Then he dashed out of the classroom and sprinted 25 yards to meet us. He lunged atEdgar and wrapped his arms around his waist in a big hug. After a moment, heloosened his grip just enough to look up at Edgar and grin.

• As we worked on plans for the Christmas party for the kindergarten class, Elizabeth’seyes lit up. “I have an idea,” she signed. She stepped in front of the class and flickedthe lights off and on to get everyone’s attention. “Why don’t we each bring $5 toschool and go to the store to buy our buddies a gift for the Christmas party?” sheasked. Elizabeth polled everyone, and they agreed. I said that they needed to writethe permission slips and do everything to plan the trip. A week later we were on thepublic bus headed to the Dollar Store. Once inside, Jerome looked all over forsomething related to Spiderman because he knew his buddy, Joshtav, lovesSpiderman. Elizabeth, reading a fairy tale about a princess and her guardian fairies,found a ballerina skirt and fairy wings for her buddy, Valentina.

• Jayvon planned to read aloud a biography of Justice Sandra Day O’Connor to ourthird grade reading buddies. He asked to go to the theater costume room and got awig and judge’s robe. He printed out pictures of Justice O’Connor, signed “SandraDay O’Conner” across the photo, and made copies. After he read the book to the

Patricia (Trish)Ross, MA, has beenteaching for 25 years.She taught as a PeaceCorps volunteer inJamaica and Nepal aswell as at the NewMexico School for theDeaf in Santa Fe;Kendall DemonstrationElementary School inWashington, D.C.; andin the Department ofEducation at GallaudetUniversity. CurrentlyRoss is a high schoolteacher at the PhoenixDay School for the Deafin Arizona. Shewelcomes questions andcomments about thisarticle at [email protected].

By Patricia Ross

Reading for Real:OurYear with

Reading Buddies

Photos courtesy of Patricia Ross

Right: The high school

students came up with

creative and fun ways to

engage the elementary

school students they

worked with and bonded

with them in the process.


2014 ODYSSEY 71

third graders, he gave them theautographed pictures. The thirdgraders excitedly put the picturesin their boxes to take home.

Prior to entering the program, thehigh school students consistentlytested at reading levels between thefirst and second grade on a variety oftests and “far below the standard” inthe testing required by Arizona.These scores, however, did not matchthe students we saw in the halls everyday; the scores were not indicative oftheir ability.

These students were exceptionallybright. They were leaders in ourschool community, active in sports,clubs, and activities. They werecompetent users of American SignLanguage (ASL) both socially andacademically. They were being heldback because of their limited Englishreading and writing skills.

We believed in the students, andwe knew the traditional approachwasn’t working. Something needed to

be done. We decided to set up a pilotclass. The class was a hands-on,activity-based block that played onthe strengths of students. It requireda large time commitment, extending

through three 50-minute periods.Students would work on reading,writing, and social studies.

It was an exciting year with lots oflearning, but most successful was theReading Buddies Program. Wedeveloped the program in our effortsto find a way to provide students withmaterial to read with teacherassistance that wouldn’t be an insultto their intelligence. It was an issuewe struggled with. Our solution?Have the students read to elementaryschool students.

My morning class was matched upwith kindergarteners and myafternoon class with third graders.Their assignment: Every few weeks,they would read picture books to theirreading buddies. This task requiredmy students to pick a book, learn thevocabulary, interpret the book intoASL, rehearse reading the bookinterpreted in ASL, and come up withactivities and questions related to thebook for their young buddies.


ODYSSEY 2014

The results were incredible! The highschool students took their missionseriously, reading actively with a clearsense of purpose. They improved theirvocabulary, reading comprehension, andinterpreting skills. At the same time,elementary students were read to on aone-to-one basis, were exposed to olderpeers who modeled accurate andmeaningful English and ASL, andinteracted with high school studentswho we watched become their heroes.

As the year progressed, we becameincreasingly involved with the youngerstudents. My students selected booksthat matched the interests of theirbuddies and came up with educationalactivities to go along with the books.For example, when Zack, a freshman,read a book about otters to his buddy,Joey, he searched for video clips of ottersplaying to show Joey after he read thebook. My students read books, learnednew vocabulary, practiced theirinterpretation skills, wrote letters andnotes, and planned parties and trips.

The connection the students had witheach other extended beyond readingclass. They would high five each other inthe cafeteria and library, and at athleticcompetitions, pep rallies, and otherschool events.

In the BeginningThe first time my students went to readaloud to their buddies, we were allnervous, especially me! Would mystudents do a good job? Could theycapture and hold the attention of theelementary school students? Would theybe able to adapt their communicationstyle if their buddies didn’t understand?Would they enjoy this experience? Theanswer to all my questions and concernswas a resounding: Yes!

That first reading I required only thatmy students select a book and read italoud. For the second reading, they werealso required to plan an activity relatedto the book. In this, my students provedunbelievably creative. John’Ta workedwith Christian to prepare his activity.The two students made parts of ahamburger, using paper to cut out the“bun,” “lettuce,” “tomato,” and“burger.” When Christian read the bookto the kindergarteners, they lovedputting pieces on the bun to make theirpaper hamburger. It looked so real

In October, my students preparedHalloween surprises for their buddies.For the third graders, we prepared aparty with Halloween books and games.We played Concentration, Pin the Tailon the Black Cat, and Math Jeopardy—each game planned and organized by my

class. My students also made Halloweencards for their buddies.

After our success in October, thestudents insisted we have a holiday partyin December before winter break. Iasked Peggy Marco-Sprague, thekindergarten teacher, if she had a craftthat we could use, and she copied anactivity and gave it to me. But silly me… my students didn’t need our help.They researched on the Internet andfound their own craft projects that werebetter than ours, I must say. In fact, mystudents’ party was much bigger andbetter than I would have planned oreven imagined. We planned our trip tothe Dollar Store, made cards, crafted apaper mâché piñata, and hosted theparty. The kindergarten students rotatedthrough centers we prepared, did twocraft projects, played Pin the Nose onRudolf, enjoyed stories related to theholidays, and had their faces painted.Everyone on campus wanted to knowwho did the adorable face paintings. Theanswer: my students, of course! Theyhad researched the idea and practiced itsimplementation, and it turned out that Ihad quite a talented group. After thegames, the crafts, the stories, and thepiñata, we exchanged gifts. WhenJoshtav, a kindergartener, gave mystudent, Jerome, his favorite candy,Jerome signed, “I love you. I love you,my favorite.”

This continued throughout the schoolyear. We celebrated the Phoenix DaySchool for the Deaf, birthdays, holidays,reading, and writing. Natural, real-lifeliteracy happened all the time as boththe elementary school students and thehigh school students wrote cards,invitations, and thank you notes. Ourelementary buddies looked for their highschool friends in the cafeteria for highfives or just to ask a question. Thenumber one question: “When are youcoming [to read to us in our class]again?”

At the end of the year, my studentsplanned a culminating activity tocelebrate our year of reading andlearning. My students voted on what to

72


do, researched the cost, came up withfundraising possibilities, wrote parentalpermission slips, filled out thetransportation requests and the school’sfield trip request, called the restaurantfor price details, and got approval for thetrip. Within a month we had raised over$600 so we could treat our elementaryschool buddies to lunch and games atChuck E. Cheese’s. I am not sure whoenjoyed the trip more—my high schoolstudents or the elementary schoolstudents.

Megan Gardner, the third gradeteacher whose students were our readingbuddies, observed:

My students benefited greatly from thefield trip at the end of the year. Weappreciated all the planning the highschool students did. Some of my studentsdo not have a lot of great role models, andit was great for them to interact withhigh school students in a non-educational

setting. I know one student particularlyhad the time of his life as he was liftedout of his wheelchair and placed onseveral video games! I have never seen himsmile so big! It was great to see the highschool students take the time to help my

students feel valued.

I saw amazing growthin my students. Theirreading skills andconfidence grew. Johnie,who was stiff and focusedon signing English thefirst time he read aloud,became animated as theyear progressed. Hisbuddy, Bruce, respondedin kind. Pictures of thefirst reading show bothboys looking bored. Bythe end of the year,pictures show completelydifferent expressions;huge smiles and evengiggles are evident asJohnie reads to Bruce.

Kayla, who said she“hates reading” becamean incredibly competentand compassionatereader. The studentsloved her, and herunderstanding of textand storytelling skillsimproved every time wedid a read aloud. She was

thoughtful and created fun activities forthe students.

Alex, who is a natural-born actor, usedhis skills to animate his stories. Readingaloud played on his strengths.

Last week, Gary, who has a newEnglish teacher this year, told me thatthis teacher said he was very good atsigning a story, and he told his teacherthat it was hard but he worked andpracticed all last year.

In the end, my students had youngchildren who jumped up and down atthe sight of them and improved theirliteracy skills. When they took thestate’s standardized test, all except oneno longer were scored as “falling farbelow” the standard in reading; theywere now “approaching the standard.”Just as importantly, my students hadself-confidence in their ability to be rolemodels in literacy. They had not onlycaptured the attention of their youngerclassmates through reading butimplemented ideas that extended theyounger students’ learning.

In the beginning, our expectations forour students were high; by the end ofthe class, even our high expectationswere exceeded.

*In some instances, the names of studentshave been changed to protect their privacy; inother instances, however, the studentswanted—and permission was granted for—Odyssey to use their real names.

2014 ODYSSEY 73


ODYSSEY 201474

In the late 1960s, researchers Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson beganto explore experimental ways to test a revolutionary concept: that people’sexpectations could influence other people in the world around them.Rosenthal and Jacobson suggested, for example, that if people in societybelieve that people in Group X are lazy, those expectations result in peoplein Group X doing very little work.

Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) conducted what became a well-known experiment tomeasure the power of expectations in school environments. As the school year began,teachers were given phony results for their incoming students’ aptitude tests. Theresearchers randomly assigned some students to the status of high achievers and others tothe status of merely average. Teachers taught for a year with this baseline of falseassumptions. When their students were retested, 80 percent of those who had been labeled“high achieving” showed a statistically greater amount of achievement than their peers.The researchers concluded that teachers’ expectations had become self-fulfilling propheciesand had led them to behave in ways that made their expectations a reality.

Rosenthal and Jacobson called this the “Pygmalion effect,” in a nod to the play in whicha professor managed to fool the upper crust of British society into thinking a woman fromwhat the Brits call “the lower classes” was a duchess; he did so by teaching her to imitatethe behaviors they expected from such nobility. The study gained instant fame. Manystudies began to replicate the work, and researchers continued to explore the implicationsof those initial findings; they affirmed expectations powerfully affected student learning,positively and negatively.

Dee (2006) later explored the relationship between expectations and gender in theclassroom. The National Educational Longitudinal Study (Ingels, Scott, Taylor, Owings, &Quinn, 1998) had shown that on standardized tests eighth-grade boys performedconsistently behind girls in subjects such as reading, while girls performed consistentlybehind boys in math and science. Dee suggested a role-model effect had come into play;students observed the gender of their teachers in math and language classes, drewconclusions about gender expectations for themselves, and this affected their performance.

McGrew and Evans (2004), in a review of the literature on classroom interactions amongteachers, paraprofessionals, and students with disabilities, found consistent negativepatterns of the Pygmalion effect. Their review pointed out the following patterns in the

Joseph Santini,MSc, MA, is a writerand educator who enjoysscreenwriting as well aswatching and creatingperformance art. Hetaught middle and highschool students forseveral years at theAmerican SignLanguage/EnglishSchool in New York, hasblogged about educationfor The New York Timeson its Learning Networkwebsite, and is nowworking on his doctoraldissertation on bilingualeducation at GallaudetUniversity. Hewelcomes questions andcomments about thisarticle at [email protected].

Reflections onExpectations

By Joseph Santini

Photo by John T. ConsoliIllustrations by Joseph Santini


2014 ODYSSEY 75

way that school staff handled the students with disabilities inclass:

• They spoke to students with disabilities less in one-on-onesituations.

• They gave students with disabilities less wait time toanswer questions.

• They changed the nature of their interactions withstudents with disabilities, using simpler vocabulary, lesscomplex grammar, and easier questions.

• They offered the students with disabilities less cognitivelychallenging work.

• They made voluntary and involuntary changes in theirbody language with students with disabilities (e.g., theygave them less eye contact).

McGrew and Evans (2004) pointed to the Pygmalion effectas one of the reasons for these findings: Teachers expectedstudents with disabilities to perform less well than their peerswithout disabilities and thus acted in ways that contributed tothat result. They connected their findings to the work ofCotton (2001), who showed that even when expectations werebased on beliefs that accorded with facts, these factssometimes changed over time—and the beliefs did not. Thus,teachers sometimes would sustain the expectation that astudent would struggle with a topic or skill long past the

time when the student had mastered it. In a third study, Theoharis and Fitzpatrick explored the

physical behavior and attitudes of the principals of twoschools towards Max, a student who had a disability. In therecord of their observations, they described the principals, onewho demonstrated the behaviors described by McGrew andEvans (2004), and one who demonstrated the opposite.Principal A’s behavior toward Max was negative; he failed torespond to the parents’ questions, and he was indifferent tothe school environment, to Max’s needs, and to the needs ofhis students. Principal B was well-versed in Max’s needs, oftenstopped meetings to respond to student concerns, and tried toconverse with Max, crouching down to his height, andoffering Max his hand.

Clearly expectations are at work throughout the schoolenvironment. The Pygmalion effect—with adults andstudents arriving in class with expectations of other students’behavior—relates to the achievement of deaf and hard ofhearing students.

As a TeacherIn 2005, when I began teaching, “Pygmalion” was just a playto me. All I knew was that I wanted to give deaf and hard ofhearing children who were in the mainstream a fair shake. Ichose to teach in an inner city public school environment.This meant I’d have a class of 30 students—one of whommight be deaf or hard of hearing—and no interpreter. Icarefully scaffolded the classroom environment with text and


ODYSSEY 2014

visual supports to help make sure everyone could access thedirections and materials. My goal wasn’t to treat the occasionaldeaf or hard of hearing student “specially” but equally, becauseI believed doing so would give him or her the greatestopportunity.

During my second year of teaching, I began to work withstudents labeled, often derogatively, “deaf plus” (i.e., deafchildren with disabilities). Students in my reading class rangedfrom 15 to 18 years old, and they consistently tested at thebottom range of every test recorded in our database. I wasexcited. These deaf students had been labeled failures andsegregated by the system. I felt that I could help them succeed.

On the first day, I met the teachers and professionals who hadpreviously worked with these students. I offered ideas forinstruction based on what I’d learned about bilingual educationand the education of deaf children, and they responded in anegative or cautioning manner. When I look back at that initialmeeting through the lens of my knowledge today, I realize Iexperienced firsthand a literal conjunction of research on thePygmalion effect (e.g., the previously established expectationsof Rosenthal and Jacobson, the sustained expectations ofCotton, and the stereotypes identified in the review of McGrewand Evans). I chose, however, to go against the advice of theseexperienced teachers, and I was able to convince my fellowfaculty to give it a shot—largely because, as one person said,things couldn’t get any worse.

I immersed students in a self-selected reading program on parwith what other students in the same grade experienced. I choseto have class discussions and group projects instead ofworksheets. While I was honest with the students about theirinitially poor achievement, I also set expectations that theyconstantly work on improving. Many of the students had at leastsome skills in American Sign Language (ASL), so I included partsof an ASL curriculum, using modules I found on the GallaudetUniversity website (www.gallaudet.edu). I felt students neededpractice and structure in the language they used daily (i.e., ASL)before they could see those rules emerge in the language theywere learning to read and write in class (i.e., English).

I found that low expectations for my students were present notonly among faculty but also outside of the classroom, and ininsidious ways. For example, I once observed students, deaf andhearing, in the lunchroom using the terms low-functioning anddeaf plus to insult other students. I called the students togetherfor a discussion, asking where they had learned these obviouslyadult phrases. One student said she’d seen them as early as thirdgrade in another school. We spoke about what the phrases meant,why they were used, and why they were problematic.

Two years later, a student taking a test threw up her hands indespair, cried, and ran out of the room. When I caught up to herin the hallway and we spoke, she told me she was “too low-functioning,” “too deaf plus” to take the test. She couldn’t do it,she said; everybody knew she couldn’t do it. That expectation—that she was “low functioning” and incapable—had been

ingrained in her. It was part ofher self-image. She couldn’tfinish the exam that day, but Ihad confidence in her, and wecontinued to work together.Working with her toexternalize “low functioning”took many discussions and alot of trust. When my studenttook that test the next time,she passed.

Implementing thecurriculum I wanted was notan easy or quick process. Thewriting assignments tookweeks instead of days. Mystudents had less experiencethan others on which toscaffold understanding of newprojects and activities. They often experienced frustration and alack of support from the outside world. Parents often did notconsider the academic work of these students to be as importantas other activities, possibly due to assumptions and expectationsof their own. E-mail communication helped me providesupport outside of the classroom, and surreptitiously work withstudents on their English.

When students were challenged, I tried to frame theirfrustrations as a problem of communication or misunderstandinginstead of one of ability or effort, with the mantra always being,“Let’s try explaining this a different way.” Often this framing waseffective as students came from a background of struggling tounderstand what other people, even their families, were saying.For example, I had a student who often refused to write stories inclass. Over the course of many discussions, I came to learn thatshe refused to write stories because, as she told me, “stories werelies.” As a teacher I wondered how this misunderstanding hadcome about. The word story is sometimes used as a euphemismfor lie, so it might have been a linguistic issue. On the otherhand, a new signer might have once mistranslated and given thestudent an idea that persisted for years. It became part of my roleto fix this misunderstanding and clarify the role of stories.

I made many mistakes that first year, but our class also hadmany successes. My students improved their test scores, each attheir own rates, and the improvement for each student wasrelatively consistent. I found students began to enjoy reading.Some students chose very adult works they’d been kept frombefore, interested in topics appropriate for their age. By themiddle of the year, parents were calling to say their child wantedto go to the library. My students weren’t magically on grade level,but they were showing signs of being on an independent path toliteracy. Clearly by raising expectations, something was goingright for my students, both inside and outside of the classroom.

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2014 ODYSSEY

As a StudentI may have been especially reflective about the needs of my deafplus students because when I looked at them, I saw myself. Inever had the special challenge of being labeled “deaf plus,” butas a deaf man who grew up in the 1980s and 1990s andexperienced many types of school programs, misplacedexpectations affected me—frequently and powerfully. In 1993, asan eighth grader, I entered the school’s most advancedmathematics class, proud that I had qualified to be there. Ihappily sat in the front row with an interpreter and waited forclass to begin. When the teacher arrived, she noticed a differencein the class configuration, and my interpreter began to try toexplain the reason for her presence; I stood up to say hello andshake the teacher’s hand. While we stood there, my empty handstill outstretched, the teacher said that she “didn’t accept deafstudents in her class.” Deaf students couldn’t handle the work,she said. My interpreter, who was uncertified, wasn’t sure how todeal with the teacher’s response or even explain the situation tome. We left. I was assigned to another course, but something inthe encounter changed me; my math grades turned from A’s andB’s to C’s and D’s. Expectations only need a moment to berevealed, but they last an exceptionally long time.

I experienced other frustrating problems, which I recognizedwith a pang when I read the dissertation of Valente (2008), later

republished as the autobiographical d/Deaf and d/Dumb: APortrait of a Deaf Kid as a Young Superhero. Like Valente, I wasforced to take the handicapped bus to school despite my home’sclose-to-the bus-stop location. I was often prevented from joiningschool activities, with the school administration citing safety anddeafness as a barrier. Lack of interpreters was constantly an issue,and certainly none were certified. (And does that not reflect theexpectations of the city and state?) In class, I was frequentlylimited to filling out worksheets and rarely involved with groupactivities. Like Valente, I had family members who believed inme and helped me counter the expectations and pressures ofothers; my mother was a powerful influence who led me tobecome involved with the Deaf community. No deaf adultsworked in my mainstreamed school; my mother took pains tointroduce me to people at the deaf club so I’d have role models.Eventually, frustrated with the mainstream environment, I choseto attend the Model Secondary School for the Deaf (MSSD), thehigh school for deaf and hard of hearing students in Washington,D.C. With the help of the MSSD community and curriculum, Ibegan to understand the civil and social issues that molded myexperiences.

My experiences and those of my students, despite beingseparated by two decades, were remarkably similar. Theexpectations of others shaped, at least partly, our academicperformance.

What Can Teachers Do?As teachers, we are often considered the most important variablein a student’s success. Yet research shows that a teacher is only aquarter of a school’s influence on a student (Cody, 2012). To methis means that we, as teachers, need to be active and awareparticipants in the school community. We also need to be intouch with the student’s home community. Further, we need tomove beyond standardized tests and try to forge a trueconnection with our students.

We can also address the individual child, acknowledge theexpectation/performance cycle, and give the studentopportunities to break it. Ware (2001) wrote about usingwriting classes to get students with disabilities to explore theirexperiences, and she described the challenges she faced inhelping teachers and school administrators to step outside theircomfort zones to let the students describe the experiences of theirdaily lives. As an English teacher, I was uniquely placed to usewritten assignments in this manner, but the technique can beadapted to other subjects.

As teachers, we can work directly with students to resist theburden of negative expectations. We can help advocate todiversify our schools in terms of gender, race, and ability, and toprovide a set of role models who help students form respectfulcommunities of learning colleagues. We can contact parents tohelp them also recognize their children’s progress. In themainstream, I was constantly aware that as a deaf person whowas a teacher, I was not only a role model for students but also

77

Left: Traditionally, we think of the expectations a teacher has as the most

powerful influence. Below: However, children are greatly influenced by

expectations that can come from many different directions.


an image for parents of what their children might become. Thisknowledge can be a lot of pressure. We teachers are notsuperheroes and should also remember to take time for self-care sothat our efforts have the energy to be fruitful.

Most importantly, we must reject assumptions, including thosethat are unspoken. In Rosenthal's experiment, over 80 percent ofthe students identified as “high achievers” exceeded expectations.If we could harness the power of expectations in the education ofdeaf and hard of hearing students, the effects could be remarkable.

References

Cody, A. (2012). Dialogue with the Gates Foundation: Canschools defeat poverty by ignoring it? EdWeek Blogs. RetrievedMarch 19, 2013, from http://blogs.edweek.org/teachers/ living-in-dialogue/2012/08/can_schools_defeat.html

Cotton, K. (2001, January). Expectations and student outcomes.Retrieved January 28, 2014, from http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/4/cu7.html

Dee, T. S. (2006). How a teacher’s gender affects boys and girls.Education Next, 6(4), 68-75.

Ingels, S. J., Scott, L. A., Taylor, J. R., Owings, J., & Quinn, P.(1998, May). National education longitudinal study of 1988(NELS: 88) base year through second follow-up: Final methodologyreport (Working paper No. 98-06). Washington, DC: U.S.Department of Education, National Center for EducationStatistics.

McGrew, K. S., & Evans, J. (2004). Expectations for students withcognitive disabilities: Is the cup half empty or half full? Can the cupflow over? (Synthesis Report 55). Minneapolis, MN: Universityof Minnesota, National Center on Educational Outcomes.Retrieved January 2, 2014, from http://education. umn.edu/NCEO/OnlinePubs/Synthesis55.html

Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom:Teacher expectation and pupils’ intellectual development. New York:Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.

Theoharis, R., & Fitzpatrick, M. (2008). Max’s familyexperience: Web-resources for working with special educationstudents and their families. Critical Questions in Education, 2(1),1-13.

Valente, J. M. (2008). Cultural worlds of d/Deaf children in school.Doctoral dissertation, Arizona State University, Tempe,Arizona.

Ware, L. (2001). Writing, identity, and the other: Dare we dodisability studies? Journal of Teacher Education, 52(2), 107-123.

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2014 ODYSSEY 79

Seeking Submissions for the 2015 Issue of Odyssey

THEME: The Influence, Impact, andOpportunity of Technology

It is becoming nearly impossible to think about education withoutthinking about technology. Technology is now synonymous withinstruction, engagement, educational support, assessment, anddocumentation. It is also a critical tool for communication notonly among professionals but with families and students.Technology has changed how students learn, teachers teach,schools plan, states test, and families interact. Ithas already and will continue to alter the worldfor which students must prepare. With allthat technology affords, it also presentschallenges. This holds true for thosecommunities and families with limitedaccess to current technologies as well asfor professionals and parents whosetechnology skills may not be keepingpace with that of the students in

their world. The 2015 issue of Odyssey will focus on

technology—its influence, impact, and the opportunities itpresents for the education of students who are deaf or hard ofhearing. The Clerc Center seeks articles from professionals andparents sharing how technology has:

• impacted the education and achievement of students whoare deaf or hard of hearing from birth through high school,

• expanded opportunities for professional learning and growth, and

• enhanced support for and engagement of families.

Articles focused on how professionals and families are addressing current challenges orpreparing for future technological challenges are also welcome. The Clerc Center isparticularly interested in articles focused on serving students who are deaf or hard ofhearing from traditionally underserved groups, including those students who are lowerachieving academically, who come from families that speak a language other than Englishin the home, who are members of diverse racial or cultural groups, who are from ruralareas, and/or who have secondary disabilities.

Please e-mail your ideas to [email protected]. We will begin accepting submissionson June 1, 2014, and continue until October 3, 2014, or until the magazine reachescapacity. Contact us via e-mail at any time with questions or to discuss your ideas.


ODYSSEY 201480

The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) and the Individuals withDisabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) have significantimplications for students with and without disabilities. Despiteextensive research, journal articles, editorials, media coverage, andlitigation, deaf and hard of hearing students with additionaldisabilities continue to be a population that is largely unaddressed byfederal legislation. Therefore it is vital for families, teachers, relatedservice providers, and administrators to have a foundationalunderstanding of these two overarching laws in relation to setting highand reasonably attainable expectations for their children who are deafor hard of hearing and, perhaps especially, for children who are deaf andhard of hearing with disabilities. These two pieces of legislationprovide a framework in which those involved with deaf education canset and maintain reasonable and attainable expectations for deaf andhard of hearing students with disabilities.

No Child Left BehindEnacted in 2002, the NCLB continues to play a critical role in K-12 educationalsettings by holding all school districts accountable for their students’ educationaloutcomes (Abedi, 2004; Arnett, Fitzpatrick, & Theoharis, 2013; Berry, Hoke, &Hirsch, 2004; Fitzpatrick & Knowlton, 2007; Linn, 2003; Rose, 2004; Spooner &Browder, 2003). Despite what some consider controversial underpinnings, the law

MichaelFitzpatrick, PhD,received his degree inspecial education fromthe University ofKansas. His researchagenda includes teacherpreparation, medialiteracy, urban schoolissues, interventionstrategies, andtechnology integrationacross the lifespan.Fitzpatrick currentlyserves as dean of theGraduate Program inEducation atMorningside College inSioux City, Iowa.

Photos by John T. Consoli

By Michael Fitzpatrick and Raschelle Theoharis

Right: Parents are an

important part of their

child’s IEP team and his or

her best advocate.

The Lawand the IEP:

Establishing and Maintaining

High ExpectationsFOR DEAF STUDENTS

WITH DISABILITIES


2014 ODYSSEY 81

remains focused on ensuring that “all childrenhave a fair, equal, and significant opportunity toobtain a high-quality education, and reach, at aminimum, proficiency on challenging stateacademic achievement standards and stateacademic assessments” (NCLB, 2002). To achievethis goal, the NCLB incorporated the followingsix principles:

• Accountability for schools, teachers, andadministrators

• Highly qualified teachers

• Research practices based in science

• Local flexibility

• School safety

• Parental choice (NCLB, 2002; Turnbull,Turnbull, Erwin, & Soodak, 2006)

Holding schools accountable is universallyappealing. However, to date little is knownabout the NCLB’s impact on improving theacademic outcomes of deaf and hard of hearingstudents who have additional disabilities.

Individuals with DisabilitiesEducation Improvement ActThe IDEIA specifies that special educators earn adisability-specific degree to be considered highlyqualified. According to Turnbull, Turnbull,Wehmeyer, & Shogren (2010), the IDEIAcontains six principles and specifies that there befour outcomes. In theory, these allow everystudent with disabilities equal access to thegeneral education curriculum.

The six principles are:

• Zero reject—Students can learn and benefitfrom an appropriate education regardless ofthe severity of the disability.

• Nondiscriminatory evaluation—Materialsand procedures used are not racially orculturally biased.

• Least restrictive environment—Studentswith disabilities are educated in the sameenvironment as students without disabilitiesto the maximum extent possible.

• Parental participation—Parents serve asadvocates for their child with a disability

RaschelleTheoharis, PhD,received her master’sdegree in deaf educationand her doctorate inspecial education fromthe University of Kansas.An associate professor atGallaudet University,Theoharis teaches coursesfocusing on deaf studentswith autism, K-12assessment, specialeducation law, theIndividualized EducationProgram process, andspecial education. Herresearch agenda includesteacher attrition andretention in specialeducation and deaflearners with autism.

The authors welcomequestions and commentsabout this article [email protected] and [email protected].


and as members of theIndividualized EducationProgram (IEP) Team.

• Procedural due process—Parents, or those acting in thiscapacity, are assured a voice indecisions made by the IEP team.

• Appropriate education—Students’ educational needs aremet as outlined in the IEP.

The four stated outcomes include:

• Equal opportunity—Studentswith disabilities are providedequitable access to the generaleducation curriculum to themaximum extent possible.

• Full participation—Studentswith disabilities should not beexcluded from extracurricular activities (e.g., chess club,band, sports teams) to the maximum extent possible.

• Independent living—Individuals with disabilities shouldbe integrated into society, including quality of life andleisure activities, to the maximum extent possible.

• Economic self-sufficiency—Individuals with disabilitiesshould be employable to the maximum extent possible.

Curriculum ExpectationsExperience has shown that students with disabilities achievegreater academic success when high expectations are coupledwith accessing the general education curriculum (Turnbull etal., 2010). Conversely, setting minimal expectationscan lead to marginal academic gains. One area thatshould be closely examined is the K-12 curriculum.Deafness has been considered a low incidentdisability, but just like those students with highincident disabilities (e.g., learning disabilities), deafand hard of hearing students with multipledisabilities are promised an appropriate education inthe least restrictive environment that will empowerthem to live independently.

Teacher Expectations Evidence suggests that teachers who hold theirstudents, including those with disabilities, to ahigher standard cultivate learning environments thatbetter prepare them for postsecondary education andemployment opportunities (Fitzpatrick & Knowlton,2007). In a recent MetLife study (2012), 86 percentof teachers agreed that high expectations play asignificant role in student achievement. At the same

time, however, only 36 percent agreedthat all students have the ability tosucceed academically. Thisjuxtaposition may have direimplications for all students, especiallythose who are deaf or hard of hearingwith disabilities.

Family ExpectationsNumerous studies have illustrated theimportance of familial expectations forstudents with and without disabilities.Although minimal research has focusedspecifically on deaf and hard of hearingstudents with disabilities, research hasshown that, in general, familyexpectations have been linked tochildren’s overall school experience(Chen & Gregory, 2010); academic

engagement and success (Simons-Morton & Chen, 2009); postsecondary attendance, achievement,and adjustment (Agilata & Renk, 2008); and employment(DiRago & Vaillant, 2007). Each of these studies reported thata child’s outcomes paralleled the expectations set by the family(Doren, Gau, & Lindstrom, 2012).

The primary purpose of secondary education is not onlyacademic achievement but also preparation for postsecondaryeducation, training, or employment opportunities. From thisperspective, educators must become familiar with familial needsand cognizant of the impact family expectations have on theacademic, social, emotional, and behavioral outcomes for theirdeaf and hard of hearing children with disabilities.

Doren et al. (2012) stressed the importance of both familiesand educators setting and maintaining similar expectations.

ODYSSEY 201482


2014 ODYSSEY

This allows students toexperience thesecondary andtransition programsintended to supporttheir achievements.Finally, several studieshave shown familyexpectations canfluctuate. Changes infamilial expectationsare often influenced bythe parents’ ownacademic achievementsand outcomes, how theparents perceive theirchild’s performance at any point in time, and teachers’expectations (Mistry, White, Benner, & Huynh, 2009).

How to Establish High and Attainable ExpectationsThere can be some inherent difficulties when engaging inmeaningful dialogue among parents, teachers, and other serviceproviders (e.g., speech-language pathologist, occupationaltherapist, physical therapist) regarding expectations that arereasonable and attainable for deaf and hard of hearing studentswith disabilities, especially given the limited resourcesavailable for this population. The following suggestions mayhelp to bridge this gap.

CommunicationTeachers, related service providers, and administrators shouldstrive to work collaboratively with families. Clear andtransparent communication is key to achieving a collaborativerelationship. The home-school link can be strengthened by:

• maintaining correspondence to ensure everyone is continuingto work towards a common goal;

• encouraging self-advocacy and self-determination on the partof the students themselves, allowing them to inform othersabout the supports they require to be successful; and

• evaluating supports to ensure students receive the optimalservices available and providing the flexibility to discontinueservices that are no longer necessary.

In an ideal scenario, families should provide pertinentinformation regarding their hopes and dreams for theirchildren. Once they learn these expectations, schoolrepresentatives can work collaboratively with the families toestablish a framework which may include consultation,supports, services, accommodations and modifications, andother available resources to better enable the student to achievesuccess.

School representativesalso need to partner withfamilies to encourage andsupport extracurricularactivities. Research hasshown the positiveinfluence adult rolemodels and mentors playon developingcharacteristics, such asintegrity, self-confidence,and self-esteem (Murray,2009). Theseinteractions, which oftenoccur outside of the

classroom, also have adirect impact on expectations and outcomes (Doren et al.,2012; Jekiwlwk, Morre, & Hair, 2002; Murray, 2009).

The Individualized Education ProgramWhen writing the IEP, the team needs to use data gatheredfrom curriculum-based assessments, direct observations,academic achievement and intelligence tests, and otherevaluations to develop what is called the student’s “present levelof performance.” The present level of performance is a snapshotof how the student is functioning across several domains at agiven moment in time. It may include, but is not limited to, alook at the student’s experience in a variety of aspects of his orher life, including: academic, social, emotional, behavioral,functional, and mobility. The present level of performanceserves as a marker for completing the remaining sections of theIEP, such as goals and objectives, accommodations andmodifications, related services, transition planning, andpercentage of time accessing the general education classroom.

Annual IEP meetings provide teachers, related serviceproviders, and administrators with an opportunity to work withfamilies to establish annual goals and objectives for the deaf orhard of hearing student with disabilities. Each newly updatedIEP should reflect what the student: 1) is currently able toaccomplish, 2) is expected to achieve during the next academicschool year, and 3) requires to be successful in meeting thestate’s academic content standards.

The annual IEP meetings provide an opportunity to engagein collaborative decision making, and it is through this processthat reasonably attainable expectations can be established foreach student. Additionally, teachers, related service providers,and administrators should view these meetings as a chance todiscuss the expectations families have set for their children.

Maintenance of High ExpectationsAs deaf and hard of hearing students with disabilities grow,develop, and mature, their educational needs change. Based onthe student’s progress towards obtaining IEP goals and

83


objectives and the team’s perspective, IEP team members cananalyze expectations for the child’s experience and use thesemeetings to address areas of strengths and weaknesses that maynot be included in the IEP, recent achievement data, and optionsfor re-evaluation.

There is limited research regarding meeting the needs of deafand hard of hearing students with disabilities. Nevertheless, it isessential for teachers, related service providers, andadministrators to work collaboratively with families to keep

expectations high and ensure IEPs are being implemented andaligned with these expectations.

Legislation, including the NCLB and the IDEIA, serves as afoundation for setting high and reasonably attainableexpectations for these students. Each recommendation wasadapted from educational best practices and research from otherdisability classifications to begin filling the significant void inthe literature related to the needs, potential, and achievementof deaf and hard of hearing students with disabilities.

Abedi, J. (2004). The No Child Left Behind Act and Englishlanguage learners: Assessment and accountability issues[Electronic version]. Educational Researcher, 33(1), 4-14.

Agilata, A. K., & Renk, K. (2008). College students’adjustment: The role of parent-college student expectationdiscrepancies and communication reciprocity. Journal of Youthand Adolescence, 37(8), 967-982.

Arnett, S., Fitzpatrick, M., & Theoharis, R. (2013).Foundations of special education: Understanding students withexceptionalities. Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt.

Berry, B., Hoke, M., & Hirsch, E. (2004). The search for highlyqualified teachers [Electronic version]. Phi Delta Kappan, 85,684-689.

Chen, W. B., & Gregory, A. (2010). Parental involvement as aprotective factor during the transition to high school. Journal ofEducational Research, 103(1), 53-62.

DiRago, A. C., & Vaillant, G. E. (2007). Resilience in innercity youth: Childhood predictors of occupational status acrossthe lifespan. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36(1), 67-70.

Doren, B., Gau, J. M., & Lindstrom, L. E. (2012). Therelationship between parent expectations and post-schooloutcomes of adolescents with disabilities. Exceptional Children,79(1), 7-23.

Fitzpatrick, M., & Knowlton, H. E. (2007, Fall). No Child LeftBehind’s implementation in urban school settings: Implicationsfor serving students with emotional and behavior disorders.Journal of the American Academy of Special Education Professionals[On-line Journal]. Retrievable from http://aasep.org/aasep-publications/journal-of-the-american-academy-of-special-education-professionals-jaasep/index.html

Jekiwlwk, S., Morre, K. A., & Hair, E. C. (2002). Mentoringprograms and youth development: A synthesis. Washington, DC:Child Trends.

Linn, R. L. (2003). Accountability: Responsibility andreasonable expectations. Educational Researcher, 32(7), 3-13.

MetLife. (2012). The MetLife survey of the American teacher: Challenges for school leadership [Electronic version]. New York:MetLife.

Mistry, R. S., White, E. S., Benner, A. D., & Huynh, V. W.(2009). A longitudinal study of the simultaneous influence ofmothers’ and teachers’ educational expectations on low-incomeyouth’s academic achievement. Journal of Youth and Adolescence,38(6), 826-838.

Murray, C. (2009). Parent and teacher relationships aspredictors of school engagement and functioning among low-income urban youth. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 29(3),276-404.

P. L. 107-110 (2002). The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001.Retrieved November 10, 2013, from http://www.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/esea02/index.html

P. L. 108-446 (2004). The Individuals with DisabilitiesEducation Improvement Act. Retrieved November 10, 2013,from http://www.ed.gov/policy/speced/guid/idea/idea2004.html

Rose, L. C. (2004). No Child Left Behind: The mathematics ofguaranteed failure [Electronic version]. Educational Horizons,82(2), 121-30.

Simons-Morton, B., & Chen, R. (2009). Peer and parentinfluences on school engagement among early adolescents.Youth and Society, 41(1), 3-25.

Spooner, F., & Browder, D. M. (2003). Special exchange series:Perspectives on defining scientifically based research ineducation and students with low incidence disabilities[Electronic version]. Research and Practice for Persons with SevereDisabilities, 28(3), 117-160.

Turnbull, A. P., Turnbull, H. R., Erwin, E., & Soodak, L.(2006). Families, professionals, and exceptionality: Positive outcomesthrough partnership and trust. Columbus, OH: Merrill/PrenticeHall.

Turnbull, A. P., Turnbull, H. R., & Wehmeyer, M. L., &Shogren, K. (2010). Exceptional lives: Special education in today’sschools (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.

References

ODYSSEY 201484


“A master can tell you what he expectsof you. A teacher, though, awakensyour own expectations.” ~ Patricia Neal

“You’re notobligated towin. You’reobligated tokeep trying todo the bestyou can everyday.” ~ MarianWright Edelman

“Great teachers empathize withkids, respect them, and believethat each one has somethingspecial that can be built upon.”~ Ann Lieberman

“Children need tobe challenged andpushed, not to the

point where theygive up but to thepoint where they

think, ‘Wow, look at me go!’”

~ Robert John Meehan

“When we do the bestthat we can, we neverknow what miracle iswrought in our life, orin the life of another.”~ Helen Keller

“You must do the thingyou think you cannot

do.” ~ Eleanor Roosevelt

“In order to carry apositive action wemust develop herea positive vision.”

~ Dalai Lama

“The mind is not a vesselto be filled, but a fire to

be kindled.” ~ Plutarch

“Believe you can andyou’re halfway there.”~ Theodore Roosevelt

“High achievement always takes place in the framework of high expectation.” ~ Charles F. Kettering

“Education is the most powerful weapon you can use to change theworld.” ~ Nelson Mandela

“Glory lies in the attempt toreach one’s goal and not inreaching it.” ~ Mahatma Gandhi

“When somebodytells me I can’t dosomething, all I dois say, ‘Watch me.’”~ Derrick Coleman

“Every great dream begins with adreamer. Always remember, you havewithin you the strength, the patience,and the passion to reach for the stars

to change the world.” ~ Harriet Tubman

Keeping Expectations Highat School and at Home

Here are some quotations that can be used in the classroom and at home to motivatechildren. Download this poster at www.gallaudet.edu/clerccenter/Odyssey.html.

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ODYSSEY 201486

Like all children, deaf and hard of hearing children thrive in environmentsthat support and promote healthy ways of thinking. When individuals havehealthy ways of thinking, they have what researchers call a “growth mindset”(Dweck, 2006), and part of a growth mindset is resiliency. When a child whois resilient faces a challenge, he or she will try different solutions, exhibitgreater effort, and not easily give up. In comparison, a non-resilient childmay easily give up and even exhibit helplessness or shy away from futurechallenges. Developing resiliency and growth mindsets in students has beenfound to lead to increased academic achievement (Blackwell, Trzeniewski, &Dweck, 2007; Good, Aronson, & Inzlicht, 2003). As we raise expectations fordeaf and hard of hearing children, we must foster their resiliency; resiliency isa critical tool in meeting high expectations and achieving academic success.

How resiliency is developed can be traced to the mindset of a child. A child’s mindset—orhow he or she perceives him- or herself—is related to how the child responds to challengingsituations (Yeager & Dweck, 2012). A great example comes from the well-known story TheLittle Engine That CouldTM. As the story unfolds, the little engine is given the seeminglyimpossible task of pulling a load up a hill. However, with its “growth mindset,” the littleengine said to itself, “I think I can, I think I can, I think I can”—and it did. Resiliency and agrowth mindset may be especially important for deaf and hard of hearing children because ofthe academic and social challenges they often face (Schick, Williams, & Kupermintz, 2006;Easterbrooks & Beal-AIvarez, 2012; Qi & Mitchell, 2012).

Resiliency and Mindset: Growth Be PraisedIndividuals tend to have one of two mindsets—a fixed mindset or a growth mindset (Dweck,2006)—and the mindset an individual develops relates to the way he or she is praised(Mueller & Dweck, 1998). Like non-resilient children, individuals with fixed mindsets

Lisalee D. Egbert,PhD, is an assistantprofessor atCalifornia StateUniversity,Sacramento inthe Deaf StudiesProgram. Sheserves on theboards of the AmericanSociety for DeafChildren and theCalifornia Educators forthe Deaf. She and herhusband have fourchildren.

Todd LaMarr, MA,has worked at both thepreschool andelementary levels.Having earned hismaster’s degreein humandevelopment, heis a researchassistant in theCognitiveNeurolinguistic Lab ofthe University ofCalifornia-Davis.

Tami Hossler, MA,serves on the board ofthe American Societyfor Deaf Children(ASDC) and is also theeditor of The Endeavor,ASDC’s magazine.Hossler and herhusband havetwo adultdaughters, onedeaf and onehearing. Theyreside in Ft. Myers,Florida.

This article was adapted from Egbert, L., LaMarr, T., Crace, J., Davenport, C., & Hossler, T. (2013). Watering the roots of self-driven

motivation: A positive self-theory and lifelong resiliency in deaf and hard of hearing children. Presentation.

By Lisalee D. Egbert, Todd LaMarr, Tami Hossler, Carrie Davenport, and Jodee Crace

MeetingHigh Expectations:

HEALTHY THINKING, RES IL IENCY, AND

DEAF AND HARD OF HEARING CHILDREN


2014 ODYSSEY 87

perceive personal attributes, such asintelligence, to be fixed and unable to bechanged; they give up quickly on challengingtasks and shy away from future challenges(Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Kamins & Dweck,1999; Skipper & Douglas, 2012). On the otherhand, individuals with growth mindsets tend toperceive personal attributes as changeable andable to be improved (Hong, Chiu, Dweck, Lin& Wan, 1999).

Which mindset individuals develop is relatedto the patterns of praise they receive(Gunderson et al., 2013). Often parents andteachers praise to initiate a response that ispositive and beneficial to boosting confidence,

self-worth, and motivation in a child. Theintent is laudable, but research shows that notall praise has these successful results. In fact,when praise focuses on an attribute of the child,it may be counterproductive as it may result inthe child internalizing the attribute as anunchangeable part of him- or herself. Forexample, if a child receives an A on a test and ispraised as “intelligent,” he or she may accepthis or her “intelligence” as an intrinsic part ofhim- or herself, unrelated to any effort on his orher part. As a consequence, the child develops amindset that is fixed. When children with fixedmindsets experience a setback, they find theirself-worth and motivation to endure weakens.

Left: A father and

daughter involved in

the Deaf Role Model

Program learn how to

sign I love you.

Far left: A mother

learns the sign family

from a deaf role model.

Carrie Davenport,EdS, is the earlychildhood consultant forthe Center for Outreach

Services at theOhio School for

the Deaf,located inColumbus.She serves on

several boardsand committees,

including the AmericanSociety for DeafChildren, Ohio’sUniversal NewbornHearing Screeningsubcommittee, and theNortheast OhioConsortium for Childrenwith Cochlear Implants.She is a founding boardmember of Ohio Hands& Voices.

Jodee Crace, MA,is the past president of

the American Societyfor Deaf

Children andhas served onits boardsince 2009.

For the past30 years, Crace

has been in the fieldof human developmentwithin counseling andearly education. She andher husband have foursons, one deafblind andthree deaf. They residein Westfield, Indiana.

The authors welcomequestions and commentsabout this article [email protected],[email protected],[email protected],[email protected],and [email protected].

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ODYSSEY 201488

For example, if after being praised forhis or her intelligence due to earning asuccession of A’s the student suddenlyearns a C, the student may feel that heor she is not as smart as previouslythought and give up. Resiliency is lost.

However, when praise focuses on theeffort that enabled the children toachieve success, the outcome issignificantly different. For example, if achild earning A’s is praised not for his orher intelligence but for his or her effort,he or she will come to believe that effortis the key to success and that he or shecan develop and grow with effort.Therefore, the child is better able tohandle setbacks. If he or she receives a Con a subsequent test, the child doesn’tattribute the grade to a part of him- orherself that cannot be changed but tolack of studying or effort. Praise thatfocuses on effort can also lead children tovalue learning opportunities, improvetheir ability to strategize, and increasetheir motivation to take on new tasks(Gunderson et al., 2013). Critically,praising effort fosters a growth mindsetand, therefore, helps children developresiliency.

The IEP: Fostering Growth MindsetsParents and educators can use theIndividualized Education Program(IEP), the mechanism that lays out thefoundation for educating students, toestablish an environment that fosters agrowth mindset for deaf and hard ofhearing students. Here’s how:

• Educate IEP team members on thedifference between a fixed mindsetand a growth mindset and on howthese mindsets influence a student’sresiliency and motivation.

• Cross-train teachers, coaches, supportstaff, interpreters, and extracurricularactivity sponsors on how toappropriately support, encourage,and adjust their language to praisestudents in ways that promoteresiliency and a growth mindset.

What Parents Can DoPROMOTING THE HEALTHY WAYS

OF THINKING THAT COMPRISE

A HEALTHY MINDSET

By Lisalee D. Egbert, Todd LaMarr, Tami Hossler, Carrie Davenport, and Jodee Crace

Homework: Write a report about clouds.

If children in your home or students in your class find themselvesbaffled by the assignment—for example, a report on clouds—here aresome suggestions:

1. Teach students to break down the task into simple units. This makes thegoal more clearly attainable. Perhaps ask them: What are clouds made of? Howdo they form?

2. Help students list where to find relevant information. Search for a book inthe library? Search for information online? How about the websites of theNational Weather Service or National Geographic?

3. Help students identify materials needed (e.g., paper and pencil, a computer).

4. Develop an outline: introduction, body, and conclusion.a. The introduction sparks interest in readers and gives them a brief

overview of what is in the report.

b. The body includes the main points of the report.

c. The conclusion is the wrap-up—all the important points and the main point of the thesis.

5. Foster the understanding that work and persistence are necessary tocomplete a task or reach a goal. Help students understand that each task takestime and effort and that some parts will be easier than others.

6. Discuss setbacks. Help students turn setbacks into opportunities to learnand grow. If the teacher determines the body of the report does not haveenough information to support the conclusion, for example, take a moment toask what the teacher wants or help students to see what is missing.

7. Allow students to share their feelings about the experience. What part didthey like? What part was challenging?

8. Validate students’ thinking. Perhaps note that the body of the report can bethe most challenging. It is the biggest part of the report, and most people agreethat this part is difficult.

9. Praise effort and persistence rather than innate characteristics (e.g.,intelligence, ability). For example, note that students did a great job ofbreaking down each step and really took the time to understand the parts of thereport. Praise the students’ effort, not their attributes.


2014 ODYSSEY 89

• Allow students to actively participatein their IEP development andplanning (Williams-Diehm,Wehmeyer, Palmer, Soukup, &Garner, 2008).

• Train team members on techniquesthat break a task into parts and allowstudents to approach a large taskthrough a series of smaller tasks.

• Connect children with deaf and hardof hearing peers. Use videophone or

scheduledplaygroups, social,or sports events.Include opportunitiesfor peers to learnAmerican Sign Languageand opportunities to practicewith each other.

Helping students to develop a healthygrowth mindset allows them to becomeresilient and gives them the tools to meethigh expectations. The benefits of

resiliency and a growthmindset extend far

beyond the academicsetting and continue to

impact individualsthroughout their lives

(Moorman & Pomerantz, 2010).Children with growth mindsets gothrough life with high expectations forthemselves, the resilience to overcomeand persist through challenges, and asense of confidence in handling whateversituation comes their way.

Blackwell, L. S., Trzeniewski, K. H., & Dweck, C. (2007).Implicit theories of intelligence predict achievement acrossan adolescent transition: A longitudinal study and anintervention. Child Development, 78(1), 246-263.

Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success.New York: Random House.

Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitiveapproach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review,95(2), 256-273. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.95.2.256

Easterbrooks, S. R., & Beal-AIvarez, J. S. (2012). States’reading outcomes of students who are d/Deaf and hard ofhearing. American Annals of the Deaf, 157(1), 27-40.

Good, C., Aronson, J., & Inzlicht, M. (2003). Improvingadolescents’ standardized test performance: An interventionto reduce the effects of stereotype threat. Journal of AppliedDevelopmental Psychology, 24(6), 645. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2003.09.002

Gunderson, E. A., Gripshover, S. J., Romero, C., Dweck, C.S., Goldin Meadow, S., & Levine, S. C. (2013). Parent praiseto 1 to 3 year olds predicts children’s motivationalframeworks 5 years later. Child Development, 84(5), 1526-1541.

Hong, Y., Chiu, C., Dweck, C. S., Lin, D. S., & Wan, W.(1999). Implicit theories, attributions, and coping: Ameaning system approach. Journal of Personality and SocialPsychology, 77(3), 588-599. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.77.3.588

Kamins, M. L., & Dweck, C. S. (1999). Person versus processpraise and criticism: Implications for contingent self-worthand coping. Developmental Psychology, 35(3), 835.

Moorman, E. A., & Pomerantz, E. M. (2010). Abilitymindsets influence the quality of Mothers’ involvement inchildren’s learning: An experimental investigation.Developmental Psychology, 46(5), 1354-1362. doi:10.1037/a0020376

Mueller, C. M., & Dweck, C. S. (1998). Praise forintelligence can undermine children’s motivation andperformance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(1),33-52. doi:10.1037/ 0022-3514.75.1.33

Qi, S., & Mitchell, R. E. (2012). Large-scale academicachievement testing of deaf and hard-of-hearing students:Past, present, and future. Journal of Deaf Studies and DeafEducation, 17(1), 1-18.

Schick, B., Williams, K., & Kupermintz, H. (2006). Lookwho’s being left behind: Educational interpreters and accessto education for deaf and hard-of-hearing students. Journal ofDeaf Studies and Deaf Education, 11(1), 3-20.

Skipper, Y., & Douglas, K. (2012). Is no praise good praise?Effects of positive feedback on children’s and universitystudents’ responses to subsequent failures. British Journal ofEducational Psychology, 82(2), 327-339.

Williams-Diehm, K., Wehmeyer, M. L., Palmer, S. B.,Soukup, J. H., & Garner, N. W. (2008). Self-determinationand student involvement in transition planning: Amultivariate analysis. Journal on Developmental Disabilities,14(1), 27-29.

Yeager, D. S., & Dweck, C. S. (2012). Mindsets that promoteresilience: When students believe that personalcharacteristics can be developed. Educational Psychologist,47(4), 302-314. doi: 10.1080/00461520.2012.722805

References


ODYSSEY 201490

AcademicRigor

The field of K-12 deaf education today continues to be fractured byideological camps. A newcomer to the field quickly learns that thecontroversies related to language, communication, and instructionalapproaches continue to rage after almost 200 years of contentiousdebate. Much attention is given to auditory and speech developmentas well as sign language development. Emphasizing academic rigor isoften lost in this fog of polemic war between dueling philosophies. Alsomissing is the importance of the students’ attainment of linguistic,cognitive, and social competence.

When deaf education is mentioned, there is too much emphasis on deaf and notenough emphasis on education. Deaf and hard of hearing students everywhere deserveacademic rigor. They deserve demanding academic instruction that leads to fluencyin English reading and writing as well as acquired knowledge of mathematics,sciences, and social studies.

Googling “deaf education” brings out much material related to audiology, Englishspeech and language, American Sign Language, hearing levels, cochlear implants,dormitories, and ‘manualism vs. oralism.’ Connecting deaf students to academicrigor seems a rare concept in the field of deaf education and on the Internet. Whenthe subject of curriculum comes up, often the curriculum is described as being‘adapted’ for deaf students. ‘Adapt’ is a euphemism for ‘watered down curricula.’

No wonder many deaf students continue to be shortchanged. If their respectiveacademic programs do not focus on or demand academic rigor, then deaf studentswill continue to flounder. Students everywhere, whether they are deaf or hearing,deserve teachers who know their content area and are passionate about teaching.Students also deserve to be nurtured, inspired, and challenged by their teachers.

The field of deaf education is approaching its 200th anniversary in the Western

James E. Tucker,is superintendent of theMaryland School for theDeaf. He is also thepresident-elect of theConference of Educa-tional Administrators ofSchools and Programsfor the Deaf and willbecome president inJuly. He welcomesquestions and commentsabout this article atJames.Tucker@ msd.edu.

By James E. Tucker

Photos by John T. Consoli

Above and right: Students

need to read and write

extensively and daily from a

young age and all through

school.


2014 ODYSSEY 91

Hemisphere. The American School for the Deaf wasestablished in Hartford, Connecticut, in 1817, and from thisfirst school the field grew into a national system of schools forthe deaf and public school programs. After almost 200 years,one would believe that the field should have already perfectedthe instruction of students who happen to be deaf or hard ofhearing. However, achievement test scores, by and large, stillshow deaf students lagging behind their hearing peers.

Success stories of deaf individuals are plenty. There aredeaf doctors, lawyers, engineers, filmmakers, carpenters,computer programmers, writers, teachers, and entrepreneurs.If there are so many success stories, then why do we have toomany students reading and writing below grade level? Canthe field of deaf education work together to increaseacademic rigor for all students?

The path to academic rigor begins with the child’s parentsand the quality of resources and support available to thefamily from early on. First, early language acquisition andfamily involvement are a must for infants and toddlers.Children need to meet cognitive and language benchmarksthroughout the first five years of their lives. Highexpectations for the child’s academic achievement is the nextstep in pursuing academic rigor. And, finally, a qualitycurriculum. Students need to read and read and read. There

is no substitute for reading. Students need to write and writeand write. There is no substitute for writing. Interactingdaily with the English text is a must, even more so for deafstudents.

If pre-kindergarten students are delayed in languagefluency or have cognitive delays, will they be able to handleacademic rigor as they progress through their elementaryyears and beyond? The field must believe they can catch upwith specialized instruction and intervention, hard work,and with full, clear, and direct linguistic access to academicinstruction.

The State of Maryland and states across the nation haveadopted the Common Core State Standards. This has raisedthe bar for academic rigor for all students, including thosewho are deaf or hard of hearing. Young students arenaturally curious about the world around them, and it is upto parents and teachers to work together to cultivate thiscuriosity into a lifetime quest for knowledge in all academicdisciplines.

Academic rigor is the way. The only way.

This article first appeared in the Winter 2012-2013 issue of TheMaryland Bulletin, a publication of the Maryland School for theDeaf. It is reprinted here with permission.


ODYSSEY 201492

CLERC CENTER NEWS

On January 7, 2014, the Clerc Center hosted a visit fromMichael Yudin, assistant secretary for the Office of SpecialEducation and Rehabilitative Services (OSERS) at the U.S.Department of Education. Accompanying him were staffmembers Annette Reichman, with the Office of SpecialInstitutions, and Liz Shook, with the Office of Planning andPolicy.

Yudin was appointed by President Barack Obama. In hisposition, he is responsible for the oversight of GallaudetUniversity and all of its programs, including the Clerc Centerand its demonstration schools. His office also has oversightresponsibilities over the National Technical Institute for theDeaf, and various special education programs and rehabilitativeservices throughout the country.

Yudin spent the entire morning touring classrooms atKendall Demonstration Elementary School (KDES) andmeeting with students and teachers. The highlights of his visitincluded:

• observation of the Early Childhood Education programs;

• visits to the kindergarten, first, and second grade classes,during which Yudin observed American Sign Languageand English literacy lessons and viewed student artwork;

• interaction with students and teachers in grades threethrough five; and

• lunch and conversation with middle school students in theKDES cafeteria.

Yudin praised the work and dedication he observed. Prior tohis departure, he wrote “Always Aim High!” on an I Love You-shaped leaf and posted it to the “AIM HIGH tree” bulletinboard near the KDES front entrance. The mark he left on thebulletin board represents the impression the Clerc Center madeon him and his staff.

KDES Welcomes OSERS AssistantSecretary Michael Yudin

Senator Harkin Visitsthe Clerc Center forthe 24th Jr. NADBiennial ConferenceIn November of 2013, theModel Secondary School for theDeaf (MSSD) hostedapproximately 100 studentsfrom 26 schools and programsfor deaf and hard of hearingstudents from throughout thecountry. They came toWashington, D.C., toparticipate in the 24th biennialconference of the JuniorNational Association of theDeaf (Jr. NAD).

The conference exposed thedelegates to different aspectsof the Washington, D.C.,politics and advocacy scene.One of the highlights includeda legislative day on CapitolHill and an opportunity tomeet and have a Question andAnswer session with thechampion of the Americanswith Disabilities Actlegislation, Senator TomHarkin from Iowa.

Harkin met with theconference participants for thehour-long Question andAnswer session. When one ofthe students asked Harkinwho his role model was, hereplied that it was his deaf

brother, Frank, who fought allhis life to be independent. Heremembered Frank saying,“How come because I am deaf,people think they need to tellme what to do? I want todecide for myself.”

Harkin encouraged thedelegates to put their newlylearned advocacy skills towork. He urged them not onlyto support the Cinema Act butalso to encourage their parentsand friends to contact theirlegislators about the UnitedStates joining the 130 othercountries that have alreadyratified the Convention on theRights of Persons withDisabilities treaty.

“The Jr. NAD conferencewas a wonderful experience. Ibecame more aware of mypotential to bring change tothe Deaf community throughmy chapter and collaboratewith other individuals withthe drive to makeimprovements for thebetterment of all deaf people,”said MSSD observerEmmanuel Njoku, whoemceed the Question andAnswer session.

The legislative day beganwith a presentation held in theGold Room in the Rayburn

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Clerc Center Strategic Plan 2020Provides Road Map for Next Five YearsIn the spring of 2014, the Clerc Center unveiled the national service portion of its newstrategic plan which will guide its work through the year 2020. Providing thefoundation of this strategic plan are these identified three priority areas:

• Professional development

• Family-school/agency partnerships

• Collaboration

Those priorities were identified during the Clerc Center’s National Priority SettingMeeting which took place in February of 2013 in Washington, D.C. At this meeting,a diverse group of 23 professionals and parents from across the country convened fortwo days and discussed challenges that, if addressed by the Clerc Center, would have apositive impact on the success of current and future generations of deaf and hard ofhearing children.

Each of the three priority areas of the Clerc Center Strategic Plan 2020 (CCSP 2020)contains objectives and corresponding strategies that were based on data and findingsfrom a number of national sources. These included dialogue during the NationalPriority Setting Meeting; collection and analysis of public input from 2010-2012;evaluation feedback on select trainings and products; and current research, practice,and resources in the priority areas. These strategies were carefully selected based ontheir potential impact in each priority area.

“By design, the CCSP 2020 addresses priorities that are rooted in extensive publicinput,” said Ed Bosso, vice president of the Clerc Center. “I believe the strategiescontained within the CCSP 2020 will have a positive impact on the families,professionals, and ultimately the deaf and hard of hearing students we serve.”

To learn more about the CCSP 2020, visit www.gallaudet.edu/clerc_center/strategicplan.

2014 ODYSSEY 93

House Office Building. NADpresident Chris Wagner sharedwith the delegates a history ofthe Jr. NAD and explainedhow its chapters are organizedand run. He made a strongplea to the delegates tostrengthen the participation ofdeaf and hard of hearingstudents in the work of the Jr.NAD and to help build up thenumber of chapters.

Claudia Gordon, who is deafa trustee at GallaudetUniversity, and a formerassociate director of the WhiteHouse Office of PublicEngagement, told storiesabout how she had to advocatefor herself as a student atHoward University to haveinterpreter access toUniversity-sponsored activitiesand not just in the classrooms.

Following the presentations,the delegates walked across theCapitol Hill grounds to theHart Senate Office Building.Once there, they divided upinto state groups and visitedthe offices of their statesenators to meet withlegislative aides to share theiradvocacy for the Cinema Act.

Zachary Bridgett, presidentof the MSSD Jr. NAD chapter,led one of the groups at ameeting with Marylandsenator Ben Cardin’s chiefcounsel, William Van Horne,to discuss the Cinema Actproposed by NAD. Thestudents shared with VanHorne their experiences withmovie theater captioningdevices and why they thoughtthat captioning on the screenwas the more accessible anduser-friendly option.

The Florida School for theDeaf and the Blind will hostthe next Jr. NAD conferencein 2015.

CLERC CENTER NEWS


ODYSSEY 201494

CLERC CENTER NEWS

Now available from the Clerc Center both in print and online,the Critical Needs of Students Who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing: APublic Input Summary is a ground-level reference on how peopleare describing and experiencing the barriers they encounter forthe deaf and hard of hearing children intheir homes or workplaces. Thisanalysis is taken from 1,400 commentsfrom 775 respondents broad ingeographic, affiliation, and linguisticdiversity.

This public input summary is an 18-page document that was developedwith language for all audiences yetprovides analysis and statistics that willbenefit educators at all levels, academicresearchers, service providers, grantseekers, and policymakers. “Thiscollection of public input providesvaluable insight into the wide anddiverse range of perspectives regarding the needs of deaf andhard of hearing children, their families, and the professionalswho work with them across the nation,” wrote Dr. ChristenSzymanski, who is director of Research and Evaluation at theClerc Center and led the data analysis.

Especially significant is that, of the 775 respondents, 85percent reported either having or working with deaf and hardof hearing children from these traditionally underservedgroups: those who come from rural areas, who are from non-English speaking homes, who may have secondary disabilities,who are from racial/ethnic minority populations, and/or whoare struggling academically.

The qualitative data collection occurred from the spring of2010 through the winter of 2011 and was coordinated by Dr.Sue Jacoby, executive director of Planning, Development, andDissemination at the Clerc Center. Speaking to the value of thesummary, Jacoby said, “Common themes emerge regardless ofbackground and context. This is powerful information forpeople to consider when planning their programs and services,serving students, identifying priorities and needs, and seekingresources.”

The public input summary provides a demographicbreakdown of the respondents, an explanation of themethodology used, and identification of 14 barriers that deafand hard of hearing children ages birth to 21 encounter inacademic environments throughout the nation. From these 14barriers:

• Four themes emerged from nearly two-thirds of theresponses: Language and Communication, Resources, SocialConcerns, and Qualified Direct Service Personnel.

• Five overarching barriers were identified: 1) knowledge andeducation of caregivers, professionals, and the generalpublic; 2) collaborative efforts; 3) qualified professionalsand services; 4) meeting the needs of the student within the

school system; and 5) the child’s self-development.

The Clerc Center receives its mandatefrom the Education of the Deaf Act,which requires it to establish prioritiesthrough a process that incorporatespublic input.

“These findings make a powerfulcontribution to the nationalconversation on deaf education,” said EdBosso, vice president of the Clerc Centerat Gallaudet University. “Thisdocument gives us a pulse on deafeducation as reported by parents,

educators, administrators, and service professionals, all ofwhom the Clerc Center serves. This will help the Clerc Centeridentify and design high-impact strategies to address them.”

PDF: www.gallaudet.edu/documents/Clerc/PublicInputSummary.pdfE-magazine format: http://issuu.com/clerccenter/docs/publicinput

Clerc Center Offers Public Input Summary IMPACTING DEAF AND HARD OF HEARING K-12 STUDENTS ACROSS THE NATION


2014 ODYSSEY 95

CLERC CENTER NEWS

NETWORKS:

The Clerc Center hosts networks to connect families withprofessionals and with each other. All networks are free andmembership is open to anyone.

EARLY INTERVENTION NETWORK

Coming soon, this on-line resource will share fivefactors that were identified as essential to thedevelopment of linguistic competence as well asassociated program components, and supportingevidence. Also highlighted will be ways in whichmultiple programs have implemented variousaspects of these factors.

NATIONAL OUTREACH RESOURCES

This on-line community has over 300 members and isdesigned for outreach providers actively involved in theeducation of deaf and hard of hearing children from birththrough 21 years of age. Members are able to:

• browse resource links and add those that they have foundhelpful in their work,

• use discussion forums to ask colleagues for ideas orsuggestions, and

• join or create a subgroup to network around topic areas.

For more information, visit http://norclerccenter.grou.ps/.

DEAF STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES NETWORK

This on-line network provides support to families and educatorsof deaf and hard of hearing students with any of the 13

disabilities identified in the Individuals withDisabilities Education Act. There is a section onevidence-based resources, recommendations, links,and promising practices. The site also highlightstools, has an “Ask the Expert” section, and allows forparent-to-parent networking, information sharing,and advocacy. Members have access to an “Ask the

Expert” section, on-line discussion forums, and blogs. Formore information, visit http://deafwdisabilities.grou.ps.

WEBINARS:

Clerc Center webinars are a convenient way to meetprofessional development requirements and to supply familieswith needed resources. The following recent webinars, as wellas other past webinars, are free and available for viewing atwww.gallaudet.edu/clerc_center/webinars.html.

“Strategies to Prevent Visual Split-Attention withStudents Who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing” by Dr. SusanMather, who is a linguistics professor at Gallaudet Universityand earned her doctorate in sociolinguistics from GeorgetownUniversity. Mather discussed the following topics:

• differences between auditory-oriented classrooms andvisually oriented classrooms,

• the impact of visual split-attention on cognitive overloadand working memory,

• shifting attention between visual fields in the classroom,and

• strategies to reduce the effect of visual split-attention invarious types of classroom situations.

“How Early Intervention Can Make a Difference:Research and Trends” by Dr. Beth Benedict, who is aprofessor in the Department of Communication Studies atGallaudet University, the chair of the Joint Committee onInfant Hearing, and a representative on the Council onEducation of the Deaf. Benedict shared ways in which thefield is evolving and explained what professionals in the fieldcan do to make a difference in areas related to:

• visual language and learning English languageperformance;

• social-emotional, cognition, and communicationdevelopment;

• family involvement and deaf role models; and• setting high expectations.

“What the Eyes Reveal About the Brain: Advances inHuman Language Acquisition Insights” by Dr. Laura-AnnPetitto, science director and co-principal investigator of theNational Science Foundation and Gallaudet University’sScience of Learning Center, VL2. Important research wasshared related to:

• the visual modality and what happens when the lion’sshare of knowledge comes from the eyes; and

• the impact of that on brain structure and brain function,and as it relates to early language acquisition.

New from the Clerc Center

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ODYSSEY 201496

As a child growing up in a rural town in Jamaica,West Indies, I suddenly lost my hearing at 8 yearsold. My outlook on life became very bleak,especially because of the severe lack of disabilityawareness and the scarcity of services and resourcesto support my inclusion in, and access to,mainstream society. The perception and attitudestowards me were more disabling than my newlyacquired disability.

I was taken out of school andkept at home to performdomestic chores and passcountless hours in isolation. Istruggled to reconcile the lowexpectations imposed upon mewith my own innate belief that Iwas capable of much more.Thanks to the anchoring ofstrong women in my life—mymother, grandmother, andaunts—I learned, over time, thatmy disability would not defineme. Only I could do that. I grewto understand that the voices ofdoubt neither dictated my worthnor my capacity.

At 11 years old, I emigratedfrom Jamaica to the South Bronxin New York City. I attended theLexington School for the Deaf inQueens, New York, where I graduated asvaledictorian of my high school class in 1991—one year after the passage of the landmarkAmericans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Thepassage of the ADA gave me a sense of hope thatperhaps this was the time in history where peoplewith disabilities would finally be treated fairly,with dignity and respect. The ADA symbolizedthe hope of a more inclusive society, whereindividuals with disabilities like me could have

the chance to live up to our full potential. Helen Keller said, “Life is either a daring

adventure or nothing at all,” so I stubbornlychose to continue my adventure against thosewhose expectations of me were misguided by mydisability, race, gender, and inner city zip code.

In 1995, I became the first in my family toreceive a college degree when I graduated cum

laude from Howard University inWashington, D.C. I went on tocomplete law school at AmericanUniversity’s Washington College ofLaw in 2000.

Throughout my life, I found thathard work and perseverance werevital to my advancement. So wasthe support of a trusted network offamily, friends, teachers, andmentors. I’ve learned that whateverexperiences, struggles, andchallenges I’ve had to overcome, Imust not fall victim to mycircumstances but rather allowthem to be a part of my learningand growth. The career that I amprivileged to enjoy today is not inspite of who I am or the obstaclesI’ve had to overcome—but becauseof them.

It is fair to say that I have builtmy career in public service on the premise thatevery person—regardless of who they are, wherethey come from, and whatever their disability—ought to have the opportunity to access theAmerican dream. Therefore, it was a privilege tobe called upon to lead the White House’s efforts toengage members of the disability community andassist with advancing inclusion, access, andequality of opportunity for people withdisabilities.

Claudia Gordon is thespecial assistant to the directorof the U.S. Department ofLabor’s Office of FederalContract Compliance Programs.She was recently an associatedirector in the White HouseOffice of Public Engagement,where she worked as a liaison tothe disability community andadvised on disability policies.

Prior to those positions,Gordon was a senior policyadvisor with the U.S.Department of HomelandSecurity’s (DHS) Office forCivil Rights and Civil Liberties(CRCL). While at the DHS, shemanaged the CRCL DisabilityPolicy Team. She also managedthe Interagency CoordinatingCouncil on EmergencyPreparedness and Individualswith Disabilities.

In 2000, Gordon received theprestigious Skadden Fellowshipto work as a staff attorney withthe National Association of theDeaf Law Center. She has alsoworked as a consulting attorneywith the National Council onDisability. In 2006, shereceived the Secretary’s GoldMedal Award from then-DHSSecretary Michael Chertoff inrecognition of her exemplarywork on behalf of people withdisabilities in the Gulf Coastboth during and afterHurricane Katrina.

Throughout my life,

I found that hard

work and

perseverance

were vital to my

advancement.

So was the

support of a trusted

network of family,

friends, teachers,

and mentors.

HARD WORK, PERSEVERANCE,AND A BELIEF IN ONESELF

ImpactAchievement

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By Claudia Gordon


ODYSSEYN E W D I R E C T I O N S I N D E A F E D U C A T I O N

Laurent Clerc National Deaf Education CenterGallaudet University, 800 Florida Avenue, NE Washington, DC 20002-3695

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OrganizationU.S. Postage

PAIDPermit No. 913Washington, DC

Eco awareness: Odyssey magazine isprinted on recycled paper using soy ink.


odyssey - 2014 issue

Documents

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