off-the-job activities and well-being in healthcare professionals

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INTRODUCTION

Psychological well-being at work placeis a topic of many studies (de Jonge et al.,2001; Adams et al., 1996; Bennett et al,2001). Mostly, the well-being variableswere examined in the context of work, inrelation to job characteristics and work de-

mands. Job characteristics were found tobe important predictors of workers’ well-being (de Jong et al., 2001; Judge & Wa-tanabe, 1993).

It has been argued recently that besidesthe factors that are directly work related,the manner in which work combines with

Off-the-job Activities and Well-being

in Healthcare Professionals

ZVJEZDANA PRIZMIĆ∗ Izvorni znanstveni radWashington University in St. Louis UDK: 304.3 : 379.8 + 61-051St. Louis, USA doi: 10.3935/rsp.v16i3.850LJILJANA KALITERNA LIPOVČAN Primljeno: ožujak 2009.JOSIP BURUŠIĆInstitut društvenih znanosti Ivo PilarZagreb, Hrvatska

The aim of the study was to explore the relationship between off-the-jobactivities and subjective well-being of the healthcare professionals. The sampleof 185 healthcare professionals from three medical settings in Croatia wereadministered a questionnaire which included the measures of worker’s satisfaction with the opportunity to carry out a set of 15 of off-the-job activities,as well as the measures of subjective well-being: life satisfaction, happinessand job satisfaction. Regression analyses were used to examine the effects ofsatisfaction with the opportunity to carry off-the-job activities on well-beingmeasures. Out of various off-the-job activities, healthcare professionals inour sample were most satis fied with the opportunity to carry out family andhousehold oriented activities (raising children, being with spouse or partner,shopping for household needs) and least satis fied with the opportunity to ex-ercise, take part in organization and keep up with news. The satisfaction withthe opportunity to shop for household needs was the only signi ficant predic-tor of life satisfaction. None of the off-the-job activities predicted the overallhappiness, only being younger was associated with higher reported overallhappiness. Job satisfaction was predicted by satisfaction with balancing workand family life.

Key words: off-the-job activities, life satisfaction, happiness, job satisfac-tion, work-family balance, subjective well-being.

* Zvjezdana Prizmić, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, USA, [email protected]

http://dx.doi.org/10.3935/rsp.v16i3.850

http://dx.doi.org/10.3935/rsp.v16i3.850



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Rev. soc. polit., god. 16, br. 3, str. 271-280, Zagreb 2009. Prizmić Z., Kaliterna Lipovč an Lj., Burušić J.: Off-the-job...

other aspects of life (work-life balance) isalso important in explaining the well-be-ing of workers (Hawortth & Lewis, 2005;Lewis et al., 2003). Off-the-job activities

and conflict between work and family lifewere found to be good predictors of life and job satisfaction (Rode, 2004; Rode et al.,2007), as well as quality of life in general(Greenhouse et al., 2003). People reportinghigh levels of work-family imbalance werefound to be less satisfied with their job andlife, spending more time on work than onfamily was related to lower quality of lifeexperienced. However, the study on quality

of life and work conducted in 28 Europeancountries in 2003 showed rather weak re-lationships between these two sets of vari-ables, work-family balance and satisfactionwith life and job (Wallace et al., 2007).

The increasing interest in exploring thenature and variety of off-the-job activitiesin relation to workers’ well-being is in-spired by the fact that recovery and restwhich workers need in order to replenishown resources, usually happen in off-the- job time (Sonnentag, 2003; Sonnentag &Zijlstra, 2006; Winwood et al., 2007, Son-nentag & Zijlstra, 2006). It has been sug-gested that the degree of recovery obtainedduring free time is influenced by the natureof the leisure activity undertaken duringthat free time (Tucker et al., 2008). Highamount of time spent on work-related ac-tivities was found to have a strong positiveeffect on the need for recovery, while time

spent on social and physical activities hadnegative effect on the need for recovery(Sonnentag, 2003; Sonnentag & Zijlstra,2006). Time spent on household or otherlow effort activities had no effect on theneed for recovery. Winwood and colleagues(Winwood et al., 2007) showed that activeand fulfilling off-the-job behaviours aresignificant factors that maximize recoveryfrom work strain.

Our study follows this line of researchby exploring the relationship between off-

the-job activities and worker’s subjectivewell-being. A wide range of off-the-jobactivities covering 15 different individualresponsibilities were used as predictors of

several subjective well-being measures.In exploring subjective well-being, weemployed the three components approachby using a measure of life satisfaction torepresent the cognitive component, feel-ing of happiness to represent the affectivecomponent and the job satisfaction as thirdwell-being component. It was expected thatrelationships between off-the-job activitiesand separate measures of well-being would

be different, depending on the type of meas-ure used, as a previous research showedthat cognitive and affective componentsof well-being have different relationshipswith other variables (Diener, 2006; Lucaset al., 1996). Finally, we predicted differ-ent importance of off-the-job activities inpredicting life and job satisfaction.

The study was a part of the internationalstudy conducted in Australia, Brazil, USA

and Croatia in order to examine the extent towhich several shift characteristics are asso-ciated with off-shift well-being. The studywhich combined four nations’ research(N=906) was presented at the 18th Inter-national Symposium on Shift and WorkingTime (Barnes-Farrel et al., 2007) and laterpublished (Barnes-Farrel et al., 2008). Inthe present paper, only the data which werenot analysed in the combined four nations’

study obtained in the Croatian sample areanalysed. These results were presented asa poster at the XXIX International Con-gress of Psychology (Prizmić & KaliternaLipovčan, 2008).

METHODS

Subjects

Participants were 185 healthcare work-ers from three medical settings in Croatia.



Rev. soc. polit., god. 16, br. 3, str. 271-280, Zagreb 2009.

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Prizmić Z., Kaliterna Lipovč an Lj., Burušić J.: Off-the-job...

Their age ranged from 19 to 65 years, withthe mean age of 39.5 years (SD=10.46).Most of the participants were females(86%), with the 19.8 years (SD=10.6) of

work experience in the health industry onaverage. The majority of the participantswere nurses (82%), while the others werephysicians.

Procedure and Measures

Healthcare worker volunteers com-pleted the Survey of Work and Time forHealthcare Workers (SWAT-Healthcare) intheir free time. The study was anonymous,conducted from October 2006 to February2007 with the permission of the Ministryof Health and Social Welfare of the Re-public of Croatia. Completed surveys werecollected a week after they were given tothose participants who agreed to partici-pate, so that the response rate was ratherhigh (85%).

SWAT-Healthcare is a modification of a

previous international collaborative survey(Barnes-Farrell & Rumery, 2000; Barnes-Farrell et al., 2002; Barnes-Farrell et al.,2008; Tepas & Barnes-Farrell, 1997). Thesurvey included the measures of worker’ssatisfaction with the opportunity to carry outa variety of off-the-job activities, self rat-ings of different aspects of work demands,workers’ ability, health, performance and job satisfaction. The Survey was translated

from English to the Croatian language andthen back-translated into English. For thepurpose of this study, the items related tooff-the-job activities and different subjec-tive well-being measures were selected forthe analyses.

Satisfaction with off-the-job activities. Participants rated how they feel about theiropportunity to carry out each of the 15 off-the-job activities. Activities were related

to household functioning (e.g. householdwork, shopping for household needs),

family functioning (e.g. raising children,being with spouse or partner), individualfunctioning (e.g. eating, sleeping, and ex-ercise) and social functioning (e.g. contact

with friends, taking part in organization).Ratings were done on the 5-point Likertscales on which 1 was ›unhappy‹ and 5was ›pleased‹.

Life satisfaction. The five-item Satisfac-tion with the Life Scale was used (SWLS;Diener et al., 1985). Subjects had to rateto what extent they agree with a particularstatement (such as »My life is close to myideal life«) using a 5-point scale on which

1 was ›totally disagree‹ and 5 was ›totallyagree‹. The score was calculated as themean of items. Higher scores mean betterlife satisfaction. The SWLS has been shownto have good psychometric properties (Pa-vot & Diener, 1993), which was confirmedin our study with Cronbach alpha of 0.84.

Happiness. The single item »In gen-eral, how happy or unhappy do you usu-ally feel?« rated on a 10-point scale rang-ing from 1 = »extremely unhappy« to 10 =»extremely happy« was used to estimateoverall happiness.

Job satisfaction. Satisfaction with jobwas estimated with the single item: »Howsatisfied are you with your job?« Partici-pants rated their satisfaction on 4-pointLikert on which 1 was ›very dissatisfied‹and 4 was ›very satisfied‹.

Statistics

Correlation analyses were used to meas-ure the relationships between off-the-jobactivities and three subjective well-beingmeasures (life satisfaction, happiness and job satisfaction).

Hierarchical regression analyses wereused to examine the effects of satisfaction

with opportunity to carry off-the-job activi-ties on well-being measures. Analyses were



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done separately for life satisfaction, happi-ness, and job satisfaction.

RESULTS

Off-the-job activities and well-being

In Table 1 descriptive statistics of theexamined variables are presented.

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics of 15 off-the-job activities, life

satisfaction, overall happiness and job satisfaction

(N=185)

Variable M SD

Household work

Shopping for household needs

Shopping for enjoyment

Being with spouse or partner

Raising children

Eating meals

Sleeping

Entertainment

Exercise and sports

Contact with friends

Taking part in organizationsEducation/training

Keeping up with the news

Obtaining health care

Balancing work and family

responsibilities

Life satisfaction

Happiness

Job satisfaction

3.9

3.9

3.6

4.1

4.3

4.1

3.6

3.5

3.1

3.8

3.23.2

3.6

3.5

3.7

3.1

6.96

3.0

.80

.95

1.26

.98

.82

.87

1.12

1.06

1.06

.89

.98

.91

.83

.93

.87

.81

1.66

.55

Among various off-the-job activities,participants were most satisfied with the op-portunities to raise children, be with spouseor partner and eat meals. They were leastsatisfied with the opportunity to have ex-ercise and sport, take part in organizations

and have education or training. The partici-pants felt moderately happy and satisfiedwith their life in general, but were aboveaverage satisfied with their job (mean ra-

ting on job satisfaction scale ranging from1 to 4 was 3.0±0.55).Further, we explored the relationships

between 15 off-the-job activities and threewell-being measures: life satisfaction, ha-ppiness and job satisfaction. Correlationanalyses revealed a number of significantassociations (Table 2).

The relatively highest positive correla-tions with life satisfaction showed variables

that could be considered as family orientedactivities, like being with spouse or partner(0.40) and shopping for household needs(0.39). The highest positive associationswith happiness had social variables suchas contact with friends (0.32), taking partin organizations (0.32) and entertainment(0.32). The strongest positive associationwith job satisfaction showed satisfactionwith balancing work and family responsi-

bility (0.36).Correlations between satisfaction with

off-the-job-activities showed weak to mod-erate relationships between various activi-ties. The highest correlations were foundbetween similar activities, such as shoppingfor household and for enjoyment (0.58)or between various out-off-home activi-ties, such as taking part in organizations,education/training and keeping up with

news (0.59). The lowest correlations werefound between domestic and out-of-homeactivities, such as between taking part inorganizations and household work (0.14)or between education/training and raisingchildren (0.10).




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T a b l e

2 .

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276


To examine the relationships betweenopportunity for various off-the-job ac-tivities and well-being variables, separatehierarchical regression analysis were con-

ducted. Life satisfaction, happiness and jobsatisfaction were dependent variables and15 off-the-job activities were separate pre-dictors. Also, gender and age were enteredin the modelfirst to control their possible in-fluence on examined variables. The resultsof hierarchical regression analysis with cor-respondent R and adjusted R square valuesfor the each step are shown in Table 3.

Life satisfaction

The regression analysis for Life satis-faction showed that overall R for the final

model was 0.58 (p<.001). Based on adjustedR square, the off-the-job variables predicted

Table 3.Results of multiple regression analyses with 15 off-the-job activities as predictors of life satisfaction, overall

happiness and job satisfaction

15 off-the-job activities

as predictors

Life satisf. Happiness Job satisf.

ß R R2 ß R R2 ß R R2

Step 1

Age

Gender

.19 .02

-.10

-.18

.27 .06

-.28**

-.05

.14 .02

-.12

-.10

Step 2

Age

Gender 1

Household work

Shopping for household needs

Shopping for enjoyment

Being with spouse or partner

Raising children

Eating meals

Sleeping

Entertainment

Exercise and sports

Contact with friends

Taking part in organizations

Education/trainingKeeping up with the news

Obtaining health care

Balancing work and family

.58 .22

-.07

-.10 -.14

.27*

.05

.16

-.01

-.07

.02

.06

.16

.03

.11

-.17 -.08

.19

.06

.54 .17

-.25**

.03 -.11

.22

-.02

.04

.14

-.15

.19

.06

.10

-.03

.18

-.11 -.01

.19

.13

.50 12

-.13

.00 -.23*

.20

-.15

-.07

.15

-.14

.17

-.06

.13

-.02

-.08

.03 .15

-.01

.34**

Notes: ** p<.001, * p<.05; R= multiple correlation; R2= adjusted R square; 1 Gender variable was coded

as 0= male and 1=female.

22% of life satisfaction score. It is interestingto note that all off-the-job activity variablesshowed significant positive correlation withlife satisfaction, but only satisfaction with

shopping for household need was a signifi-cant predictor (ß =.27). Workers who weremore satisfied with shopping for householdneed reported to have better life satisfaction.

Overall happiness

The regression analysis for overall ha-ppiness showed that R for the final model

was 0.54 (p<.001). Based on adjusted Rsquare, the off-the-job variables predicted17% of life satisfaction score. However,

none of the off-the-job activities signifi-cantly predicted happiness scores, the only




277


significant predictor appeared to be age (ß=.25). Being younger significantly predict-ed higher overall happiness.

Job satisfaction

The regression analysis for job satisfac-tion showed that overall R for the modelwas 0.50 (p<0.001). It explained around12% of variance, based on adjusted Rsquare. Job satisfaction was best predictedwith satisfaction with balancing work/fam-ily responsibility (ß =0.34, p<0.001) Work-ers who reported to be more satisfied in bal-ancing work/family responsibility reported

higher levels of job satisfaction. Satisfac-tion with household work was a suppressorvariable (ß= -0.23, p<0.05), it improvedprediction but showed no correlation with job satisfaction (r=0.04, p>0.05).

DISCUSSION

In this study, workers’ satisfaction withopportunities to carry on different off-the- job activities were examined as predictorsof well-being. In the growing literature onsubjective well-being and/or quality of life,relatively little attention has been paid tothe data on activities that people do in theirfree time (Robinson & Martin, 2008). Ourresults showed that some off-the-job ac-tivities have predictive values for differentsubjective well-being measures.

First, we explored the average satisfac-tion with opportunities to carry out diffe-rent off-the-job activities of the healthcareworkers, who are considered to be a groupwith high work demands (Galantino et al.,2005; (Bennett et al., 2001). Out of vari-ous off-the-job activities, healthcare profe-ssionals in our sample were most satisfiedwith the opportunity to carry out familyand household oriented activities (raisingchildren, being with spouse or partner, sho-pping for household needs) and least sat-

isfied with the opportunity to be engagedin the activities which are usually freely

chosen (Sonnentag & Zijlstra, 2006) suchas exercise, taking part in organization andkeeping up with news.

In order to understand the association

between off-the-job activities and subjec-tive well-being better we examined theirpredictive value on each of the well-beingmeasures. Our hypothesis that different ac-tivities would predict different well-beingmeasures was confirmed. The satisfactionwith opportunity to shop for householdneeds turned out to be the best and onlysignificant predictor of life satisfaction. Re-ported satisfaction with spending for house-

hold might indicate the worker’s buyingcapabilities and thus indirectly reflect theirincome. In our previous study, we showedthat Croatian citizens were feeling happierand more satisfied with their lives the highertheir income was (Kaliterna Lipovčan et al.,2007). However, as we did not include themeasure of income in this study, we couldonly speculate on this.

On the other side, none of the off-the-job

activities predicted the overall happiness,only being younger was associated withhigher reported overall happiness. One ofthe explanations of thisfinding could be thatthe measure of happiness that we used wasmeasuring the overall level of feelings andreferred to general affective tendencies. Ithas been argued recently that in examiningaffective well-being the dimension of timeshould be considered (Ilies & Kelly, 2007;

Krueger et al., 2009). When individuals re-port the subjective well-being with actualevents that occurred in their lives or reportthe feelings experienced during the dailyactivities, the results should give more reli-able accounts of emotional quality of eachactivity. However, using real-time data col-lection or diary recall methods could becostly and time consuming, so the attemptsare rare (Krueger et al., 2009).

Beside those general subjective well-being measures, we explored whether the



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off-the-job activities predict work-relatedwell-being, such as job satisfaction. Thesatisfaction with balancing work and familylife has been the only significant predictor

of job satisfaction. Previous research on therelationships between family-work conflictand job satisfaction showed inconclusiveresults. Similarly to our results, some stud-ies showed that conflict between work andfamily life had negative effect on job sat-isfaction (Adams et al. 1996, Rode et al.,2007), but also that it has very little or noeffect on job or life satisfaction (Wallaceet al., 2007). Taking into account that our

sample consisted of healthcare profession-als and mostly women, it could be expectedthat they lead an unbalanced life, workingshifts and having family responsibilities,which significantly influenced their job sat-isfaction. Family and social support provedto be important for highly demanding jobssuch are healthcare professionals (Bennettet al., 2001). Nurses with low levels ofsupport from family reported higher stresslevels at work and lower job satisfaction

(Tyler & Cushway, 1995). Achieving anappropriate work-family balance is con-sidered important not only for improvingquality of life in general, but also for ma-king family life sustainable.

In summary, multivariate analyses indi-cated that opportunities to carry out someoff-the-job activities, particularly thosethat are family and household oriented areimportant determinants of subjective well-

being and job satisfaction. Since our resultsrelied on cross sectional data, it is not po-ssible to determine the causal relationshipsamong the variables. It would be interestingto analyse the gender as well as educationlevel in relation to off-the-job activities andwell-being, but the structure of our sample(the majority of sample were nurses andwomen) did not enable such analyses. Inthat respect, this study can be perceived

as a starting point for further research thatshould include a larger scale of off-the-job

activities and a more heterogeneous sampleof participants.

Acknowledgement

This research was conducted as a part ofa project »Development of National Indi-cators of Quality of Life« funded by grantfrom the Ministry of Science, Educationand Sport of the Republic of Croatia (No:194-1941558-1555).

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Sažetak

SLOBODNE AKTIVNOSTI I ZADOVOLJSTVO OSOBA ZAPOSLENIH U SUSTAVU ZDRAVSTVENE SKRBI

Zvjezdana Prizmi ć

Washington University in St. Louis

St. Louis, USA

Ljiljana Kaliterna Lipovč an, Josip Buruši ć

Institute of Social Sciences Ivo Pilar

Zagreb, Croatia

Cilj istraživanja bio je utvrditi povezanost izmeđ u aktivnosti koje se obavljaju u slo-bodno vrijeme i subjektivnog blagostanja kod zdravstvenih djelatnika. Na uzorku od 185

zdravstvenih djelatnika iz tri zdravstvene ustanove u Hrvatskoj primijenjen je upitnik o zadovoljstvu s obzirom na moguć nost da se u slobodno vrijeme obavlja 15 pojedinač nihaktivnosti te nekoliko mjera subjektivnog blagostanja: životno zadovoljstvo, osjeć aj sreć ei zadovoljstvo poslom. Regresijskim analizama ispitan je utjecaj zadovoljstva moguć noš ć uda se u slobodno vrijeme obavljaju različ ite aktivnosti na svaku od mjera subjektivnogblagostanja. Rezultati su pokazali opć enito da su ispitani zdravstveni djelatnici najzado-voljniji moguć noš ć u da u slobodno vrijeme obavljaju aktivnosti vezane uz obiteljski život(bavljenje djecom, provođ enje vremena sa supružnikom ili partnerom, kupovanje za potrebedomać instva), a najmanje zadovoljni moguć noš ć u sudjelovanja u različ itim organizacijama,rekreativnog vježbanja i prać enja dnevnih događ aja u medijima. Jedini znač ajni predik-tor životnog zadovoljstva bila je moguć nost da se kupuje za potrebe domać instva, dok je za osjeć aj sreć e bila prediktivna jedino dob sudionika. Mlađ a životna dob upuć ivala je naveć i osjeć aj sreć e. Zadovoljstvo poslom najbolje je predviđ alo zadovoljstvo uspostavljenomravnotežom izmeđ u života i rada.

Ključne riječi: slobodno vrijeme, životno zadovoljstvo, osjećaj sreće, zadovoljstvoposlom, ravnoteža života i rada.

off-the-job activities and well-being in healthcare professionals

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