THE INFLUENCE OF THE SUPERNATURAL IN ELECHI AMADI’STHE CONCUBINE AND THE GREAT PONDS

BY

EKPENDU, CHIKODI IFEOMAPG/MA/09/51229

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH AND LITERARY STUDIES,

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,

NSUKKA.

SUPERVISOR: DR. EZUGU M.A

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS (M.A) IN ENGLISH & LITERARY STUDIES TO THE SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE

STUDIES, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,NSUKKA.

JANUARY, 2015

TITLE PAGE

THE INFLUENCE OF THE SUPERNATURAL IN ELECHI AMADI’STHE CONCUBINE AND THE GREAT PONDS

BY

EKPENDU, CHIKODI IFEOMA

PG /MA/09/51229

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH & LITERARY STUDIESUNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,

NSUKKA.

JANUARY, 2015

i

CERTIFICATION

This research work has been read and approved

BY

________________________ ________________________

DR. M.A. EZUGU SIGNATURE & DATESUPERVISOR

________________________ ________________________ PROF. D.U.OPATA SIGNATURE & DATEHEAD OF DEPARTMENT

________________________ ________________________EXTERNAL EXAMINER SIGNATURE & DATE

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DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my dear son Davids Smile for being with me all through the

period of this study.

To my beloved husband, Mr Smile Iwejua for his love, support and understanding.

To my parents, Elder & Mrs S.C Ekpendu, for always being there for me.

And finally to God, for his mercies.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My greatest thanks go to the Almighty God for his steadfast love and for bringing me

thus far in my academics. To him be all the glory.

My Supervisor, Dr Mike A. Ezugu who patiently taught, read and supervised this research

work, your well of blessings will never run dry.

My ever smiling husband, Mr Smile Iwejua, your smile and support took me a long way. No

one else would have done it better if not you. My little Davids, you are God sent. For

understanding the ups and downs, the go and come and most importantly for spicing up our lives.

I thank God for a son like you.

I am sincerely grateful to my parents Elder & Mrs S.C Ekpendu who thought it wise to give me

further education. Words are not adequate to express my love and gratitude.

My brothers, Chinomso and Chukwuma Ekpendu who became baby sitters during our absence;

our good God who rewards adequately will supply all your needs in abundance.

My friend, Amara Madueke, you sacrificed your time and strength just to stay with me in

school, your contributions will never be forgotten.

Dr. Ndubueze Eguzo and Elder Kachi Nwagbara’s families, your care and support will always

be remembered; you are blessed.

Mrs. Chigozirim Marvin Azuogu, you are a friend indeed. Even distance didn’t stop you from

being who you are. You touched my life a great deal.

Chinelo, Aunty Joy, Kelechi Ibeh and most importantly Aunty U.K .and all the P.G students

who were at Mary Slessor, God designed it that such a time as this we will meet and part and

probably meet again to share our success stories. You are wonderful.

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Chizoba, Peace, Tochi, Oghale and all other people who supported me in one way or the other;

may the Lord fulfill all your dreams.

Finally, the library attendants at Nnamdi Azikiwe Library, University of Nigeria, Nsukka who

helped me with the materials for this research work; thank you so much and may God bless you

all.

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ABSTRACT

This dissertation is a study of the influence of the Supernatural in Elechi Amadi’s The Concubine and The Great Ponds- an x-ray of men and women living in a universe teeming with God, gods, goddesses, spirits, deities, the transcendentals and natural phenomena like sacred animals, birds, hills, and rivers. They all share in the attributes of the supernatural. Unfortunately, man’s vaunted ambition to satiate his quest for the best of everything has always run counter to the dictates of the supernatural, leading as it were, to untold hardships, deaths, and total loss of the gleam. The novels leave us with an enduring lesson that the gods are inscrutable and have a hand in all affairs of the human world. The study reveals that man’s destiny and affairs or existential struggles is dictated and controlled by the supernatural. Furthermore, the study portrays that man is a pawn in the hands of the supernatural. However, man’s conscious effort to counteract his destiny often result in tragedy as exemplified in the novel under study. The theory of myth was adopted to investigate the influence of the supernatural in the affairs of the characters in the two novels as no other literary theory explains the mystery of life and death.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page - - - - - - - - - - i

Certification - - - - - - - - - - ii

Dedication - - - - - - - - - - iii

Acknowledgements - - - - - - - - - iv

Abstract - - - - - - - - - - - v

Table of contents - - - - - - - - - vi

CHAPTER ONE:

1.1 Introduction - - - - - - - - 1

1.2 Background of the Study - - - - - - 1

1.3 Statement of the Problem - - - - - - 3

1.4 Objectives of the Study - - - - - - 3

1.5 Significance of the Study - - - - - - 3

1.6 Scope and Limitation of the Study - - - - - 4

1.7 Methodology - - - - - - - 4

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Review of Related Literature - - - - - - 5

CHAPTER THREE

3.1 Theoretical Framework - - - - - - - 21

3.2 Myth in Society - - - - - - - 21

3.3 The Supernatural In Igbo Cosmology - - - - - 34

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CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 The Supernatural in Elechi Amadi’s The Concubine - - - 28

4.2 The Supernatural in Elechi Amadi’s The Great Ponds - - - 36

CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 Summary / Conclusion - - - - - - 48

5.3 Works Cited - - - - - - - - 51

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

The idea of the supernatural exists in every traditional society all over the world. The

ancient Greeks saw man as being a victim of the supernatural. It is however in the oral tradition

that the supernatural has its strongest hold. Geoffrey Parrinder in his text African Traditional

Religion says; “To Africans, the spiritual world is so real and near, its forces intertwining and

inspiring the visible world that, whether pagan or Christian, man has to reckon with things

invisible to mortal sight”(10). Thus, the supernatural occupy an immense position in the minds of

the Igbo society as in Elechi Amadi’s The Concubine and The Great Ponds.

In the traditional society, some animals are treated with reverence and some birds are

regarded as ominous. When a particular stream or wooded landscape is found unique, it is a

supernatural manifestation. These unique places are seen as the abodes of communal deities or

local spirits identifiable with the destiny of the different communities. All these establish that

beyond nature, there are the supernatural.

1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The Igbo are a group of people whose culture and tradition mean a lot in their lives. They

occupy a territory known as Eastern Nigeria which is made up of five major states namely: Abia,

Imo, Enugu, Anambra, and Ebonyi states. Certain Igbo communities though in scattered

formations could also be found in Bayelsa, Rivers, Delta, and Kogi states of Nigeria.

The culture and tradition of the Igbo are guarded by a number of beliefs associated with

the supernatural. The supernatural are God, gods, goddesses, deities, forces or powers that cannot

be explained by the laws of science or be easily comprehended. It is these supernatural who

influence activities in traditional societies.

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Man has been dependent on “assumed” higher authority, power or god who he believes

knows and controls his affairs throughout his life time on earth. Despite the worthwhile advances

made by science and technology to better his lot and understand his environment, it is surprising

that:

He is still deplorably ignorant and the universe is largely a mystery to him. He does not

understand the nature of space and time; he does not know what matter is made of, if

indeed it is made of anything. Above all he does not understand himself (Amadi 1).

From the above quotation, it is obvious that man is a stranger even to himself. This is why he is

dependent on the supernatural in order to find answers to things he cannot explain and this in

turn leads him into worship and reverence for those supernatural beings whose understanding

eludes him. Therefore, man’s dependence on the supernatural is very important for his survival

in a world he does not understand. Part of this dependence is in the culture and tradition of the

Igbo people whose belief in the ancestors and gods affects their lives and mode of living even in

written texts. Thus,

The African writer who really wants to interprete the African scene has to write in three

dimensions at once. There is the private life, the social life and what you may call the

supernatural (Amadi 7).

It means that, the private, social and most importantly the supernatural life of the Igbo will be

explored if indeed they must write. The characters whose lives we will explore from Amadi’s

novels in the course of this work have been portrayed with that human frailty, weakness and

imperfect nature of men who have eyes but could not see and ears but could not hear. That is to

say that at one point or the other, humans are confronted with forces and circumstances beyond

their control.

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1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Man believes in the existence of higher and stronger supernatural beings who he

depends on but hardly understands. He is obliged to worship, obey and do his best in order to

conciliate them especially in times of crises. In spite of man’s interest and acquisitive tendencies,

the gods remain inflexible and immutable. This research explores the influence of the

supernatural in the activities of people and the limited nature of man’s cravings and the fact that

gods are gods and that man seeks the impossible only to his own peril. This study intends to go

beyond the peripheral approaches that existing studies of Elechi Amadi’s The Concubine and

The Great Ponds have adopted to a much more in depth study of the gods and the mythological

among the Igbo, and Amadi’s novels in particular.

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

This research aims at understanding the place of the gods in the affairs of men/women

between themselves as human beings, and maintaining peace and justice in controversial

circumstances between individuals, villages and towns. Above all, this research intends to

discover whether the gods could be manipulated unjustly to take sides with aggressors against

the just or be compelled to obey the whims, and caprices of contenders no matter how irrational.

It is this emphasis which available critiques seem to overlook that the present study dwells on.

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Primarily, the relevance of this study lies in illuminating information on how the supernatural

affects man in his day to day lifestyle, environment and way of life paying particular attention to

the Igbo race. An in-depth study of how this supernaturals apparently controls man’s destiny and

affairs leaves no one in doubt that mortal beings are mere pawns.

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This study will be of immense help to students and teachers in reading, teaching, and

appreciation of African literature. Curriculum developers/planners also stand to gain as it will

give them insight into other spheres or interpretations of Elechi Amadi’s works, traditional

African gods, goddesses, the supernatural, and the society.

Religious leaders are not left out. This might help them to understand and solve certain

problems of their members knowing that everybody has one belief or the other when it comes to

the supernatural, be it the Almighty God for Christians or the traditional gods and goddesses for

traditionalists. In short, everybody has his faith anchored in some supreme being/supernatural

entity. As Alfred Lord Tennyson would say in his poem ‘‘ In Memoriam Arthur Hallam’’ “we

have but faith we do not know”.

1.6 SCOPE/LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This study is based on, as well as limited to Elechi Amadi’s The Concubine and The Great

Ponds. Occasionally, references could be made to other texts in an attempt to gain extra insight

into the workings of the supernatural among the Igbo of Nigeria.

1.7 METHODOLOGY

Method of gathering information is based on texts that have been written on this subject by

several critics, library and internet resources as well as personal analyses of primary texts based

on the understanding of Igbo society and mythology.

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE.

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INTRODUCTION

The supernatural occupy an immense position in the minds of the Igbo society of Elechi

Amadi’s The Concubine and The Great Ponds. In the hierarchy of beings in the novels, man is in

the middle state; the gods, spirits and ancestors are on top as the superhuman forces while the

trees, animals and minerals are below as inferior forces. Both texts depict the utter indifference

of the supernatural to man’s fate. In The Concubine, Amadi dwells on the community with

particular reference to the femme-fatale Ihuoma. The Great Ponds, on the other hand, basically

dwells on inter-village rivalries. Here, Chiolu and Aliakoro village fight over the ownership of

some ponds: the Wagaba ponds. Many writers have expressed their views in connection with

Elechi Amadi’s works. It is some of these opinions and their relevance to the subject under study

that this research will present in this chapter.

First, Afam Ebeogu in Encyclopedia of Post Colonial Literature states that

Amadi’s major works evoke a strong feeling of the defenselessness of human beings in

the face of the supernatural. Even though his male characters are usually valiant warriors,

wrestlers, and strong willed men, and his women characters are playful, loving,

intelligent, and self willed, there are always in these works invisible figures lurking in the

shadows, ironic twists lying in wait, hopes bound to be thwarted and inscrutable forces

undermining humanity’s determination to control its destiny (35).

He goes further to state that

Amadi’s views… confirm that he is a lover of humanity but that he is disenchanted with

humanity’s antics and with forces to which great power and authority are entrusted (35).

In another opinion on Amadi’s texts, Niyi Osundare maintains that “human characters as we find

in Elechi Amadi’s novels are puppets moved by an overwhelming force” (17).

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Margaret Laurence describes the gods in Amadi’s works thus;

Like the gods of ancient Greece, they are not presented as being just. They are neither

good nor evil, they are merely powerful… they are real and they affect the lives of

mortals in real and inexplicable ways (27).

She goes further to comment specifically on The Concubine. She writes that “The Concubine

contains an acute awareness of fates and ironies. For at the exact moment when we think the

prize is within grasp, the gods cut the thread” (41). This is used to explain the plight of the male

victims desirous of Ihuoma’s love. First, when Madume wants to harvest the plantain on

Emenike’s land after assaulting Ihuoma, the spitting cobra blinds him. Just when Ahuruole is

hoping to have Ekwueme all to herself with the help of the love potion, she sends him

(Ekwueme) raving mad in the forest. Just after Agwoturumbe’s boast to Ihuoma that their

marriage will become a reality after the sacrifice that night, Ekwueme is killed by Nwonna’s

arrow. Ironically too, he (Ekwueme) that advises Nwonna on how to shoot the arrow to kill the

lizard is himself killed by Nwonna’s arrow. G.N Ofor puts it that “The Concubine is concerned

with man’s complex relationship with the gods and the supernatural” (34).

Oladele Taiwo in his text Social Experience in African Literature writes:

As in The Concubine and The Great Ponds, Amadi describes a society that is pre-colonial

perhaps pre-historic and is therefore not disturbed in any way by external influences.

Social life is under the superintendence of the gods who control human destiny and

against whose judgments and decisions man is powerless. People live a communal life

and believe that the action of an individual member can bring great joy or calamity as the

case may be on the community as a whole. The protection of the gods is considered so

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essential that men take every kind of step to ensure that no evil spirit comes between

them and their gods (155 -156).

AMADI’S STYLE

In Neil Mc Ewan’s Africa and the Novel, he says “The Great Ponds and The Concubine

are written of traditional village life and told as though by a villager but written by an

exceptionally intelligent scientist, teacher and administrator (16).

Kolawole Ogungbesan in New West African Literature writes

His narrative is characterized by smoothness, directness and simplicity. Amadi is

constantly engaged in a cool assessment of situations, seeking expedient solutions and

sometimes assenting to compromises (14-15).

AMADI’S PRESENTATION OF CHARACTERS

In The Concubine, it is Ihuoma who is our heroine. “The remarkable Ihuoma is a

virtuous, beautiful, gentle, and near perfect woman respected by the entire village community but

one who brings death to all her lovers” (33).

Eustace Palmer puts it this way:

The Concubine is a powerful love story written in lucid and beautiful prose. The author

examines the problems of young love and of man’s relationship with the gods and

presents a society whose stability rests on tradition and the worship of the gods. The

activities he describes- daily excursions to the farm… the marriage customs, divinations

and fear of the gods- - are all integral to numerous African villages (117).

He goes further to say that in the novel, there are numerous descriptions of sacrifices, dances…

giving example of Madume’s consultation from the dibia Anyika. In that case, “we are much

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more aware of the young man’s fear of death and his anxiety to placate the gods than of the

phenomenon of sacrifice” (118). However, he continues that

Amadi’s main concern in this novel is not the presentation of Omokachi society,

powerful though his portrayal is, but the story of the life and lovers of Ihuoma; in

particular her relationship with Ekwueme and the terrible fate which the gods ordained

for her (119).

In another description of Ihuoma our heroine, Anne Paolucci writes “The heroine in

Elechi Amadi’s The Concubine is an extraordinary beautiful femme-fatale turned out to be an

incarnated Sea goddess married to a jealous king” (21). Durosimi Jones describes the novel as

The novel, The Concubine, illustrates the making of Ogbanje in the Igbo country. It tells

of how the love for Ihuoma (a water spirit and wife of the Sea King) became the doom

and extinction of the three men who wanted her for themselves (104).

Ernest N Emenyonu says “It is a novel which is deeply rooted in the tradition of the people… it

is concerned with man’s complex relationship with the gods and the supernatural” (38).

Obiechina puts it this way:

In The Concubine, the entire plot turns on the fact that without knowing it, the

heroine is a water maid and wife of a jealous Sea King… Amadi’s water maid has

left her husband to join the human species. The affronted and vengeful husband

allows the flighty wife her whim provided she never marries any human; the only

status allowed her is that of a Concubine. Ihuoma’s character illustrates a peculiarity

already observed in West African novels in the traditional environment. That is that

the boundary between human beings, gods and spirits tends to become blurred (98).

Her other worldly beauty makes her desirable to young men in need of wives and

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like the femme-fatale of the European imagination, she brings tragedy and death to

her eager suitors (39).

He continues

Life flows in an even tenor in The Concubine. The villagers live a thoroughly integrated

community life which when it is disrupted at all is disrupted by forces beyond the control

of man. Amadi conceives his novel as an idyllic tale and paints a picture of a fully

integrated, serene and dignified community with which every one feels a sense of

belonging and an instinctive goodwill towards his neighbours. Every one is reasonably

happy and reasonably supplied with the necessities of life; there is no hunger hardly any

sickness, no rudeness; the only serious quarrel is between the single bad man of the

village and its best man (145).

Here the story begins and the mysteries begin to unravel themselves.

Emenike and Madume meet in the bush and a fight ensues bordering on the land in

dispute which the elders have passed judgment on in favour of Emenike but the big eyed

Madume decides to fight it out. After the fight, Emenike goes home badly injured. Ernest

Emenyonu puts it this way “Emenike was not afraid of Madume. He had been a favourite in the

contest over a village beauty. He knew he could hold his own against Madume any day given a

fair chance” (166).

Ernest Emenyonu describes the role of fate and man’s helplessness concerning the fight

between Emenike and Madume when he writes “a man’s god may be away on a journey on the

day of an important fight. That may make all the difference.” This was Emenike’s fate and it is

portrayed as something beyond his control as a human being. He continues “Man can and does

become a joke in the hands of the gods when they see fit to cajole him”. This juxtaposition of

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human will and divine caprice makes it impossible in both The Great Ponds and The Concubine

to decide upon an absolute cause.(166)

In the words of Amadi through Wodu Wakiri the wag and Wosu “his (Emenike’s)

personal gods were not at home on the day of the fight” (8,16). Nwokeokoro also mentioned it to

Chima on their way to the shrine of Amadioha as they discuss Emenike’s illness when he said

“remember there may be other sides to the matter” (Amadi 16). So Madume’s victory was not as

a result of Emenike’s weakness “but the hand of the gods is in it” (Obiechina 145).

Surprisingly, we are told in subsequent pages that Emenike dies out of lock chest as the

villagers thought leaving Ihuoma our heroine, a widow.

SUPERNATURAL SYMBOLS IN THE CONCUBINE

In the course of reading the novel, we encounter objects, animals and birds with

supernatural connotations. We see the first signal concerning Emenike’s death as something that

has been predestined by the gods. A night after the fight, Anyika is invited due to the seriousness

of Emenike’s health. As the family gather round the priest for a divination to ascertain the will of

the gods, Amadi writes:

For some time there was a disturbing silence. Then Emenike coughed. As if in answer, an

owl heard by gave vent to a long, eerie hoot. The sound died in a hair-raising

diminuendo. The medicine man bowed his head. Nnadi exchanged glances with other

members of the family. Clearly all was not well (6).

After this incident, Emenike recovers shortly after and as the custom is, he goes to give thanks to

the gods at the grove/shrine of Amadioha. It is here we encounter the first appearance of the

snake. As Amadi puts it in The Concubine,

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The cocks were killed according to ancient rites…Before any part of the meal was

touched, the priest cut off one wing of the chicken and threw it casually to the right side

of the temple…The old men were evidently used to this and did not watch its movement,

but Emenike stared after the apparently wasted chunk of meat; in a matter of seconds a

huge grey serpent crawled out from behind the shrine and began to swallow its share of

the feast… The men bowed their head… (17-18).

This however leads us to next few pages were we are told of Emenike’s burial. There is another

twist as Amadi leads us to the second victim of the Sea King. G.N Ofor writes:

Shortly after Emenike’s death, Elechi Amadi leads his readers into Madume’s

subconscious who he describes as the villain that chased him (Emenike) to his ancestors

by engaging him in a fight over a piece of land (40).

As he (Madume) ruminates over taking possession of the land, his first implementation is greeted

with a toe cut and severe warning from Anyika. Goaded by greed, he makes the second effort by

assaulting Ihuoma while she is harvesting plantain on the said land. Emenyonu has this to say

“like Chima’s proverbial hunter, he (Madume) collapses under the weight of the punishment

meted to him by the Sea King who assumed the form of a totemic animal- the spitting Cobra”

(40).He commits suicide thereafter.

Looking at these scenarios in The Concubine, and the appearance of the snake before

Emenike and Madume, the first two victims of the Sea King, Obiechina identifies the snake as

“the sacred python, and the totemic emanation of the god of water which is treated with high

reverence” (44). Durosimi Jones on the other hand writes:

We also know from Igbo folklore that the boa constrictor or the python symbolizes

the presence of the power of the water goddess. The shrines of water goddesses are

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inhabited by sacred pythons. In Arrow of God, the sacred python plays such a role.

In The Concubine, Ihuoma the Sea queen is protected from her enemy by the

intervention of a huge snake that sends the adversary Madume to his death (106).

Thus it is the Sea King in disguise presenting itself in the form of a cobra to his victims. On the

other way round, Obiechina has this to say concerning the owl that was heard before Emenike’s

death

In rural West Africa, one is acutely aware how closely human life is integrated with

physical nature. The people are farmers constantly in contact with the earth… They see

birds and animals of all sorts and recognize them as part of the environment to be put to

human use or in some cases treated with reverence and religious awe. They recognize

bird songs and build them into their consciousness as a way of telling time or interpreting

reality since the songs of some birds are ominous (43).

This means that the Sea King has a hand in both deaths as Anyika’s divination later confirms.

DESCRIPTION OF CHARACTERS

In comparison between Emenike and Madume the first two victims of the Sea King, Emenike is

said to be endowed with many good characteristics while Madume is an opposite of what

Emenike stands for. First,

Madume has no redeeming features; he is lazy, big eyed and unsuccessful in life.

Emenike’s death is honorably sealed with a deserving second burial rites but Madume’s

is an abomination because he commits suicide and has to be thrown into Minita; the

forest of the rejected (Ofor 40).

This brings us to the third and the last victim of the Sea King in The Concubine,

Ekwueme; the last eligible young man standing. Ofor describes him as “the over pampered son

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of Adaku and Wigwe” (41); he further comments that “he is living in an earthly paradise until

the thought of marrying Ihuoma creeps into his mind. The intrusion of Ihuoma symbolically

disrupts his edenic happiness” (41).

G.N Ofor in Critical Theory and African Literature writes

The whole story is unknown to humans, controlled or manipulated by the Sea King. He

is intransigent, ruthless, inscrutable and insatiable. He is ubiquitous, mischievous, all

knowing spirit that intrudes into the peace of family life destroying his male rivals

mercilessly. His role in the story is demonic rather than apocalyptic. This demonic role is

unraveled by Anyika’s belated divination which declares him to be responsible for the

death of Emenike and Madume. In this demonic world controlled by the Sea King,

Ihuoma becomes the anima,” the soul image “the spirit of man’s “élan vital” the

tantalizing female who is sought for but cannot be possessed (191).

To make her more desirable, Amadi idealizes her as the most beautiful and desirable girl in

Omokachi with a disarming smile, her complexion like that of an anthill, her features smoothly

rounded, a narrow gap in the upper row of her white regular teeth, she has the best reputation of

any woman in the village, a good or probably the best dancer; women adore her and men are

awestruck before her. With these numerous good qualities, Obiechina Writes:

She is not conceived as an ordinary human but as a water maid turned human, wife of the

dreaded Sea King… But one has a suspicion from the beginning that she is too good to be

altogether true (191).

No wonder Ekwueme becomes interested in the young widow for indeed she is beautiful,

motherly and everything a man will ever want in a woman. Ekwueme’s love for Ihuoma leads

him to abandoning his betrothed wife Ahuruole who also in a quest to secure her husband gives

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him a love potion which is intended to keep him away from Ihuoma; instead, it sends him raving

mad in the forest.

Irrespective of the warnings from Anyika concerning Ihuoma’s nature and the fate of the

doomed intended marriage, he (Ekwueme) consults another dibia Agwoturumbe who agrees to

bind the Sea King with a sacrifice that will be offered at the sea in the middle of the night.

Ironically, Ekwueme is killed by Nwonna’s arrow while the latter is shooting a lizard required

for the sacrifice. Ironically too, he advised Nwonna on how to shoot the lizard. In the words of

Palmer,

Thus instead of killing a second lizard for the sacrifice, he kills a bigger lizard the only

one truly desired by the all manipulating Sea King, a sacrificial lamb slaughtered on the

altar of love to expiate for the sin of loving Ihuoma a sea goddess and for challenging the

Sea King (4 ).

In another opinion,

Another dibia is called in to perform sacrifices to bind the Sea King’s anger. While

hunting for this sacrifice, Ihuoma’s eldest child pierces the would be bridegroom with an

arrow and the Sea King claims his third victim on the eve of Ihuoma’s second marriage

(192).

From the above events, Eustace Palmer in his text An Introduction to the African Novel

maintains that the supernatural does have a place in literature but first there are rules. “The

novelist must show that the events cannot be entirely explained by social, scientific,

philosophical or other factors”. Secondly, he must persuade the reader to suspend his disbelief.

(125). He praises Amadi for a work well done. First, in the treatment of the victims of the Sea

god he says:

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It would be a simple way out to say that Emenike, Ihuoma’s husband does not die

through the malevolence of the gods but of lock chest, the consequence of the fight with

Madume… He (Amadi) has deliberately left a question mark hanging over Emenike’s

death. Emenike does not die after the fight; indeed he recovers completely from the

illness which follows it and with profound shock one learns of his death at the start of

chapter five. So even the inhabitants of Omokachi are puzzled about the causes of

Emenike’s death (125,126).

Secondly, concerning the axe headed, big eyed Madume, he says:

Madume apparently meets his fate by being blinded by a spitting cobra, but isn’t it rather

a coincidence that the cobra is there precisely at the moment when Madume tries to cut

down the bunch of plantain? Why does no spitting cobra

attack Ihuoma when she cuts her bunch of plantains? Why do spitting cobra attack no

one else? (126).

In reply to these enigmatic questions he simply writes “Actually, Madume’s death has been

carefully prepared for” (126).

In the case of Ekwueme, he states that it is difficult to see what social forces are

responsible for Ekwueme’s death. It can’t be explained as an accident. For him, it is too co-

incidental that Nwonna should release his arrow just as Ekwueme leaves Ihuoma’s room. In all,

Amadi forces us to suspend our disbelief by using so much detail in his supernatural

scenes that he gives the illusion of truth. During the various divination scenes, for

instance, one’s attention is so engrossed by the anxiety shown by the dibia’s clients, by

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the urgency of the superb dialogue, and by the dibia’s own movements, that one does not

question the scientific or rational validity of the process (127).

He also notes that

The use of detail is impressive; we note especially the detail of the sacrifice- -the palm

fruit must be unripe, one of the cocks must be white… and finally there is Madume’s all

too-human response. It is by using such devices that Amadi induces us to suspend our

disbelief. Amadi is not conducting a rational argument to prove the existence of

supernatural forces. He merely presents to us a group of people for whom the

supernatural is important, and he tries to make their way of life as realistic as possible

(127,128).

In summary, Elechi Amadi’s prose is exhilarating, lucid and fresh and the plot well

constructed with every episode relevant and duly related to others. He however points out that he

sees a weakness at the sudden introduction of Ahuruole and the sluggish pace of the first four

pages.

CRITICISMS ON THE GREAT PONDS

In The Great Ponds, the relationship between man and the supernatural in this society can

also be seen. The people in this rural community live their daily lives under the superintendence

of the gods. These gods are not only an essence but a presence woven into every aspect of human

relationship. “They are uncanny, implacable and ubiquitous” (Amadi 130).

In The Great Ponds, the dreaded Ogbunabali breaks in half way through the story and

thereafter his power dominates human thought and action and pilots the very movement of the

story. This god is not only an imaginary god which kills by night. It has also become a living

symbol of the people’s collective fear. According to Anne Paolucci:

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Elechi Amadi, Nigeria’s most talented local colourist in his second novel, The Great

ponds describes a feud between two villages claiming exclusive fishing rights to the same

pond. After several bloody skirmishes, the villagers agree to let the gods settle their

dispute. If Olumba, a leading warrior dies of natural causes within six months his village

loses access to the pond (26).

She further comments that :

Amadi skillfully builds up suspense by showing how his hero comes close to death on

several occasions and how others including members of Olumba’s immediate family

begin to die in droves just as the six months test is about to end. It appears the gods are

extremely angry for the rural village is suffering similar decimation (27).

However,

Only on the last page does Amadi reveal that the catastrophe is universal. The villagers

are victims of the great influenza epidemic that killed 20 million people in 1918. This

revelation comes as a surprise, so deeply have we been taken into Olumba’s world that

we have already accepted his society’s interpretation of the tragedy. Amadi’s rich

evocation of traditional African life has been completely convincing (27).

Neil Mc Ewan puts it this way:

Wonjo the curse of the gods which threatens to end the world and which fills villages

with sad spirits of the departed, is identified in the last lines of The Great Ponds as the

influenza of 1918… modern history was also taking place around The Great Ponds in a

corner of Eastern Nigeria (16).

He goes further

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Amadi’s best novel of pre-colonial Africa depicts villagers of the early twentieth century

who suffer as all peoples have done from war and disease but are able to resist both with

courage, imagination and intelligence (19).

In The Great Ponds, Amadi depicts the supernatural’s hold on the character of Olumba.

Throughout Olumba’s life, he has always had that persistent hunting fear of the supernatural. The

pond is a creation of the gods and there is a likelihood that it does belong to both

villages/communities. Thus both are equally guilty before the gods.

Geoffrey Finch in describing The Great Ponds says, “The Wagaba ponds bring death,

diseases and destruction to the villages concerned and in the end, neither wins the fishing pond.

This is the utter futility of life found in Elechi Amadi’s novels under study” (32). In both texts,

we see the presence of the supernatural and their powers over people’s lives. In them,

supernatural explanations are given to every little thing that happens. In The Concubine,

Madume hits his big toe on an old hoe half buried in front of Ihuoma’s house, he runs to Anyika

for a divination. Definitely the hands of the gods are in it as Anyika confirms.

An owl is heard after Emenike in his pain stricken state coughs and the family looks at

each other while the medicine man bowed his head. The interpretation: “Clearly all was not

well” (Amadi 6).

In The Great Ponds, Azigwo, the snake of ill omen crosses Olumba’s path while he is

strolling to Diali’s compound. He quickly goes to Achichi who also divines that the gods are

warning him to be careful. Olumba’s failure to beget a male child is also linked to the curse a

lamb placed on him for not rescuing her when it fell into a well.

In sum, every event has a spiritual/supernatural undertone associated with it. In the words

of Obiechina,

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This is an ideal world but for the meddlesomeness and malevolence of the gods and the

spirits. Amadi has handled the intervention of the supernatural in traditional life most

convincingly. It is not simply that the gods and spirits mingle freely with the people

shaping their destinies for good or ill (145).

He goes further to say that

The matter of fact way in which the supernatural is presented and the total absence of

skepticism help to reinforce the idyllic quality of life… Even when the gods intervene to

strike man down, there is no struggle; the blow is hardly audible; it is sudden, sharp and

decisive and life continues to flow on as if nothing had happened (146).

Finally in Elechi Amadi’s presentation of characters and events in the novel, Charles

Nnolim in his article ‘Mythology and the Unhappy Women in Nigerian Fiction’ summarises it

when he writes “Amadi has recourse to mythology to prove that these occurrences are not just

happenstance” (50). Whether we know and appreciate it or not, it is obvious that there is no

happenstance in life. There is faith in life – the unalterable destiny, law of life for everyone.

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CHAPTER THREE

3.1 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The African concept of society derives from its worldview and ultimately from its myths

and legends and the spirit world. The spirit world of the Igbo is made up of the Supreme God,

gods, goddesses, spirit beings, deities and the ancestors. This realm of the supernatural has

mystical power that controls the Igbo world. Therefore, to discuss the society and the

supernatural in Elechi Amadi’s novels, Igbo Mythology is applied to explain issues in the novel

since no other literary theory explains better the origin, creation and the mystery of traditional

life and death presented in Elechi Amadi’s novels.

3.2 MYTH IN SOCIETY.

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A myth is defined as one story in a mythology. Mythology therefore according to M.H.

Abrams in A Glossary of Literary Terms is

A system of hereditary stories of ancient origin which were once believed to be true by a

cultural group and which served to explain in terms of intensions and actions of deities

and other supernatural beings why the world is as it is and things happen as they do, to

provide rationale for social customs and observances and to establish the sanctions for

rules by which people conduct their lives (170).

Mary Magoulick in her article What is Myth? defines myth as

Tales of the distant past (often primordial times) that concern cosmogony and cosmology

(the origin and nature of the universe) which may be connected to belief system or ritual

and may serve to direct social action and value (2).

From the above views of myth, it is apparent that myths govern social customs, observances,

sanctions, and rituals which are part of religion. To explain the concept of myth further, Obi

Maduakor in his text Introduction to Poetry defines myth as “Stories about gods and their

interaction with mortals handed down from the olden times and containing the early beliefs of a

race” (56). Therefore, Myths are hereditary, that is, from the past and gods are involved; the

world of myths is also the world of humans. Novelists like Elechi Amadi often make use of the

knowledge of these myths in literature. The word ‘myth’ comes from the Greek word “mythos”

meaning discourse which has been translated to mean utterance or speech. As a subject of human

enquiry, the study of myth necessarily takes four basic theoretical accounts. These are rational

theory, functional theory, structural theory and psychological theory.

The rational theory states that myths are created to understand natural events and forces

that occur in the everyday lives of people. It also states that gods and goddesses control all the

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happenings of nature. A good example of this kind of myth is the creation story which accounts

for the creation of man and what gods and goddesses do in order to create human beings. The

functional theory explains how myths are used to teach morality and social behavior. This kind

of myth states what should be done and apportions grave punishments for wrong doings. The

third theory is structural theory which patterns myth after human nature and life itself. According

to Levi Strauss “this provides a structure of myths which help classify them and help one to

scientifically decipher their meaning” (85). Psychological theory is based on human emotions.

This theory believes that myths are conceived in human mind.

There are two organizations of myth in literature. The first one is called undisplaced myth

in which there are two opposing worlds of good and evil. Frye calls these “apocalyptic and

demonic worlds” (158). This level of myth involves the relationship among gods whose lives are

eternal. In this type of mythic literature, characters are gods or supernatural beings that have

freedom of action whether it opposes the central power or not. The second type is called

displaced myth. When an undisplaced myth is rendered plausible to some degree of human

experience by the interaction of gods or supernatural beings with human beings, it is called

displaced myth. In this type of myth, gods interact with human beings through marriage,

reincarnation, sexual intercourse and pre-determination of human fate. In this type of mythic

literature, the central characters are heroes who are humans but possess some supernatural

qualities. It follows that the nature of the relationship that exist between the gods and human

beings in this kind of mythic literature gives it its characteristic identity either as a tragedy or

romance. The tragedy sets in when the hero acts contrary to the divine law which he is either

ignorant of or decides on his own to violate.

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In The Concubine, the interplay of mythic elements where there is a relationship between

the gods and human beings is exemplified. In the novel, there are two worlds; the spiritual world

of the Sea King from where Ihuoma is reincarnated and the human world where Ihuoma is to

fulfill her fate shaped by the Sea King. Ihuoma is reincarnated into the human world with a fate

that whoever marries her today dies the following day. The fate of Ihuoma is unknown to her and

to people around her. The decisions of gods are known only to those who have supernatural or

god-like gift of clairvoyance like Anyika who speaks the voice of the gods. He is a medicine man

who combines both the qualities of man and the oracular voice of the gods.

In The Great ponds, Amadi depicts the supernatural’s hold on Olumba. The major

character Olumba is typified as a super human who also has some element of the supernatural

governing him especially when he is placed under the oath of the ownership of the Wagaba

ponds. We see him degenerate from the strong personality (the leader of men) seen in the

beginning of the story to a mere instrument in the hands of the gods. It is on this theoretical

framework of myths that this research work will be written.

3.3 THE SUPERNATURAL IN IGBO COSMOLOGY

Modern African Literature has continued to reflect the African tradition and mythology

which endows its literature with a distinct identity and character. The Igbo believe in a Supreme

God who keeps watch over His creatures from a distance. He seldom interferes in the affairs of

human beings. Among the Igbo, no sacrifices are made directly to Chukwu, the Supreme God.

He is seen as the ultimate receiver of sacrifices made through the minor gods. To distinguish

Him from the minor gods, He is called Chukwu the great or the high God. As the creator of

everything, He is called Chukwu Abiama.

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There are also minor gods, who are generally subject to human passions and weaknesses.

They may be kind, hospitable and unpredictable. At other times they may be treacherous,

unmerciful and envious. In order to understand the supernatural, men need to discipline

themselves and be in tune with the divine and the transcendentals: God, gods, goddesses, spirits,

established traditional deities and more. Medicine men (dibias) and priests are therefore

important religious and political men since they stand between men and the unseen presences.

The case of Anyika comes to mind; so also is Agwoturumbe, the charlatan.

In Igbo cosmology, the ancestors and family heads are important. They are usually the

oldest surviving men in the families or clans. They are responsible for settling family disputes,

commanding respect and reverence because they are above petty interests and are always in tune

with the sacred. The Igbo are very religious; the word Chukwu is continually heard among them.

The idea is that Olisa, Osebuluwa or God is eternal, He is the creator of all things; the visible

world, the universe (Uwa) and the invisible world, the land of the spirits and the dead. The

following are believed to be the traditional “eyes” or messengers of the Supreme God: the sun

(Anyanwu), the sky (Igwe), the earth (Ani, Ana or Ala) that form parts of the visible world, the

ones we can see as humans. The transitional Igbo society is very religious and believes that

Chukwu, the Supreme God or Chi-Ukwu the great “Chi” is Chineke, Chi that creates. He is also

Osebuluwa, the overseer of the world, the creator of men and the world. Chi, personal spirit or

providence, comes from Chukwu and revert to him at a man’s death. Each human being has his

or her own Chi.

The Igbo also believe in other deities: Igwe (the sky god); Ala (The earth goddess)

Anyanwu (the sun god); Amadioha (the god of thunder). Ala is the great mother goddess whose

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bowel is the nourishing force and place of burial for the dead thereby connecting the two

opposite poles of existence: life and death. Ala is also the author and guardian of morality.

The Igbo also believe in “Alusi”. “These are the invisible supernatural beings or forces”

(Aguwa 31).The Alusi are the invisible creations of Chukwu; they are considered to be

supernatural beings or forces that are the authors of good and evil. They manipulate the hidden

laws of Chukwu to produce good and evil which they shower on the visible world of men. These

are found among temporal as well as natural phenomenon. Unlike Chukwu who is benevolent,

the Alusi are forces for blessing or destruction depending on circumstances. They punish

offenders and those who unwittingly infringe their privileges. They are spirit forces and they

delight in inflicting sufferings on people at the least provocation.

Ancestral belief is strong among the Igbo. Ancestors are dead members of the family.

They act as mediators between men and the spirits. Those who lived well spent lives and died in

socially approved ways and are given correct burial rites are believed to live in one of those

worlds of the dead which mirror the world of the living. The living honour them with sacrifices.

The ancestors watch over the living and periodically reincarnate among the living hence the

name “Ndi Ichie”. The unhappy spirits are people who die “bad deaths” and lack correct burial

rites. They cannot return to the world of the living or enter that of the dead. They wander

homeless and dispossessed, expressing their grief by causing occasional harm among the living.

In the Igbo concept, the society is a tripartite entity; that is, it consists of the dead, the

living and the unborn. This concept forms the basis of belief in the complex interaction between

the world of the living and that of the dead. To the Igbo, says Isichie, “The secular and the

sacred, the natural and the supernatural are continuum” (24). These supernatural forces

continually impinge on life and must be appeased by prayers and sacrifices from time to time.

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The family head is usually the bridge between the two worlds because he is the channel of

communication between them (the living and the ancestors). Through the family head, the

traditional moral order received from the earth goddess and ancestors is conserved and passed

on. His (family head) ministry is so important because he is the means of interaction between the

living and the ancestors. It is also believed that the ancestors protect the living through the head

of the family who offers sacrifices and prayers to them. Anyanwu and Aguwa writes:

His function as channel of communication, priest and mediator is of great political

significance. The authority of the family head is symbolized by the family Ofo staff

which he receives and keeps. The Ofo is a male symbol that primarily represents

ancestral power and authority and the key values of truth and justice (93).

Myths on the origin of Ofo as well as the linkage to ancestors from whom it derives the richness

of its symbolism make an important symbol of authority among the Igbo. They explain further

that

The assembly of family heads of the patrilineage act with their collective power as

mediators…maintains a special relationship with the supernatural through which its

authority to rule is authenticated (93).

Traditionalists among the Igbo try as much as possible not to disobey or violate well known

moralities of the supernatural. Violators always court their anger which often discends with

impunity.

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CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 THE SUPERNATURAL IN ELECHI AMADI’S THE CONCUBINE

The novel narrates the story of a young, beautiful woman called Ihuoma, a perfect

woman and wife to Emenike. Emenike is said to be well proportioned, ranks as an average

wrestler and is rated as every woman’s dream husband. A day comes when Emenike goes to the

bush and Madume meets him over a land dispute which the elders have passed judgment on and

have declared Emenike the bona fide owner of the land. Madume refuses to accept that judgment

and comes to fight Emenike.

However, the fight ends with Emenike badly injured. “Emenike’s side hit the jagged

stump of a tree and he lay wriggling weakly” (2). He manages to get home and Anyika is called

to administer drugs that will revive the pain stricken Emenike. After all, he (Emenike) eventually

dies leaving Ihuoma a widow.

Madume comes into the picture again as he desires Ihuoma as a wife. He fails to win

Ihuoma’s love and goes ahead to claim the land which had caused the fight. As he makes move

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to harvest the plantain which Ihuoma has come to harvest, a spitting cobra spits into Madume’s

eyes, blinds him and eventually leads to Madume’s suicide.

The third in a row is Ekwueme. Ekwueme’s love for Ihuoma threatens his engagement

with Ahuruole, an issue that compels Ahuruole to administer love potion on Ekwueme. As the

story gradually comes to an end, Ekwueme seemingly crazy, runs away and insists that unless he

marries Ihuoma, there will be no peace of mind for him. At the eleventh hour, Ekwueme dies out

of Nwonna’s arrow while Nwonna (Ihuoma’s son) is shooting a lizard required for the sacrifice

to bind the Sea King. Anyika’s divination

confirms that Ihuoma has been a goddess of the Sea and all the tragedies have been the Sea King

in action against the young men desirous to take his wife Ihuoma as their own wife.

In the course of the novel’s panoramic view of the traditional community of the three

luckless suitors of Ihuoma, we encounter the following supernatural powers in Elechi Amadi’s

The Concubine.

1. The Sea King (or god) – Ihuoma’s supernatural husband.

2. Amadioha.

3. Ojukwu.

4. Mini Wekwu.

5. Chineke.

6. God of the night /Ogbunabali.

7. Spirits.

8. Ofo and Ogu.

9. Personal spirits/Chi.

10. Agwu.

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11. Ancestors.

The novel opens with Anyika coming to minister to Emenike’s health but before it, he must

consult the gods to know what to do. First, he pours libations to them because the gods must first

take their share before mortal men take theirs.

He pours out some gin as libation and mutters as each drop reaches the ground:

Gods of the night, take this,

Gods of the earth take this,

Ojukwu the fair, take this

Amadioha, king of the skies

This is yours;

And you ancestors, small and great

Guardians of this compound

Take this (6).

The above supernatural forces are ever present and active in the plot of the novel under study.

THE SEA GOD/KING

He is the most powerful and influential god in The Concubine. The ugly circumstance

surrounding Ihuoma centres on the Sea God. He is also indirectly responsible for the death of

Emenike, Madume, and Ekwueme for daring him and attempting to marry Ihuoma, supposedly

his wife in the Sea.

The first reference made to this god is where Madume goes for divinations concerning his right

foot toe that hits the stone in Ihuoma’s compound. He is told that “unknown spirits, some of

them from the sea teamed up to destroy him” (58).

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Another instance is at the divination before the marriage. Anyika suggests to Wigwe to

consult the gods so that they will help the couple stay out of trouble and to render malevolent

spirits powerless in advance. As Anyika casts the divination cowries, he tells Wigwe and wife

categorically: “spirits, strong spirits, they are against the marriage” (Amadi 195). Anyika

continues to explain to the couple: “you see, Ihuoma is a little unusual…Ihuoma belongs to the

Sea. When she was in the spirit world, she was a wife of the Sea King” (195).

In the course of this explanation, the dibia tells the couple that the Sea King loves Ihuoma more

than all his wives but she disobeyed him and reincarnated to live out her

normal earthly span. “Because of the Sea King’s great love for her, he is terribly jealous and tries

to destroy any man who makes love to her” (195). This reveals Ihuoma’s spiritual background

and the end of all tragic lovers: Emenike, Madume, and Ekwueme. In further explanation of the

nature of the Sea King, Anyika says “He is too powerful to be fettered and when he is on the

offensive, he is relentless. He unleashes all the powers at his command and they are fatal” (196).

AMADIOHA

According to Igbo lore, Amadioha is one of the top four gods / Alusi of the Igbo

pantheon. He is the god of thunder and lightning and is referred to as Amadiora, Kamalu, or

Ofufe in certain parts of Igbo land. His governing planet is the sun; his colour is red and his

symbol is a white ram.

In The Concubine, Amadioha is the god of thunder and of the skies. Anyika is one of his

chief rain makers. Nwokeokoro otherwise known as Koko by the young generation is

acknowledged and respected as the priest of Amadioha ( 8). As Okachi comes to visit her

daughter Ihuoma, the latter explains how Wolu, Madume’s wife had come to sympathize with

her and also had congratulated her on the successful second burial of her husband. The older

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woman (Ihuoma’s mother) feels the visit was more of mockery on her daughter and she exclaims

“Amadioha will kill them one by one” (20-21).

During the time Ekwueme disappears and he is not traced, Adaku and Wigwe panic but

they trust that Amadioha will intervene saying “Amadioha cannot forsake us at the hour. We

have never missed a sacrifice. Oh! Amadioha, please help our son. You gave him to us; don’t

forsake him now” (175). At long last, the lost Ekwueme is found and they rejoice and thank

Amadioha and the gods of their ancestors.

OJUKWU

Ojukwu is one of the gods mentioned with the other gods in The Concubine. Next in rank

to Amadioha is Ojukwu, who is said to control Small Pox. Worship of the god Ojukwu is most

intense at the height of an epidemic. Just like any other god, “the vulture is the sacred bird of

Ojukwu and if one settles on a man’s roof, he runs immediately to a medicine man to divine the

message from the god” (15).

Here also, Amadi maintains that the gods have ranks and each god has a specific function for

which he is known for. To reject bad news or a curse, some will shout “Ojukwu forbid” (58).

CHINEKE

Chineke or the Supreme Being is the highest God from whom other gods draw their strength.

The Supreme God is variously called Chiukwu, Chukwu, Chineke or Obasi di n’elu. The

Supreme Being is the primal being. Philosophically, the Supreme Being is conceived under two

major principles.

1. The principle of creation (Chi-Okike / Chineke)

2. The principle of absoluteness (Chiukwu/Chukwu)

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Both principles are implied in the principles of

i. Divinity

ii. Absolute dependence is expressed in the conception of Chi or personal god (Nwala

115). In creation, Chukwu or Chineke is the creator of all things including man whom He

endows with his nature and his destiny. The second principle, the principle of absoluteness

means absolute/perfect in power and might in everything. Here, He is the Chi-ukwu (The great

God). On the basis of this principle, the Igbo invoke the ultimate power and protection of the

Supreme Being especially when all else has failed them.

References to the supremacy of Chineke are seen in The Concubine. Anyika acknowledges

Chineke when he says “trust Chineke who is the creator of spirits and men without Him, my

divinations are void” (59). As powerful as Anyika is, he does not attribute his power or

knowledge to himself but accepts it as God’s grace.

In appreciation of the sweet melodious voice of Wodu Wakiri coming from some

distance, Ihuoma enthuses “Chineke! what a faultless Oduma beater,” because He (Chineke) has

endowed the singer with talents for interesting melodies.

OFO AND OGU

They are known as “the ever watchful gods of retribution” ( 77). They make sure that the

wicked will not go unpunished. Thus, Madume’s death is attributed to his big eye and it is

believed that it is this big eye that causes his death. Generally, the people believe that

It was impossible for the wicked to go unpunished. The ever watchful gods of retribution

Ofo and Ogu always made sure of that. They were not particularly powerful gods but

they reminded stronger gods of those due for punishment (77).

The twin gods also observe the law of retribution; that is, one reaps what he sows.

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MINI WEKWU

Mini Wekwu is a god/river that forms the boundary between Chiolu and Omokachi.

Mini Wekwu, a stream with a powerful god formed the boundary between the two

villages. The worship of Mini Wekwu often coincided with the clearing of the path.

Worshippers from the two villages would meet and offer their sacrifices jointly. It

established good will and the god ensured that no evil crossed from one village to the

other (15).

Mini Wekwu would surely liquidate any evil man who tries to cross the stream with harmful

charm to harm anyone. Apart from pouring libation during sacrifices, Mini Wekwu is often

sacrificed to. It acts as a buffer, a beneficent god protecting the interest of the two communities

of Chiolu and Aliakoro.

CHI/PERSONAL GOD

Chi is the personal spirit guardian of a person. Chi as a personal providence is a divine

agent assigned to each human from cradle to the grave. Chukwu will assign one Chi at the time

of birth, which remains with the person for the rest of his/her life on earth. Unlike Chukwu who

is genderless, Chi can be either feminine or masculine. Chi determines a person’s successes,

misfortunes and failures throughout his/her lifetime. He/She (Chi) serves as an intermediary

between man and Chukwu. The Igbo believe that their success in life is determined by their Chi

and that no human can rise beyond the greatness of his or her own Chi.

Emenike is the first person whose Chi is described. Here, after the fight between him and

Madume, Wakiri comforts Emenike saying “your personal god was not at home” (8); this is

Wakiri’s reason why Madume could give Emenike such injury. The Igbo believe that no human

being can harm or kill the other without conciliating the victim’s own Chi. The Sea-Kings

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vengeance obviously facilitates Ekwueme’s demise that it is traceable to the injury he receives.

Madume merely serves as an agent of the Sea-King.

AGWU

Agwu is a god that is ambivalent in character. He reveals the secret of the invisible and

visible world to traditional medicine men called dibia, through the mystical codes of divination

called Afa and is responsible for mental illness. All gods, goddesses, spirits and Alusi manifest

their wills through Agwu. They are also considered to have human temperaments which range

from love to hatred. According to Obiechina, Agwu is otherwise enlisted as mild insanity and

Ahuruole is referred to as a neurotic character, possessed by Agwu.

She (Ahuruole) is said to be possessed by Agwu, a minor Igbo spirit which takes

possession of those marked out for ritual, religious or artistic roles. Agwu is a form of

visionary madness of the kind the Greeks associated with poets and great artists, priests

and diviners. When it takes over a person who does not fulfill any of these defined roles,

it gives rise to unpredictable, unconventional behavior and is recognized by the society as

a form of sickness. And this calls for the services of a medicine man who would attempt

to exorcise the harmful spirit (99).

From weeping sessions, frequent unprovoked sobbing, irrational lines of argument, her

(Ahuruole’s) parents easily guessed that she was unduly influenced by Agwu. Anyika did his

best but of course “the influence of Agwu could not be nullified overnight” (53).

SPIRITS/ANCESTORS

These are the spirits of the dead persons of a family or clan. These spirits are classified

into good and evil ones. Here, evil men are visited by the evils generated by the Alusi and good

men are visited by the good generated by the Alusi. However, good and evil visit a compound

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because the compound is made up of good and bad persons. Since an adult individual is a

mixture of good and evil, it is the duty of the head of a lineage to see that the members of his

compound and lineage live a clean life. He does this by seeing that all rules between men and

men and between men and the supernatural forces and beings are kept. In doing this, he has to

solicit the aid of his immediate ancestors and the ancestors of his lineage for the ancestors

control the volume of good and evil that flows into the compound of their descendants.

These dead members of a family have successfully passed from the living to the spirit

world as ancestors. Their role is to protect their living ones and shield them from evil. Often

sacrifices are offered to them and neglect to offer these sacrifices often spells doom as they will

not render protection to the living.

During sacrifices and important functions, libations and sacrifices are also offered to

them. They form part of the supernatural that Anyika pours libation to as he calls out, “and you

ancestors, small and great, Guardians of the compound, take this” (6). The ancestors guide and

protect the living ones.

After Emenike’s burial, Okachi congratulates her daughter “you have done well. I am

sure Emenike will bless you and keep watch over you from the spirit world” (39). It is an article

of faith among the Igbo that the spirit of the dead watch over their living relations especially if

those relations have succeeded in giving their dead relations appropriate burial rites that entitle

the dead to their deserved positions in the spirit world. Suicides or criminals or those who die

‘‘bad deaths’’ and are consequently thrown into the ‘‘bad bush’’ or evil forests receive no burial

rites. Such persons also do not reincarnate and are never remembered in formal rituals.

4.2 THE SUPERNATURAL IN ELECHI AMADI’S THE GREAT PONDS

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In The Great Ponds, Elechi Amadi presents what confronts most humans in traditional

societies. He presents a dispute over the pond of Wagaba between two villages Aliakoro and

Chiolu. The two villages are neigbours in the Erekwi clan and from all indications, Chiolu won

the ownership of the pond but Aliakoro fishermen, poach in the pond. Unable to cope with the

poaching, the men of Chiolu decides to watch over the ponds at night so they can catch poachers.

They succeed in taking home two captives the first night while the others escape but

unknown to them, that signals the beginning of future clashes, disagreements, quarrels,

insecurity, sickness, war, untold hardships and above all deaths. In all the struggles, they forget

that “No amount of fish is worth a man’s life”.

The elders of the Erekwi clan “a clan comprising of eight villages including Chiolu and

Aliakoro step in to solve this problem because they too are getting their own share of the deaths.

After all deliberations, it is agreed that an oath will be taken to ascertain the right of ownership

and since “a whole village cannot swear but a representative from either of the villages can swear

on behalf of his village. (84). Olumba is chosen to swear on behalf of Chiolu and he is to swear

in the name of Ogbunabali, one of the most dreaded gods of the clan. As its name implies,

Ogbunabli kills its victims at night. For the ownership of the pond, Olumba is on oath for six

months. Both villages lose lives by employing unfair means to coerce supernatural powers to

maim and kill their opponents in a bid to appear as the rightful owners of the great ponds.

Amidst all doubts, Olumba survives it through thick and thin. As the villagers of Chiolu

look up to see the new moon beaming in the sky, they are full of joy. In exasperation, Wago the

Aliakoro War Lord could not bear it. Despite his manipulations, how could Chiolu possess the

pond he and his warriors have fought for tirelessly? He ends it all by committing suicide in the

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pond. Indeed, “the gods must decide” (84) and they have decided, making it a taboo for any of

the two belligerent villages to fish in the much contested ponds.

The supernatural in the text are

1. Ogbunabali – The God of the night.

2. Amadioha – The God of Thunder and of the skies.

3. Ali – The Earth god or Earth goddess

4. Ojukwu – The fair

5. Ajokuji – The Farm God

6. Personal gods/Chi

7. Agwu

8. Spirits and Ancestors

Each god/supernatural has his specific function and practically anyone who hurts or goes

against the dictates of these gods, does not go scot-free. The supernatural are mentioned in every

minute conversation or offering of kola, or message of goodwill like “Amadioha, we thank you”

or an exclamation such as “Amadioha forbid”

Generally, the gods are feared and reverenced for their invisible and immeasurable

powers; they are said to be

Invisible, elusive, woven into the fabric of time and space, woven into the very bodies of

their worshippers. One was born only at their pleasure, one worshiped them as long as

one lived and died when one had committed an unpardonable offence against them”

(130).

We are brought into a conversation that confirms the above statement when Olumba and his

young friend Ikechi speak as they get ready for the fight ahead of them. Olumba advises the

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young fellow: “Never play with the gods, my son. They are powerful and should be respected

(9). For Olumba, “he would rather face a whole village in battle then have the weakest of the

gods after me” (9). The young fellow Ikechi replies bravely “I fear no man, rather I fear the gods

in whom depends the result of any fight” (10).

The powers of gods are awesome; humans cannot dare them. It is foolhardiness to do so.

In spite of the population and the strength of a whole village, Olumba considers the strength of

just one god greater. Gods are gods and should not be compared with the strengths and abilities

of mere mortals.

AMADIOHA

Amadioha is the god of thunder and of the skies. He is in charge of rain. In Aluko’s One

Man One Wife, Sango the Yoruba equivalent of Amadioha, is both the manifester of thunder and

lightning and the chief security officer and executioner of undetected and menacing criminals

(Obiechina 44). Amadioha is the most frequently feared and mentioned among traditionalist Igbo

communities. The first encounter with this god is at the gathering of Chiolu and Aliakoro men.

Here, the host brings kola but before they eat, the gods must be offered their share. “The chief

took one piece, broke it into small fragments and scattered them on the ground. Thereby offering

them to Amadioha, the god of thunder and of the skies” (20). While the conversation is going on,

Olumba in fury demands that a good amount of money be paid in ransom for the release of the

captives. In order to express his anger over the deliberations, he explodes in the name of

Amadioha saying “My lord Eze Diali; I swear by Amadioha the god of thunder and of the skies

to cut to pieces anyone who suggests that we lower the ransom” (24). Both warriors are at

loggerheads and have failed to appreciate each other’s position.

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Olumba’s inability to beget a male child when the only son fell into a well five years ago

is linked to his failure to rescue a lamb that was drowning and as a result “The mother sheep

cursed him and prayed to Amadioha to deny him children in his next incarnation” (26).

In order to restore peace and avert disaster, the priest of Ali and Amadioha were sent to

agree with Chiolu on how to exchange the prisoners. As tradition requires, kola is presented.

“When the priests were handed their cups of wine they poured them away as libations…

“Amadioha of the skies bless our talk” (64). After Olumba has taken the Oath on behalf of

Chiolu, he is advised to worship his gods fervently so that the gods will vindicate him and

Chiolu. “Solemnly he graced the many shrines with bits of kola and white chalk beginning with

Amadioha”(90).

As a reminder and in a bid to confront the fear stricken Olumba, Eze Diali soothingly

admonishes him to “remember also that there are other gods looking after you. “Amadioha is an

ever present god”(91). Old Ochonma; an aged woman on seeing Olumba one of those days while

he is waiting for the expiration of the oath, encourages Olumba saying “My son, Amadioha and

Ojukwu will preserve your life…even Amadioha can be careless at times, but I have warned him

to see you through this or face my contempt” (94). In awe and surprise, Olumba wonders how

the ancient woman spoke to Amadioha as if Amadioha is her son. She then concludes

Amadioha, god of thunder, proud ruler of the skies… Do not disgrace yourself. We see

your might in lightning, thunder, rain and sunshine. In the death of the wicked and the

protection of the innocent . Show your power now (94).

In thanksgiving for healing mercies over Olumba’s health and in times of doubts and

uncertainties concerning him since he now represents the entire village, Nyoma and Ezilo,

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Olumba’s wives are filled with gratitude to Amadioha for sparing Olumba’s life as they exclaim

“Amadioha we thank you” (98,100).

Olumba again encounters Azigwo: the snake of bad Omen crossing his path as he strolls

to Eze Diali’s compound but Olumba counts it as being lucky for “if Amadioha, the god of

thunder and of the skies was good enough to warn him, things would turn out well” (177).

In the wake of deaths ravaging the area not even the household of Olumba is left out.

Therefore he invokes the gods to come to the rescue of his life and his entire household. The

other victims and households are not left out. Each of them keeps calling on Amadioha to come

to their rescue as Wonjo: the dreaded scourge of that period consumes the community and they

look on to Amadioha to come to their rescue.

OGBUNABALI

Another supernatural power in The Great Ponds is Ogbunabali. As the name implies, he

kills by night. He is known for his power and he is one of the most influential gods of the clan.

Amadi describes him as

Ogbunabali was therefore non-directional, distant, menacing, ubiquitous. He was the king

of the night; darkness was his agent. In a way every one worshipped him for who did not

fear the dark with its unpredictable dangers? No priest to look up to but the name – that

awful name that planted solid fear into the minds of all who swore by it. It was a fear that

could turn a very brave man into a whimpering child. It was a fear that was worse than

death” (130).

Ogbunabali is dreaded and revered by the people of Chiolu. The first mention of Ogbunabali in

the text is with Wago. He swears in the name of Ogbunabali to destroy anyone who pays the

ransom for the release of the captives from Wagaba pond. “And I swear by Ogbunabali the god

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that kills by night to cut off clean the head of any one who comes forward to pay this ransom”

(2).

The last and most important event in the text features the oath in the name of Ogbunabali.

The essence of this oath is to allow the gods to restore the ponds to the rightful owners; it is the

climax of events in the novel. It is Olumba who takes the oath on behalf of the people of Chiolu

but the people on both sides dies mysteriously of an illness that could not be cured. Everyone

assumes Ogbunabali is on the war path. The god is said to be

One of the powerful gods in Erekwi clan . There were shrines for it in some villages but

the shrine at Isiali was the biggest and the priest there was recognized as its chief priest.

Ogbunabali had the peculiarity that it killed by night. He had neither the dignity of

Amadioha, the god of thunder and of the skies or the popularity of Ali the earth god but

he had a somber reputation all his own (85).

Unfortunately, no one in the entire clan could understand that the scourge ravaging the area has

gone beyond Ogbunabali. Both the guilty and the innocent, the young and the old keep dying.

Everyone around is confused and worried, but no one realizes that it is not Ogbunabali that is

decimating the population.

ALI THE EARTH GOD/GODDESS

Ali (Ale, Ala or Ane), the earth spirit is the most prominent deity and is regarded as the

King or queen of the underworld and the “owner” of men whether dead or alive. The cult of the

ancestors is closely associated with Ale. She is the source and judge of human morality and

accordingly exercises the main ritual sanctions in disputes and offences. Homicide, kidnapping,

poisoning, stealing farm products, adultery and giving birth to twins or abnormal children are all

offences against Ale. Laws are made and oaths are sworn in her name. Ale and his priests are

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guardians of public morality and the cult of Ale is one of the most powerful integrating forces in

Igbo society. Obiechina summarizes this when he states that “the earth goddess is the essential

centre around which the most serious prohibitions and sacred sanctions are woven” (212).

In The Great Ponds, the Earth god features prominently, and so is the worship of other

traditional gods, goddesses, spirits, alusi of the land and even charms.

Olumba worshipped the gods of his fathers…His whole compound was full of charms.

There was a mud bust of Ali, the earth god, in his reception hall which was the wonder of

the village… The effect was awe-inspiring (27).

As the guardian of public morality, the earth god gives instruction through his priest to Eze

Okehi concerning the women Isiali kidnapped from Chiolu. “Those women you kidnapped from

Chiolu must be returned. One of them is pregnant and the god of the earth as you know does not

tolerate violence against any woman with child” (63). Thus, as a penalty, Eze Okehi will have to

perform a sacrifice to placate Ali, the god of the earth. Again, Igwu the dibia warns him that the

sacrifices are merely an interim measure to persuade Ali to stay action while the women are

being restored.

Eze Okehi fails to find the women because they have been sold off into slavery. From all

the warnings which he gets from Ali, what worries him most is that Ali in comparison with other

gods cannot be predicted. In fact, “Ali is popular and easy to placate but difficult to shake off

entirely when offended. He had been known to punish families even after two generations” (72).

From all indications, Ali the earth god is there to restore peace and morality and anybody

that goes against the realization of peaceful co-existence is punished by the earth god. Eze Okehi

knows this and he laments; “Ever since they were kidnapped, Ali the god has been angry with

me. I have had no peace of mind” (18).

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AJOKUJI

Ajokuji is the god of the farm. It features only once in the entire text. Here, the Isiali

warriors in a bid to satisfy their hunger bounced on the yams that are left in the barns of Chiolu

people. As if that is not enough, they choose the prize-winners out of the yams; some even took

more than they could finish leaving the left over on the ground to waste. “Some went as far as

cutting up raw yams out of spite” (51) . Yam is not an ordinary tuber. Igbo mythology asserts

that yam is God-given, meant for the feeding and the sustenance of race. Like the primeval palm

tree, yam is very useful to man, whether raw, dry, cooked, or even rottening when it could be

sun-dried for grinding and sieving into powder for cooking.

Elendu the leader scolds his men and reminds them of something they may have

forgotten saying “You know as well as I do that every farm has a god-Ajokuji. If we offend him,

we shall be fighting tonight not only against men but against gods” (51).

Culturally and economically, yam is the greatest and most respected produce of the farmland.

Not even the owner of the barn or farm of yams is at liberty in the eyes of the gods, to abuse

yams. That is why the New Yam Festival is mandatory before yams are eaten among the Igbo .

That festival is in honour and thanksgiving to Ajokuji or Ifejioku as different communities call

the god of the farms.

OJUKWU, THE FAIR

The influence of Ojukwu is ever felt in The Great Ponds. The god ensures that men deal

with their fellow men in fairness. That is, rewarding good for good and evil for evil. Any action

contrary to this principle invites his wrath upon the victim. He is invoked in libations. When

li

Olumba searches for his amulet and in the process pushes down an image of Ojukwu, he placates

the god in case of any impending danger. “He sacrificed a cock later to placate the god” (28)

Another instance is where Olumba in desperation invokes the gods to spare his wife, so

that she will live. He exhorts his sick wife: “Nyoma, lift your hands to the creator and declare

your innocence. Let Amadioha, Ojukwu… hear it” (144).

Lastly the woman who loses her only child to death, grief stricken and helpless wails asking the

god why he has decided to take the life of her only son instead of her own. “Where were you?

Ojukwu where were you?” (161). All these are indications of the community’s faith in the

powers of Ojukwu, the fair.

CHI/PERSONAL GODS

Chi is a personal god. That is to say that every individual has a guiding spirit in charge of

him or her. Nothing befalls anyone without the consent of his Chi. As the elders often say,

“Wherever a man falls, there his Chi pushes him down”, He is one’s double in spirit land, an

equivalent of the Christian’s guardian Angel. The Igbo believe that Chukwu, the supreme God

assigns Chi to each person.

SPIRITS AND ANCESTORS

There are both good and bad/evil spirits. While the good ones protect, the evil ones inflict

pain on the people. When a person dies, he is said to have gone to he spirit world. The ancestors

are dead forefathers who have departed peacefully from the world of men to the spirit world. In

order to please them, sacrifices are offered to them in appreciation for what they have done for

the living and will continue to do in future.

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The spirits of dead men behaved almost like men. If a man was cruel, his spirit would be

cruel after death. It would molest innocent folks and compel them to offer heavy

sacrifices. There spirits were not to be compared with gods who were higher and nobler

(Onwuejeogwu 88).

At times, men like Olumba wish they could serve the spirits well. He says “At times I wish I

were a dibia, for then I would be able to see the spirits myself, know their desires and minister to

them promptly” (9).

It is believed that the dibia see the spirits. In other words, they have extra- sensory eyes.

For Igwu the dibia his reason for being poor with herbs and roots is because “he was too busy

seeing spirits” (62). Helplessly for Okehi, he has made so much sacrifices to placate the gods and

at the point where he is, he reckons “my mates are all dead. Every night I dream of them and

they beckon me to the spirit world”(81). To placate the gods and be at peace with them ensures

longer lives for people. Eze Diali encourages Olumba during the time he is under the Oath

reminding him that the gods/supernaturals are looking after him. “You can also count on the

spirits of your ancestors who you worship so well. My father was a brave fighter. He should be a

greater fighter in the spirit world (91).

As Olumba ponders over his fate and the oath, his wives could not help the thought that

death has come at last. As they think about it and look at Olumba lost in thought, Wogari,

Olumba’s second wife encourages the others not to show signs of sorrow because “crying

attracts evil spirits… laughing makes the spirits of our ancestors happy and more disposed to

help us” (93). At the end, she tells a story on how the spirit of her mother has tried to take her

away because of her tears. The younger wife who is listening attentively answers “if the spirits of

our ancestors love to see us happy, then they should help to keep us happy” (Amadi 93). The

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other woman replies “They do just that but bad spirits at times overpower them and carry out

their evil schemes on us” (Amadi 93). This establishes the fact that the ancestors ward off evil

and misfortune for their children and for their good.

The encouragement to Olumba comes from different persons who know the implications

of what he is doing for the entire village. Old Ochomma tells him “When you go to bed put some

Owho sticks outside your door to prevent evil spirits from disturbing you at night… it is the

wicked roving spirits we have to fear” (94).

As a warning to Wago, the leopard killer and the Aliakoro war lord, Igwu admonishes him

concerning the evil forces he invokes on Olumba: “the wicked spirits you are invoking can turn

against you” (123). In the end, it turns out that wicked spirits takes over Wago and leads him to

commit suicide.

As Nyoma, Olumba’s wife struggles between life and death, Olumba urges her to lift her

hands up to the gods in supplication for her life.

Let the earth hear it. Let the heavens hear it. Let men and spirits hear it… The whole

place must be full of spirits waiting perhaps to lead Nyoma and subsequently the rest of

the family to the spirit world (144).

The Great Ponds teems with gods and goddesses. “The important gods are mentioned by

name in public functions; the lesser gods receive their due in the more intimate rituals in family

shrines. In whichever way situations turn for the traditional Igbo man, he believes that the gods

have a hand in it. To ignore the gods or confront them is to court one’s own doom.

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CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Humanity cannot deny the consciousness of a Supreme Being in their lives. No matter one’s

religion which is also an offshoot of man’s quest to find answers to what he cannot understand,

man cannot be said to be independent. The supernatural influence his living and existential

experience at one time or the other.

The novels used for this research explore the fact that for every human, there is a

predestined end known to God, gods or the supernatural. In other words, life is like a stage, once

we conclude the acts assigned to us by the gods, we leave the stage for others to continue from

where we stop. Obiechina rightly puts it thus: “The gods jostle men and women in their everyday

lives and provide a background to the events that take place among them” (144). Man is

predestined that no matter how hard he tries to change his fate or destiny, it only brings him

closer to what has been destined for him. In it, he has no hand; he is left at the whims and

caprices of the gods who have the final say.

In Elechi Amadi’s The Great Ponds, the deadly warfare is full of terrible magic spells. In

the end all is lost: the pond, men killed in battle during the struggle, death caused by Wonjo and

sickness every where.

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The Concubine, is the story of a woman beloved by a Sea King/god. It involves humanity

at the whims and caprices of the gods. The gods do not however delight in killing humans, if not,

they will not provide them with protection, help, blessings and ensure that they stay at peace with

each other. In times of crises, men think the gods are cruel when all they do is to keep aloof and

watch until they are invited. “We often forget that the gods would rather have fun than run after

us”(72).

Finally the choice is ours to make. Elechi Amadi in his text Ethics in Nigerian Culture

summarizes it when he writes:

Belief in the supernatural can be dismissed as so much bunkum without any discernible

harm, but in doing so we must not lose capacity to investigate - for what if we are wrong?

Anyway, since our very humanity depends on our sense of wonder, we will always

believe in one form of witchcraft or another (22).

In The Great Ponds, the gods influence the decision which the community make to fight the

other instead of fishing in the ponds together. They forget in haste that the pond is a

creation of the gods and there is a likelihood it belongs to neither Chiolu nor Aliakoro but

a creation from the gods in favour of the entire humanity; for the gods are hardly partial.

In The Concubine, the Sea King decides to allow his loving wife Ihuoma to incarnate as a

human being and enjoy the company of humans without being “a wife” to any one of them. But

nature being what it is, beauty, goodness and charm of one can never fail to captivate the opposite

sex. To prove the limited nature of human intelligence, clairvoyance and perfect understanding of

the supernatural, Agwoturumbe and even the adept dibia Anyika fall short. But Elechi Amadi by a

gift of hindsight puts it appropriately when he titles his novel The Concubine. The three luckless

lovers of Ihuoma could have enjoyed Ihuoma’s love without dying for it, if only they do not regard

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or call her “wife” but mere lover or ‘‘concubine’’. Since the worlds of the spirits and the humans are

far apart and cannot be clearly understood by humans, Ihuoma must gleam a jewel that attracts and

at the same time repels: a femme fatale.

Unfortunately, as it were, the Sea-king/god and man cannot share one woman as their ‘‘wife’’

just as Chiolu and Aliakoro refuse to share the great ponds as their common ‘‘fish ponds’’ While

human beings (Emenike, Madume, and Ekwueme) are losers in Amadi’s The Concubine, Chiolu and

Aliakoro are both losers in The Great Ponds . All in all, Amadi, by implication, affirms the

supremacy of the gods over mankind. We have eyes but we do not see! The gods are inscrutable and

have a hand in all affairs of the human world.

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