of anopheles - world health organization · kenya medical research institute, ... depend mainly on...

Biodiversity and Human Health Linkages Entebbe Workshop 23-28 June 2002

Diversity of freshwater gastropods in lake habitats with or without anthropogenic influences in Lake Victoria, Kenya

Charles N. Lange

National Museums of Kenya, Dept of Invertebrate Zoology, P. Box 40658 Nairobi, Kenya

Exploration of freshwater snails in Africa has been running for many years with systematics,medical and veterinary malacology as the priority subjects over the years. Over the years ofmalacological exploration, have investigated the impact of various factors onsnails. However, the role of human environmental disturbance on snail diversity patterns hasonly been done superficially. But given the proceeding degradation of these freshwater ecosystems in the developing countries particularly in tropical Africa, one would hypothesise that human influences can impact snail diversity patterns. As such, comprehensive investigation of the role of anthropogenic factors on snails’ diversity patterns, could probably contribute tobetter understanding and management of problems associated with potentialdiseases as well as molluscan conservation. The present study seeks to investigate the influence of human environmental degradation on freshwater snail biodiversity and implications on potential snail-borne diseases in Lake Victoria, Kenya. The project is currently six months old and is being implemented using different snail sampling methods at selected highly disturbedfishing beaches and least disturbed areas around Ndere and Mbita point region of Lake Victoria. The first round of snail sampling has just been completed and snail identification is in progress. An overall observation from this round of sampling was comparatively higher abundance of pulmonate snails from the fishing beaches compared to the least disturbed areas. The projectwill provide explanation on the viability of environmental conservation in control of schistosomeintermediate host snails. The project will also be a valuable foundation for formulation ofconservation management policies for the regional molluscan biodiversity, wetlands and wildlife.

Adaptation of Anopheles mosquitoes to urban environments

Charles Mbogo

Kenya Medical Research Institute, Centre for Geographic Medicine ResearchP. Box 428, Kenya

Investigatingand understandingthe relationship among humans, the environment and insect population dynamics is essential to the development of predictive models of insect adaptation to changing urban ecosystems in Africa. In order to understand how increased human activity andurbanization affect insect populations, geographic and ecological investigations were carried outto examine possible spatial and temporal correlations between climatic changes, demographic changes, socioeconomic status, variable water conditions, insect population dynamics, andhuman behaviour. This study that was aimed at investigating the adaptability of Anophelesmosquitoes in urban environment was conducted in Kisumu and Malindi towns, Kenya. Westratified both cities based on the level of planning and drainage observed across the urban areas. This resulted in five strata for each site: 1) planned, well drained; 2) planned, poorlydrained; 3) unplanned, well drained; 4) unplanned, poorly drained, and 5) rural. The stratificationenabled us to control for the strong environmental and topographical variation that we believedwould influence mosquito larval ecology.

The larval habitats and houses were mapped using GPS. Adult mosquitoes were collected from the sampled houses using light traps and pyrethrum spreadsheet spray collections, while mosquito larvae were sampled using the standard dipping technique. Sampling was done attwo-week intervals between April and September 2001. The mosquito adults and larvae wereidentified using morphological features. Samples of An. gambiae were further identified by PCR.

Our preliminary results showed that 93% and 66% of the breeding habitats were in Malindi and Kisumu, respectively. Anopheles mosquitoes were found breeding in diverselarval aquatic habitats such as swimming pools, car tracks, ponds, flower gardens, septic andwater tanks. Among these larval habitats, car tracks and swimming pools produced the highestnumber of Anopheles larvae. We have collected An. gambiae and An. arabiensis of the An.gambiae complex, plus An. merus, a brackish-water adapted species in Malindi. On the species

24


level, we predict that there are environmental (including climate) and human-influenced factors that drive the dynamics of local populations on scale varying from single larval habitats to entirecities.

In both Kisumu and Malindi, we observed very low densities of adult mosquitoes despite our observations that mosquitoes were locally abundant in many areas. We predict that the abundance and quality of mosquito larval habitats depend upon interactions between rainfall and physical conditions such as soil types and slope.

Strata 4, unplanned and poorly drained, are one of the poorest areas of the city that contain the highest mosquito and human densities and the most sub-standard housing and living conditions. We conclude that people living in these poorest areas have the highest risk ofmosquito exposure because their houses and communities are located next to aquatic mosquito larval habitats.

Mapping the risk of malaria in Kyebe subcounty, Uganda

George Jared Ochieng

Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, Makerere University P.O. Box 7298, Kampala, Uganda

Malaria is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in Uganda. It is responsible for 30%morbidity in Rakai district. Previous studies in Uganda have mapped the mosquito breeding habits through extensive field surveys. However, these conventional methods are expensive.

In this research, remote sensing (RS) and geographic information systems whichhave been used successfully elsewhere in malaria epidemiology, have been utilized. The majorobjective was to use these techniques to map the risk of malaria in Kyebe subcounty and identify the potential suitable sites for the construction of a new health centre.

Sample sites were selected by random sampling of the different land use and (LUC)types from a base map prepared by interpretation of 1 X 1 m digital camera images. Fourthinstar mosquito larvae were collected using a sampling dipper, segregated, identified and counted.

85.6% of the fourth instar larvae captured were of the Anopheles complex.Degraded papyrus which had 68.2% of all the fourth instar Anopheles mosquito larbae captured was classified as the most highly preferred breeding habitat (mean number of larvae per dip =0.23). 68% of Kyebe subcounty was within 2 kilometers of the degraded papyrus. This model was validated by spatially comparing the distribution of risk with the distribution of population density. There was a significant correlation (Kendall’s tau-b = -0.42, p = 0.37).

83.4% of the areas at risk of malaria did not have public health centres within 5 kilometers.GIS techniques were used to determine the potential sites for the construction of a new healthcentre, based on the fulfilment of desirable conditions of easy accessibility within a population catchment area, areas at risk of malaria and areas not previously served by a public run healthfacility.

Restricting the harvesting of Cyperus papyrus was recommended. Further research to determine the critical mass of papyrus that proliferates Anopheles mosquitoes was suggested.

The molecular genetics study of Bulinus snails in Lake Albert

Nalugwa Allen

Molecular Biology Makerere University, P.0.Box 7298, Kampala, Uganda

The high variability at the morphological level, as well as the small size and similarities between Bulinus species complicate the correct identification of these snails. Using molecular data allows direct comparisons of relative levels of genetic differentiation among closely relatedorganisms. Preliminary analysis of 225 base pairs of cytochrome oxidase subunit I of 69morphologically similar Bulinus individuals from 5 populations revealed haplotypesdefined by 11 polymorphic sites. Nucleotide diversity in the total samples was but rangedfrom 0.17% to 0.7% in the different localities.

Significant genetic differentiation was detected between the studied populations with a 4.7%of the total variation partitioned between populations = 0.02). Gene flow was low

25


between populations despite the short geographical distances separating them, implying that little or no dispersion occurs between them. The molecular biological techniques used in this study enables access to more consistent information on the population structure and phylogenyof the genus in Lake Albert. In addition, the study will later provide a starting point fordetermining those species playing a major role in schistosomiasis transmission.

Emerging issues in reproductive health care with respect to biodiversity management in Western Uganda

Maud K.

Botany Department, University

Maternal morbidity in Uganda is the number one cause of mortality (20.4%) followed by malaria (1 acute lower respiratory infections AIDS (9.1%) anddiseases (8.4%). Although maternal mortality is high, the major underlying cause is malaria

Pregnantwomen and children under age five are at high risk.In western Uganda over 90% of females stay in rural areas, are less educated and have got

low social economic status compared to male counterparts. Therefore women and childrendepend mainly on herbal remedies to treat most of the ailments. Particularly for pregnant women who use medicinal plants that have oxytoxic activity to treat malaria put their lives atstake or risk of death. Findings show that plants used as antimalarials can cause miscarriages, premature birth, rupturing of the uterus membranes and death. Ethnobotanical studies have been carried out in areas around Queen Elizabeth Biosphere Reserve where this has beendocumented. Ethnopharmacological and microbiological studies have been carried out in the laboratory to test the effectiveness of these medicinal plants of which some are active. Generally, women are the victims of environmental degradation and biodiversity loss. Therefore,the medicinal plants of value need to be conserved for future use. Furthermore, the cultures andtraditions of the local people need to be preserved/ conserved.

The issue of intellectual property rights with reference to local people's indigenousknowledge (IK) and patenting is crucial. The local people need to benefit from conservationthrough bioprospecting in natural medicine. However, this is lacking in developing countries like Uganda. More research in antimalarial herbs is necessary, dosage levels, toxicity and efficacy studies; some plants are potent and further studies are required. Adding value to traditional herbal remedies is a way of promoting biodiversity conservation and health related issues. The

26

and Human Health Linkaaes 23-28 June 2002

use of these potent plants would save poor nations like Uganda, the burden of importingantimalarial drugs. Most of the medicinal plants used for malaria treatment are harvested from wild populations. conservation through domestication and propagation is commended.

Opportunities for developing ecosystem based malaria control strategies in vlei irrigation (Ngwarati village system) schemes.

Moses Chimbari

Universityof Zimbabwe, Lake Kariba Reseach Station, Kariba, Zimbabwe

While the Broad-ridge and Broad-furrow tillage system is a novel technology from anagricultural productivity perspective, it has health implications that need to be seriously considered. The furrows usually retain a 30 cm depth water level which is almost stagnant for aperiod of six months and in a very good rainy season, throughout the year. The conditions provide perfect habitats for the vector mosquito that transmits malaria and for intermediate hostsnails for schistosomiasis. Incidentally, every year regardless of it being a good or poor rainyseason, water is available in the Broad-furrows during the malaria season (February to April)which also happens to be a good schistosomiasis transmission period. The rice crop demands serious attention (de-weeding) during this period and thus encourages intensive human watercontact, which may put unprotected farmers at a high risk of contracting schistosomiasis.Usually, vleis are surrounded by human habitation and therefore mosquitoes emerging from thefurrows have ready prey either indoors or within the rice fields in cases where farmers work late.It is, therefore, likely that introduction of the Broad-ridge and Broad-furrow tillage system in avlei may result in an increase of malaria and schistosomiasis cases.

Vleis are only a small hectarage of areas inhibited by people and are often regarded as a communal resource for grazing the local communal herd. The question of who individuallybenefits from the Broad-ridge and Broad-furrow tillage at the expense of others who lose theirgrazing areas remains a thorny issue in affected communities. It is definitely not possible forevery member of the community to directly benefit from exploitation of a vlei through the ridge and Broad-furrow tillage system and, therefore, a mechanism to appease thedisadvantaged needs to be worked out.

There are probably more positive than negative implications arising from development of Broad-ridge and Broad-furrow tillage units. On top of the list is the obvious agricultural productivity. Increased productivity translates to a reduction in malnutrition and increased"dollarpower" for the communities. It is important that these benefits are systematically documentedand weighed against the negative impacts in order to calculate the net benefit or loss ofexploiting vleis for agricultural purposes.

The agricultural benefits of the Broad-ridge and Broad-furrow tillage system are known already. The health implications of this technology have not been considered at all, while thesocioeconomic impacts of the system have not received adequate attention. Given thatZimbabwe is endowed with approximately 1.2 million hectares of wetland areas with 20% ofthem in communal areas, exploitation of vleis in a sustainable way (little negative impact) isdesirable. Indeed, the technology is transferable to other African countries with similarecosystems. The major outcomes of the proposed study will, therefore, be the determination ofimpacts of the Broad-ridge and Broad-furrow tillage system and development of measures toprevent or mitigate the identified negative impacts as well as promoting the identified opportunities. The study is expected to provide evidence that will lead to relaxation of legalrestrictions on exploitationsof vleis for agricultural purposes.

General objective To assess the impacts of the Broad-ridge and Broad-furrowtillage system on transmission ofmalaria and schistosomiasis as well as other socioeconomic impacts.

Specific objectives To monitor the abundance of the vector malaria mosquito and intermediate host snails forschistosomiasis in areas under vlei cultivation and in control vleis (no crop production). To compare health centre statistics of malaria and schistosomiasis in health centres close toareas under vlei cultivation and areas where there is no vlei cultivation.

27

Biodiversity and Human Health Linkages Entebbe Workshop 23-28June 2002

To determine the prevalence and incidence of malaria and schistosomiasis in areas undervlei cultivation and control areas through active surveys.To assess the socio-economic impacts of vlei cultivation on the communities within the study areas and surrounding areas.To develop an intervention strategy that prevents or mitigates transmission of malaria andschistosomiasis in cultivated vleis.

Schistosomiasis in southern Lake Malawi: driving forces, determinants and control

Peter Furu

Danish Jaegersborg Alle 2920 Denmark

In the last few decades the interrelationship between development, environment and health has received increased attention in the scientific community. It is recognizedthat health hazardsare being directly or indirectly influenced by various determinants leading to changes in healthoutcomes.

Of the many environment-related health problems existing in Malawi, schistosomiasis in thesouthern part of Lake Malawi has received special attention because of its impact not only on disease burden in the local populations, but also because of a resulting dramatic adverse effect on the tourism industry of the country.

Lakeshore communities as well as expatriates and international tourists have witnessed a considerable increase in prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis over recent years, probablycorrelated to a chain of socio-economic, environmental and institutional determinants such asincreasing population density, migration, overexploitation of natural resources and anundeveloped health infrastructure.

According to local chiefs in villages near the Lake Malawi National Park area at theNankumba Peninsula, a high influx of fishermen from the north to the area was seen in the1980s and 1990s. People were attracted by the fishing potential as well as by opportunities forincome generation related to park tourism, and the high population pressure may haveincreased the transmission potential. The demand for food and cash has increased the exploitation of the natural fish resources and it has been hypothesized that the increase inurinary schistosomiasis transmission could, at least partly, be due to over-fishing resulting in adecline in the density of molluscivorous fish species.

lntersectoral action is suggested in disease control and future protection of human health thereby contributing to a sustainable solution to environmental health problems to the benefit ofthe lake environment, the local communities and the ailing tourism industry in Malawi. Capacity building on environmental health issues at appropriate levels in relevant sectors will be the first step towards long-term solutions.

Workshop evaluation

Prior to the final reflections on the outcome of the workshop and the closing ceremony, the participants were invited to take part in an evaluation exercise. They were given 20 minutes tofill in a purposely designed evaluation form with questions relating to the acceptability, effectiveness and efficiency of the workshop. The analysis of the results is presented in Annex5.

Final reflections

In the reflection on the outcome of the workshop, one participant proposed the establishment of a substantial new initiative with a Secretariat to support it and a strategy to mobilize considerable funding in support of relevant activities in the countries. Most other participants favoured a more modest step-by-step approach which would address, at the country level, anumber of the issues identified at the workshop, with relatively loose networking to keep the momentum of the workshop going. The creation of local ownership of the concepts was acritical issue. There was general agreement that once awareness creation had takenplace at the country level, institutional linkages had been established and political will had been

28

Biodiversity and Human Health Linkages Entebbe Workshop23-28 June 2002

expressed, a leap forward towards an initiativeof greater dimensions would be a next importantstep. Most felt, however, that taking that step now implied too many risks that the initiative might fail and a second attempt to get activities going would be virtually impossible. Moreover, some countries had only been represented by one of the two relevantsectors and their first task would be to prime their counterparts in the other sector.

One possible bottleneck was perceived in the links between academic institutions and thegovernment (public sector) institutions. There often were diverging interests between these two and their links should be clarified in terms of essential research questions for improved public sector functioning and research work that would leave sufficient room for academia. It wasconsidered a missed opportunity that National Research and Technology Councils had not beenrepresentedat the workshop.

Most countries would need a focal point for follow-up, and a strategic plan should beformulated that would involve all stakeholders, including relevant

Workshop press release

As an immediate follow-up to the workshop proceedings a press release was written andendorsed by the organizers and participants and submitted to the local press office(see Annex 6).

29

Biodiversitv and Human Health Linkaaes 23-28 June 2002

ANNEX 1

Composition of the Organizing Committee and the Scientific Committee

Organizing committee

Dr Narcis KabatareineDr Panta Kasoma (MUIENR, Uganda) Mr Peter Furu (DBL, Denmark)Dr Thomas K. Kristensen (DBL, Denmark) Ms Henriette Aaen (DBL, Denmark)

Scientific committee

Dr Silvester Nyakanaa Adyeri (MUIENR, Uganda) Mr Robert Bos (WHO, Switzerland)Mr Peter Furu (DBL, Denmark)Dr Hiremagalur (UNEP, Kenya)Dr Narcis Kabatareine (VCD, Uganda)Dr Panta Kasoma (MUIENR, Uganda) Dr Susana W. Kimani-Njogu(ICIPE, Kenya)Dr Thomas K. Kristensen (DBL, Denmark)Dr Wilber Lwambe (ICIPE, Kenya)

30

Biodiversity and Human Health Linkages Enfebbe Workshop 23-28 June 2002

ANNEX 2

Sundav 23 June 2002:

15.00: Arrival and registration17.00: informal opening: Welcome by Thomas K. Kristensen, Danish Bilharziasis Laboratory

(DBL), Copenhagen, Denmark Dinner

Mondav 24 June:

11.oo

11.20:11.35

12.05:

12.35:12.50:13.30:

15.00:

RegistrationIntroductionof participants and organizers DBL, Copenhagen) Stage setting (R. Bos, WHO, Geneva), Chair of workshop sessions (H. NUNEP, Nairobi)

Theme presentation 1: Ecosystem goods and services in the promotion of human health and well-being Kasoma, Kampala)Theme presentation 2: Ecosystemdisturbance, biodiversity loss and their implication for human health (R. Bos, WHO, Geneva) Questions to theme presentations by participantsLunchIntroductionand group work on “Generation of issues matrix” (Anchor and Facilitator R. WHO, Geneva and Facilitator P. DBL,Copenhagen)

15.30-18.00: Groupwork on ”Generation of issues matrix”(R. Bos, WHO; P. Furu, DBL)

19.00: Dinner 20.00: Coffee- “DiscussionClub”: Informalpresentation of short papers

Tuesdav 25 June:

08.30: Plenum-wrap-up of yesterday’s proceedings 09.00: Group presentation-Development of matrix (Group 1)09.30: Group presentation- Development of matrix (Group2)10.00: Group presentation- Development of matrix (Group 3)10.30:11.OO Group presentation-Development of matrix (Group4)11.30: Plenum - Introduction to the WHO “DPSEEA model” (R. Bos, WHO)

31

and Human Health Entebbe Workshop23-28 June 2002

12.00 Group work on “DPSEEA model” Bos, WHO; Furu, DBL)12.30 Lunch13.30 Group work on “DPSEEA model” (R. Bos, WHO;P.Furu, DBL)15.00: Coffeeflea15.30-16.30: Group work on “DPSEEA model” (R. Bos, WHO;P. Furu, DBL)16.30-18.00: Plenum: Group presentations and discussion on “DPSEEA model” (R. Bos, WHO)19.00: Dinner20.00: Coffee-“Discussion Informal presentation of short papers

Wednesdav 26 June:

08.30: Plenum-wrap-up of yesterday’s proceedings09.00: Plenum: Introduction to group work on “Knowledge base validation” (R. WHO)09.20: Group work on “Knowledge base validation” (R. Bos, WHO;P.Furu, DBL)10.30: - Brief introduction to field trip Jinja and Bujagali (P.11 Coffeeflea11.15: Departurefor field trip13.00: Lunchon arrival in Jinja13.45-16.30: Touring the field site (Source of the Nile and stretch near proposed hydro-power

dam site) 18.30: Return from field trip19.00: Dinner

Thursdav 27 June:

08.30: Plenum-wrap-up of yesterday’s proceedings 09.00: Group work on “Knowledge base validation” 1111.20: Group presentation (Group 1)

Group presentation (Group 2)12.00: Group presentation (Group 3)

Group presentation (Group 4) 12.45: Lunch 13.30: Plenum - consolidationof group presentationson “Knowledge base validation”

(R. Bos, WHO)14.00: Introductionand group work on “Creating the enabling environment for

disciplinary research: Support through awareness creation, policy adjustment,establishing inter-institutional linkages” (R. Bos, WHO;P.Furu, DBL)

15.00:15.20-17.30: Group work on “Creating the enabling environment for cross-disciplinaryresearch:

Support through awareness creation, policy adjustment, establishing inter-institutionallinkages” (R. WHO;P. Furu, DBL)

17.30-18.00: Plenum: Brief summary of the health aspects of the EIA of the Bujagali Hydro-power Project (R. Bos, WHO)Dinner

20.00: Coffee -“Discussion Informal presentation of short papers

32

Biodiversityand Human Health Linkages Entebbe Workshop23-28 June 2002

Danish Bilharziasis Laboratory Jaegersborg Alle 1D2920 Charlottenlund

1 Mr Peter Furu

ANNEX 3

Phone: +45 77 32 77 82Fax: +45 77 32 77 33E-mail:

ListofParticipants

2

3

Name InstitutionI

DenmarkDanish Bilharziasis Laboratory

2920 Charlottenlund E-mail:DenmarkDanish Bilharziasis Laboratory JaegersborgAlle 1D2920 Charlottenlund

Phone: +45 77 32 77 60 Dr Thomas K. Kristensen Jaegersborg 1D

Phone: +45 77 32 77 37Fax: +45 77 32 77 33E-mail:

Mr Aslak Jsrgensen

Denmark

Ms Henriette Aaen (Training Programme

JaegersborgAlle 1 D2920 CharlottenlundDenmark

Biosystematics Unit 4 Dr W. The International Centre of Insect

Njogu Physiology and Ecology, P.O.Box 30772

Fax: +45 77 32 77 33

Phone: 2 802501 ext. 3149Fax: 2 803360 or 8601E-mail:

5

6

7

Nairobi andKenyaDivision of Policy Developmentand

Programme, (UNEP). P.O. Box 30552NairobiKenyaKenya Medical Research Institute,

Centre for Geographic MedicineResearch, Coast netP.O. Box 428

KenyaKenya Wildlife Service P.O. Box 40241Nairobi E-mail:

Phone: 2 623246

E-mail:Dr HiremagalurN. B. Law Fax: 2 623861

United Nations Environment

Phone: 12522063Fax: 125 22390 E-mail:

Dr CharlesN.M. Mbogo

Phone: 2 506169Fax: 2 504133Dr Richard Kiome Bagine

8

Nzavi2001Qvahoo.com

Phone: 342 222

Kenya

Mzimba DistrictMalawi

KenyaNational Museums of Kenya P.O. Box 40658Nairobi E-mail:

Phone: 2 742 445 Fax: 2 741 424Mr Charles N. Lange

Dr Edwin bibamba

Mr F L Matatiyo

Fax: 342 238E-mail:

ormzirnbaPhone: 789 563Fax: 789 431E-mail:[email protected]

Box 131MzimbaMalawi

Ministry of Health and PopulationCapital HillP.O. Box 30377Lilongwe3

34


MinistryofHealth and Population Phone: 752 434 or 757Mr Bina Shaba Communitv Health Sciences Unit 203 or

Private 65LilongweMalawi

756 856 Fax: notworkingE-mail:[email protected]@malawi.net

WHO, PEEM SecretariatProtectionof Human Environment 20, Avenue Appia E-mail:1211Geneva 27Switzerland

Phone: +41 22 7913555Fax: +41 22 7914159Mr Robert Bos

UgandaofHealth

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

Dr Kabatereine

Dr Panta M. B. Kasoma

Mr George Jared Ochieng

Dr FredWabwire-Mangen

Ms Maud Karnatenesi-Mugisha

Mr Charles C. G. Walaga

Ms Rebecca Nalunkuuma

Mr Joseph Mulindwa

Vector Division15, RoadP.O. Box 1661KampalaUgandaInstitute of Environment and NaturalResourcesMakerere UniversityP.O. Box 7298KampalaUgandaInstituteof Environmentand NaturalResourcesMakerere UniversityP.O. Box 7298KampalaUgandaInstituteofPublic HealthMakerere UniversityP.O. Box 7072KampalaUgandaBotany DepartmentMakerere UniversityP.O. Box 7062KampalaUganda

The World Conservation Union,P.O. Box 10950KampalaUganda

UgandaWildlife SocietyP.O. Box 7422KampalaUgandaUganda Environmental Education FoundationP.O. Box 5658KampalaUganda

Phone: 41 25 1927Fax: 41 6885E-mail:[email protected]

Phone: 41 533462 or41 5301 35

Fax: 41 530134E-mail:

Phone: 41 530135Mobile: 77 41 6661Fax: 41 347355E-mail:[email protected]

Phone: 41Fax: 41 531807E-mail:

imuI.

Phone: 41Mobile: 77 438905 or

Fax: 41 530134E-mail:

[email protected]: 41 233738Fax: 41 342298E-mail:[email protected]@imul.comPhone: 41 530 891Fax: 41 342 298 [email protected] orbeckiekibuu hotmailo.comPhone: 41 290740Mobile: 256 77 642865Fax: No

[email protected] [email protected]

35


Ms Monica M. Chundama

Ms FelicitasC. Mwale

Mr James

Dr Joseph

Mr Nyirenda

Mr George Mundia

Zambia

Zambia Coordination OfficePlot4978Los Angeles Boulevard

Box 50551,LusakaZambiaMinistryof HealthP.O. Box 30205LusakaZambia

Department of BiomedicalSciencesTropical DiseasesResearchCentre,TDRCP.O. Box71769NdolaZambiaCentral Boardof HealthNdeke HouseP.O. Box32588LusakaZambiaCentral Board of HealthNdeke HouseP.O. Box32588LusakaZambiaPlanningand DevelopmentMazabukaDistrict Health BoardP.O. Box 670263Mazabuka

Ministry of Health and Child Welfare P.O. Box CY 1122CausewayHarareZimbabweBlair Research Institute

Mr Alexander Chirnbaru

Phone: 1 253749Fax: 1 250404E-mail:

Phone: 4 728013Fax: 4728013E-mail:[email protected]

Phone: 4253 97518

Phone: 1 253053or253040Fax: 1E-mail:

Phone: 2621112Fax: 2621112E-mail:tdrcla

Zimbabwe

Phone: 1Fax: 1 253173Mobile: 96780969

Phone: 1 253179or 81Fax: 1 253 173E-mail:

Phone: 3230532Fax: 3230532E-mail:

Bulawayo E-mail:ZimbabweUniversityof ZimbabweLake Kariba ResearchStationP.O. Box48

Phone: 61 3035or 2981Fax: 61 3035E-mail:Dr Moses J. Chimbari

KaribaZimbabwe

Mr Nzira Lukwa P.O. Box CY 573CausewayHarare

Fax: 4253979E-mail:

Mr Box AHospital

Mobile: 91255070Fax: 967780or 77915

Revised27June 2002

Total of 30 participants

36


Ecosystem services are those benefits which humans receive from their livingenvironment without proactively solicitingfor them.Human health has been characterised bythe World Health Organisation as stateof complete physical, mental and socialwell-being and not merely the absence ofdisease or infirmity” (Purdom, 1980).

ANNEX 4

Thematic presentations (copy of overhead presentation, presentation)

ECOSYSTEM GOODS ANDSERVICES IN THE

HUMANHEALTH AND WELL-BEING

Panta Kasoma University

of EnvironmentResources

Introduction Contd. Species are linked through complexrelationships with other species and the abiotic component of the earth to form asupport system. As has been noted byOdum “We are able to breathe,drink and eat in comfort because millions o forganisms and hundreds of processes areoperating in a co-ordinated manner outthere in the environment.”

Definitions Contd.

Introduction. Life, as we know it today, is the result o f

over 3.5 billion years of biologicalevolution. Throughout all this time, each organism has adapted to meet the demands of the environment in which it lives. Thiscapacity to respond adaptively is mediatedthrough out he vast array of genes, species and ecosystems that have evolved over time.

An ecosystem is a community of organisms and their physical environment interacting as an ecological(Lincoln 1982). differently, anecosystem is a self-sustaining. self-regulatingcommunity of organisms interacting with and the physical environmen: within ageographic space.

Ecosystem goods are those things humans getfrom the living environment consciously satisfy their requirements

Ecosystem goods and the linkto human health

Humans get a variety of products o fnatural ecosystems for their use. Theseinclude:food such as fish from aquatic ecosystems,mushrooms, and vegetables fromterrestrial bush meat from thesame ecosystems.

from the wetlands, savannas and forests. Other products such as fuel, craft materials, timber etc..

37


Plants used in

FibresGinseng roots

honeyand truffles

Spices

Ecosystem goods and the Linkto Human Health Contd.

4.1

689.9

399 3

265.2

7

Leisure through wildlife viewing, angling, sailing, white water rafting,mountaineering, trekking, scuba-divingetc..

Food and medicine have a directbearing on health. The nutritionalstatus of communities depends on their access to good healthy food.

Ecosystem goods and the linkto human health contd. Ecosystem goods can be a of for communities.

well-being of such communities would therefore improve due to increased incomes of such goods.The of forest products in globaltrade has been increasingly rapidly in recent years. Currently.

bulk of trade is between South America and Asia with the countries, Africa playing a relatively role 1997). no reason whyAfrica should not play a bigger in this trade for benefitof its people. The table below shows value of of in global

Ecosystem services and the linkto human health

There are numerous services that we getfrom natural ecosystems, which, at first not appear to be linked to human health but which on closer examination have a veryimportant bearing on health. The WorldHealth Organisation has been forsome time now, of the environment as beinga major determination of healthUosukainen, 2001).

Ecosystem goods and the link to Human Health Contd.It has been shown, for example, that the health ofmembers of fishing households around Lake Victoria.has declined in recent years because of increased cost offish as a result of the export drive (Hams er.

1997). For various reasons, traditional medicine, plays a very important role in the health ofcommunities in developing countries Sofowora,1993). An on-going study by Maud Kamatenesi

in shows that the dependenceon herbal medicine in reproductive health indistricts of Western Uganda is still very high

Ecosysten services and the linkto human health contd. Forests intercept rainfall and allow rainwater topercolate gently into the ground . Some of this

feeds the springs and streams which are asource of safe water for rural communities. In Uganda, less than 10% of the total population have access to piped (NEMA, 2001).This illustrates the significant importance ofsources such as

38

Biodiversityand Human Health Linkages Entebbe Workshop23-28 June 2002

Ecosystem services and the linkto human health contd.However, when watersheds are devegetated, they lose the ability to provide adequate amounts of waterconsistently; reduced flows lead to stagnation and falling per capita suppliesof water. Such conditions are ripe for thespread of diseases such as cholera anddysentery (Population Reference Bureau, 2001).

Ecosystem services and theLink to Human Health Contd.

It has been estimated that wetland services inthe of water treatment and purification by Nakivubo wetland are in the range of Ug.Shs to 2,664.13 million per annum(Emerton et 1999). Wetlands are also known to remove heavy metals and otherpollutants from water. This pollutionabatement has health benefits.

Ecosystem services and the link to human health contd.

Climate regulation: Vegetation influences climate at the macro and micro levels. Atsmaller scales, vegetation is known to have amoderating influences on local climates andmay create quite specific micro-climates(Dougherty, 2001). Alteration of vegetationin such circumstances may lead to someundesirable health impacts.

Ecosystem Services and theLink to Human Health Contd.

Clean and reliable water supplies: Ecosystemssuch as wetlands are crucial in waste watertreatment. In Uganda, the Nakivubo swamp has been a recipient of Kampala's wastewater formany decades. It removes nutrients such asnitrogen and phosphorus, faecal andsediments so that what enters Murchison Bay,the source of the city's water supply is muchleaner than that enters the swamp (Kansiirne and

1999).

Ecosystem services and the linkto human health contd.Nutrient storage and recycling: Ecosystems perform the important function of recycling nutrientsthe various components thereby ensuring the maintenance of life. This function isvital in agricultural productivity and if it iscompromised, this will lead topoverty and hence worse health conditions amonp communities.

Link to human health contd.Epidemic incidents of malaria inAfrica's highland areas including Uganda's has been attributed totemperature changes associated with land-use change in such areas(Lindblade et 2000).

I I

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Pollination Contd.

pollinators require natural ecosystems to survive. Foodsecurity and ultimately health andwell-being would be threatened bythe demise of the pollinators.

Pollination

Ecosysrem relationship resemble a web ofconnections from one living thing to many otherliving and non-living things. ecosystem stands alone 2001). Healthy and intact ecosystems the survival of and maintain a balance between living things and the resourcesthey need to survive. For example the

dioxide balance of the atmosphere is maintained at a certain level.

A lot of people do not realise that forplants to produce fruits and seeds, they must be pollinated. Many crops that meetour nutritional requirements need pollinators to be productive. The diversecrops and other plants have evolved to rely on specific pollinators ranging from bees, flies and beetles to bats and birds.

Bio-indicationIncreasingly, various organisms rangingfrom microbes to vertebrates are being usedas indicators of phenomena such as aquaticpollution (Jeffrey and Madden, 1991). Suchbiological indicators can provide earlywarning about potentially dangerous environmental conditions and thus protecthuman health.

Habitat Maintenance Contd.

Insect and other pests that would affectour health or our agriculture are oftenkept in check through naturalinteraction, thus reducing the need forand cost of artificial control measures; which themselves have healthimplications through pollution.

I

Habitat Maintenance I

CONCLUSIONIt apparentfrom the foregoing that ecosystemsplay a

fundamental role our health and well-being. Thedisregard for this role may be as a result of

ignorance or a failure to attach monetary value to thegoods and servicesprovided by natural ecosystems.It istherefore in our interest to continue to so as topublicize the role of ecosystems human well-being aswell as encouraging resource economists to attach some monetary value to the ecosystem and services toconvince the skeptics! Thank you very much.

40


ECOSYSTEM DISTURBANCE,BIODIVERSITYLOSS, ANDTHEIR IMPLICATIONSFOR

HUMAN HEALTHRobert

World Health OrganizationDept Protection of theHuman

Scopeof the presentation

Definitions. boundariesm the

Driving forces

Variation in pathogens,vectors andvariation, landscape epidemiology

through

Health:a complete state of physical, mental and social well-being, not merely the absence of disease

ECOSYSTEM DISTURBANCE, BIODIVERSITY LOSS, ANDTHEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR

Prepared for the RegionalWorkshop on Biological Diversity and Human

Health (Entebbe,24-28June

DEFINITIONS, BOUNDARIES

Health:a complete state of physical, mental and socialwell-being, not merely the absence of disease

DEFINITIONS, BOUNDARIES

Prevalence

the number of infections or disease casesas ain a defined population at a specific

moment in time incidence

the number of new infection or disease casesa percentage in a defined population over a

of time, usually a year

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DEFINITIONS.

DEFINITIONS,BOUNDARIES

.The hierarchy in biodiversity relevant toinfectious diseases:

disease incidence may be influenced by

- at the of or

-diversity of and- of and

pathogens, and


Biodiversity, ecosystem disturbance and health:which diseases

-Communicable

-Malnutrition-Accidents and injuries- disorders


Biological diversity variationsat all levels ofbiologicalorganization:

- variation within local populationsor species- variation in all or part of a local community-community variation in the living of an

ecosystem

DEFINITIONS.BOUNDARIES

The Global Burden of Disease (BOD)

Disability Adjusted Life A health economics composite indicator thatallows a weighted comparison of diseaseburdens as a decision-making criterion theplanning of health sector interventions


Biodiversity, ecosystem disturbance and health: which diseases

-Environmental determinants-Social determinants

42


ecosystem disturbance and health:which diseases

- of-social of


Biodiversity, ecosystem disturbancewhich diseases

BurdenofDiseaseI


Biodiversity, ecosystem disturbance and health:which diseases

---Malnutrition

and

-

Burden of Disease

17111

Global Climate Change

Changed Land Use

Human

I I

43


Agricultural Development

VARIATION IN PATHOGENS,VECTORSAND RESERVOIRS

Plasmodium vs.

morphologically geneticallyeven more

variation to expression indistinct

- in virulencein ecological

VARIATION IN PATHOGENS.VECTORS AND RESERVOIRS

Plasmodiaand

antigenic


Anopheles spp.: speciescomplexeswith variation invectorial capacityresting sites bitinglarval ecology

In all determinants that influence epidemiology and options

capacityto develop insecticide resistance

MI

VARIATION IN PATHOGENS,VECTORS AND RESERVOIRS

Anopheles complexes with variation vectorial capacity resting sitesbiting behaviourlarval ecologycapacity to develop insecticide resistance

VARIATION IN PATHOGENS, VECTORS AND RESERVOIRS

Anopheles gambiae in Mali:Bamako breeding to basins,

sitessuch as slow-moving streams andpools, mid to of the rainy

Savanna breeding only during rainybreeding in flood and irrigationschemes;only form foundduringthe dryseason.

44


IN PATHOGENS,VECTORS AND RESERVOIRS

Pathogen interactions:

variation and specificity

Examples

and aquatic snail species

and fly species


variation:

the phenomenon of buffering:the proportionof

hods is criticalto pathogen dilution

in in agreater pathogen and biodiversity, it

m whichmay may not have a buffering

ClimateChange

Changed Use

Hydrology

Human Settlements


variation:

the phenomenonof buffering:the proportion

is critical to dilution


Variations in the human host:

Innate immune responses against pathogens: for sickle anaemiaand in

malariato H N

resistanceimmune responses and

ECOSYSTEMDISTURBANCEClimate change

Are disease changes linked to biodiversitychanges, or simply density effects linked totemperature and rainfall?Many confounding factors (population change,agriculturaldevelopment)

Claims from Rwanda, Ethiopia and

The “El Niiio” in 1997 in EastAfrica were clearly a density dependent

45


ECOSYSTEM DISTURBANCEDeforestation

Reduction in vectors vectors inProvince Kenya and in the

mountains forest in Tanzania

forest destruction in West Africa ledto the decline of and G.tachinoides populations; similarly, in EastAfrica, forest and bush clearance has been anacceptable form of trypanosomiasis control

ECOSYSTEM DISTURBANCEHydrological changes

Irrigation schemes--malaria as a ofhabitat simplification-malaria to related

DamsCoastal developments, brackish water

ECOSYSTEM DISTURBANCEOther land use pattern changes

Agricultural development - habitat

Livestock - trends in husbandryRoadsand transport

simplification

ECOSYSTEM DISTURBANCEUrbanization. the lack of diversity in city centres

The diversity in areas

MI

ECOSYSTEM DISTURBANCEAgricultural development

Chemical inputsCrop varieties

Pest Management

ECOSYSTEM DISTURBANCEHealth interventions

PesticidesDrugs

Biological controlOverpopulation ?

46

Biodiversity and Human Health Linkages Entebbe Workshop23-28June 2002

An assessment of links canonly be done a! the local levelMapping isan tool identifypossiblestudy for linksCommunity involvement in natureconservationcan be strongly promoted byintroducing a health component

research goes beyondacademicvalue only where there are clearopportunitiesfor a win-win situation from the

47


Yes No

ANNEX 5

Summary of workshop evaluation

Somewhat

Overall expectations for the workshop:

12

Were your expectations met as regards the content and output of the workshop?

Please explain:

Learnt more about relationship, but would have wanted to go through a case study The first day was very important to explain the bio themes. This was not done.There was enhanced understanding of the research linkages between medical institutions in health and the wide array of biodiversity issues At the time of evaluation way forward was not clear. This is worrying considering donorapathy in a number of countriesThe different aspects and dimensions of biodiversity linkages with health has been well articulated during workshop The knowledge gaps to be explored have been identified hence setting the way forwardto research workIdentification of the way forward for further national and international linkages was not made clearBridging the gap between conservation and biodiversity, health and development not clearly sorted out. However mechanismsof addressing pathways have been identifiedAn eye opening workshop realizing the linkages between biodiversity and human health The subject is rather difficult. All the same issues were brought out, and if theproceedings are clearly written, we should be able to have a clear document that meetsmy expectations We lacked concrete examples from the participants

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and Human Health Entebbe 23-28 June 2002

Structure and content of the

How do you rate the following elements of the workshop?

Structureand content of the workshop: Other comments

We should have been provided with a workbookToo much group workSometimes the outputs from the groups not clear More material needed Other interesting themes should have been presented though the facilitators did not turn

The design of the workshop in turns of manageable number of participants and groupwork sessions enable all the participants to participate in the discussions Overall the workshop was well plannedMore thematic papers should have been arranged realizing the nature of the workshop At certain points groups were not sure how to go about the group workInformation on the field trip would have been given well in advance so that particular attention be given to the targeted issues

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