officially the Republic of Singapore, is a Southeast Asian city-state off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, 137 kilometres (85 mi) north of the equator. An island country made up of 63 islands, it is separated from Malaysia by the Straits of Johor to its north and from Indonesia's Riau Islands by the Singapore Strait to its south. The country is highly urbanised with very little primary rainforest remaining, although more land is being created for development through land reclamation.

Singapore had been a part of various local empires since it was first inhabited in the second century AD. It hosted a trading post of the East India Company in 1819 with permission from the Sultanate of Johor. The British obtained sovereignty over the island in 1824 and Singapore became one of the British Straits Settlements in 1826. Occupied by the Japanese in World War   II , Singapore declared independence, uniting with other former British territories to form Malaysia in 1963, although it was separated from Malaysia two years later. Since then it has had a massive increase in wealth, and is one of the Four Asian Tigers. Singapore is the world's fourth leading financial centre, and its port is one of the five busiest ports in the world. The economy heavily depends on the industry and service sectors.

Singapore is a parliamentary republic with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government. The People's Action Party (PAP) has won every election since self-government in 1959. The legal system of Singapore has its foundations in the English common law system, but modifications have been made to it over the years, such as the removal of trial by jury. The PAP's popular image is that of a strong, experienced and highly-qualified government, backed by a skilled Civil Service and an education system with an emphasis on achievement and meritocracy; but it is perceived by some voters, opposition critics and international observers as being authoritarian and too restrictive on individual freedom.

Some 5 million people live in Singapore, of whom 2.91 million were born locally. Most are of Chinese, Malay or Indian descent. There are four official languages: English, Chinese, Malay and Tamil. One of the five founding members of the Association of South East Asian Nations, Singapore also hosts the APEC Secretariat, and is a member of the East Asia Summit, the Non-Aligned Movement, and the Commonwealth.

Etymology

The English name of Singapore is derived from the Malay Singapura (Sanskrit सिं��हपु�र "Lion City"), thus the customary reference to the nation as the Lion City. Lions probably never lived there; the beast seen by Sang Nila Utama, founder of ancient Singapore, who gave the city its name, was most likely a tiger

History

The earliest known settlement on Singapore was in the second century AD. It was an outpost of the Sumatran Srivijaya empire, named Temasek ('sea town'). Between the 16th

and early 19th centuries, it was part of the Sultanate of Johor. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burnt down the settlement and the island sank into obscurity for the next two centuries.[12]

In 1819, Thomas Stamford Raffles arrived and signed a treaty with Sultan Hussein Shah on behalf of the British East India Company to develop the southern part of Singapore as a British trading post. In 1824 the entire island became a British possession under a further treaty whereby the sultan and the Temenggong transferred it to the British East India Company. In 1826 it became part of the Straits Settlements, a British colony. By 1869, 100,000 people lived on the island.[13]

In World War II the Imperial Japanese Army invaded Malaya culminating in the Battle of Singapore. The British were defeated, and surrendered on 15 February 1942. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill called this "the worst disaster and largest capitulation in British history".[14] The Japanese occupied Singapore until the British repossessed it in September 1945 after the Japanese surrender.[15]

Singapore's first general election in 1955 was won by the pro-independence David Marshall, leader of the Labour Front. Demanding complete self-rule he led a delegation to London but was turned down by the British. He resigned on return and was replaced by Lim Yew Hock, whose policies convinced Britain to grant Singapore full internal self-government for all matters except defence and foreign affairs.[16]

In elections in May 1959 the People's Action Party won a landslide victory and immediately made Singapore a self-governing state within the Commonwealth, with Lee Kuan Yew as the first prime minister.[17] Governor Sir William Allmond Codrington Goode served as the first Yang di-Pertuan Negara, and was succeeded by Yusof bin Ishak who in 1965 became the first President of Singapore.[18]

Singapore declared independence from Britain on 31 August 1963 before joining the new Federation of Malaysia in September along with Malaya, Sabah and Sarawak as the result of the 1962 Merger Referendum. Tunku Abdul Rahman separated Singapore from the Federation two years later after heated ideological conflict between the ruling parties of Malaya and Singapore.[3]

Singapore gained sovereignty as the Republic of Singapore (remaining within the Commonwealth) on 9 August 1965[3] with Yusof bin Ishak as president and Lee Kuan Yew still as prime minister. In 1967 it helped found the Association of Southeast Asian Nations [19] and in 1970 it joined the Non-aligned movement. In 1990 Goh Chok Tong succeeded Lee as prime minister. During his tenure the country faced the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, the 2003 SARS outbreak and terrorist threats posed by Jemaah Islamiyah. In 2004 Lee Hsien Loong, eldest son of Lee Kuan Yew, became the third prime minister.

Geography

Singapore consists of 63 islands, including the main island, widely known as Singapore Island but also as Pulau Ujong.[34] There are two man-made connections to Johor, Malaysia:

the Johor–Singapore Causeway in the north, and the Tuas Second Link in the west. Jurong Island, Pulau Tekong, Pulau Ubin and Sentosa are the largest of Singapore's smaller islands. The highest natural point is Bukit Timah Hill at 166 m (545 ft).[35]

There are ongoing land reclamation projects, which have increased its land area from 581.5 km2 (224.5 sq mi) in the 1960s to 704 km2 (272 sq mi) today; it may grow by another 100 km2 (40 sq mi) by 2030.[36] Some projects involve merging smaller islands through land reclamation to form larger, more functional islands, as with Jurong Island.[37] About 23% of Singapore's land area consists of forest and nature reserves.[38] Urbanisation has eliminated most primary rainforest, with Bukit Timah Nature Reserve the only significant remaining forest.[37]

Singapore has a tropical rainforest climate with no distinctive seasons, uniform temperature and pressure, high humidity, and abundant rainfall. Temperatures usually range from 23 to 32 °C (73 to 90 °F). Relative humidity averages around 79% in the morning and 73% in the afternoon.[39] April and May are the hottest months, with the wetter monsoon season from November to January.[40] From July to October, there is often haze caused by bush fires in neighbouring Indonesia.[41] Although Singapore does not observe daylight saving time, it follows time zone GMT+8, one hour ahead of its geographical location.[42]

Demographics

As of 2010, 5.1 million people live in Singapore, of whom 3.2 million (64%) are Singapore citizens while the rest (36%) are permanent residents or foreign workers. 2.9 million people (57%) were born in Singapore while the rest are foreign-born. The median age of Singaporeans is 37 years old and the average household size is 3.5 persons.[91][92] In 2010, the total fertility rate was 1.1 children per woman, the third lowest in the world and well below the 2.1 needed to replace the population.[6] To overcome this problem, the Singapore government is encouraging foreigners to immigrate to Singapore. The large number of immigrants has kept Singapore's population from declining.[93]

About 40 per cent of the population are foreigners, the sixth-highest percentage in the world.[94] The government is considering capping these workers, although it is recognised that they play a large role in the country's economy.[95] Foreign workers make up 80% of the construction industry and up to 50% in the service industry.[96][97]

In 2009, 74.2% of residents were of Chinese, 13.4% of Malay, and 9.2% of Indian descent.[98] Prior to 2010, each person could register as a member of only one race, by default that of his or her father. From 2010 onwards, people may register using a "double-barrelled" classification, in which they may choose one primary race and one secondary race, but no more than two.

Languages

Singapore has four official languages: English, Chinese, Malay, and Tamil.[104] English is the first language of the nation and is the language of business, government and medium of

instruction in schools.[105][106] The Singapore constitution and all laws are written in English.[107] 80% of Singaporeans are literate in English as either their first or second language. Chinese Mandarin is the next commonly spoken, followed by Malay and Tamil.[100][108] Singaporean English is based on British English,[109] and forms of English spoken range from Standard English to a pidgin known as Singlish. Singlish is heavily discouraged by the government.[110] According to the 2010 official census, nearly one in three Singaporeans speak English as their home language.[111]

Chinese is the most common home language, used by about half of all Singaporeans.[103] Singaporean Mandarin is the most common version of Chinese in the country,[112] with 1.2 million using it as their home language. Nearly half a million speak other Chinese languages (which the government describes as "dialects"), mainly Hokkien, Teochew, and Cantonese, as their home language, although the use of these is declining in favour of Mandarin and English.[113]

Malay is the "national language", a ceremonial rather than functional designation to reflect the country's history.[114][115][104] It is used in the national anthem "Majulah Singapura"[116] and in military commands. Today Malay is generally spoken within the Singaporean Malay community, with only 16.8% of Singaporeans literate in Malay[117] and only 12% using it as their home language.[103] Bazaar Malay was historically the lingua franca in Singapore, until it was eclipsed by English, especially after independence.[118] Around 0.1 million or 3% of Singaporeans speak Tamil as their home language.[103] Even though only Tamil has official status, there have been no attempts to discourage the use or spread of other Indian languages.

Culture

Racial and religious harmony is regarded by the government as a crucial part of Singapore's success and played a part in building a Singaporean identity.[137] Due to the many races and cultures in the country, there is no single set of culturally acceptable behaviours. The country is generally conservative socially but some liberalisation has occurred.[138] Foreigners also make up 42% of the population[94][113] and have a strong influence on Singaporean culture. A.T. Kearney named Singapore the most globalised country in the world in 2006 in its Globalization Index.[139] The Economist Intelligence Unit in its "Quality-of-Life Index" ranks Singapore as having the best quality of life in Asia and eleventh overall in the world.[140] The Singapore dream is often satirically and light-heartedly portrayed as the "5 Cs" of Singapore – cash, credit cards, car, condominium and country club membership.

Cuisine

Dining, along with shopping, is said to be the country's national pastime.[142] The diversity of food is touted as a reason to visit the country,[143] and the variety of food representing different ethnicities is seen by the government as a symbol of its multiculturalism.[144] The "national fruit" of Singapore is the Durian [145] In popular culture, food items belong to a particular ethnicity, with Chinese,

Indian, and Malay food clearly defined. The diversity of cuisine has been increased further by the "hybridization" of different styles, e.g. the Peranakan style, a mix of Chinese and Malay cuisine.

Arts

Since the 1990s, the government has been promoting Singapore as a centre for arts and culture, in particular the performing arts, and to transform the country into a cosmopolitan 'gateway between the East and West'.[146] One highlight was the construction of Esplanade, a performing arts centre opened in October 2002.[147] The annual Singapore Arts Festival is organised by the National Arts Council. The stand-up comedy scene has been growing, with a weekly open mic.[148] Singapore hosted the 2009 Genee International Ballet Competition, a classical ballet competition promoted by London's Royal Academy of Dance

Sport and recreation

Popular sports include football, basketball, cricket, swimming, sailing, table tennis and badminton. Most Singaporeans live in public residential areas near amenities such as public swimming pools, outdoor basketball courts and indoor sport complexes. Water sports are popular, including sailing, kayaking and water skiing. Scuba diving is another recreation, particularly around the southern island of Pulau Hantu, known for its rich coral reefs.[150]

Singapore's football (soccer) league, the S-League, formed in 1994,[151] currently comprises 12 clubs including foreign teams.[152] The Singapore Slingers, formerly in the Australian National Basketball League, is one of the inaugural teams in the ASEAN Basketball League, founded in October 2009.[153] Singapore began hosting a round of the Formula One World Championship in 2008. The race was staged at the Marina Bay Street Circuit and became the first night race on the F1 circuit[154] and the first street circuit in Asia.[155] Singapore won the bid to host the inaugural 2010 Summer Youth Olympics

Español

La República de Singapur es una isla y ciudad-estado situada al sur del Estado de Johor en la Península de Malasia y al norte de las islas Riau de Indonesia, separada de éstas por un estrecho. Con 707,1 km², es el país más pequeño del Sudeste de Asia. Singapur es el cuarto centro financiero más importante del mundo, y juega un papel muy importante en el comercio internacional y la economía mundial. Además, es el segundo país con más densidad de población en el mundo, después de Mónaco.

Historia

La isla, anteriormente llamada "Temasek", fue bautizada "Singapura" en el siglo XIV por el príncipe Parameswara. Este territorio adquirió considerable importancia en el siglo XIV,

pero fue destruido por los javaneses y quedó desierto hasta el año 1819, cuando el británico Stamford Raffles fundó un establecimiento en el sitio donde actualmente se encuentra la moderna ciudad. El sultán de Johore y Temenggong arrendó este territorio a la Compañía de las Indias Orientales Británica. A través de un tratado, en 1824 se cedió la isla definitivamente a la compañía a cambio de una renta vitalicia al sultán de Johore. En el año 1826 se unió Singapur a Penang y Malaca, quedando su control en manos de un gobierno con presidencia india y residencia en Penang. En 1830 se reunieron bajo la presidencia de Bengala, trasladándose la residencia a Singapur. El 1 de abril de 1867 la autoridad de estos tres establecimientos pasó del gobierno indio al ministro inglés de colonias. Las islas Cocos, la isla Christmas y la antigua colonia de Labuan, fueron organizadas bajo el control del gobernador de las Straits Sttlements (Estrechos Malayos) e incorporadas a Singapur en 1900, 1903 y 1907, respectivamente. Singapur se constituyó como colonia separada en el año 1912, siendo utilizada como base naval hasta la ocupación japonesa.[5]

Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, a partir del 15 de febrero de 1942 la isla cayó bajo dominio del Imperio Japonés, que la atacó desde tierra aprovechando que las defensas de la ciudad estaban orientadas hacia el mar, siendo la mayor humillación británica sufrida en la guerra, ya que no sólo fue una derrota militar, sino que también fue un duro golpe a la dominación occidental en toda Asia.

En 1959, Lee Kuan Yew fue elegido Primer Ministro. Su partido, el Partido de Acción del Pueblo (People's Action Party), propone entonces la integración en la Federación de Malasia, lo cual se consigue en septiembre de 1963. Poco después, en 1964, las diferencias se manifiestan y la secesión de la República de Singapur es acordada, siendo proclamada el 9 de agosto de 1965.

Geografía

Singapur se sitúa entre Malasia, con la que limita al norte, e Indonesia al sur. Esta isla está unida a la península malaya por dos puentes. El primero lleva a la ciudad fronteriza de Johor Bahru en Malasia. El segundo, más al oeste, conecta también con Johor Bahru en los barrios de la región de Tuas.

El clima es tropical húmedo, con temperaturas de 30 °C de máximas y 23 °C de mínimas durante todo el año. La humedad es alta y hay un fuerte bochorno.

Demografía

En 2007 Singapur tenía 4.553.000 habitantes, la esperanza de vida era de 81 años, el 92,5% de la población estaba alfabetizada y el promedio de hijos por mujer era de tan sólo 1,07.

Después de Mónaco, Singapur presenta la mayor densidad de población del mundo. El 85% de sus habitantes viven en municipios como Tampines en viviendas públicas construidas por el House Development Board (HDB).

La diversidad étnica de la población es muy marcada: los chinos representan el 76,8%; los malayos el 13,9%, los indios el 7,9% y el 1,4% restante proviene de diversos países, sobre todo occidentales.

La diversidad étnica también se pone de manifiesto en las lenguas oficiales. A pesar de ser un país muy pequeño, posee cuatro idiomas con el estatuto de oficial: inglés, chino (mandarín), tamil y bahasa (ambos: el indonesio y el malayo). Toda la población debe ser bilingüe, aprendiendo inglés y uno de los otros tres idiomas, dependiendo este otro del origen de los padres. Si ninguno de los padres es de alguna de las etnias que hablan uno de los otros idiomas (aparte del inglés), éstos pueden entonces escoger cuál de los otros tres idiomas estudiarán sus hijos en la escuela.

MADAGASCAR

The Republic of Madagascar is an island country located in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa. The nation comprises the island of Madagascar which, at 587,000 square kilometres (227,000 sq mi), is classified as the fourth-largest island in the world, as well as numerous smaller peripheral islands, the largest of which include Nosy Be and Nosy Boraha

The prehistoric breakup of the Gondwana supercontinent separated the Madagascar-Antarctica-India landmass from the Africa-South America landmass around 135 million years ago. Madagascar later split from India around 88 million years ago, allowing plants and animals on the island to evolve in complete isolation. Consequently, Madagascar is a biodiversity hotspot in which over 80% of its plant and animal species are found nowhere else on Earth. These are dispersed across a variety of ecoregions, broadly divided into eastern and south-central rain forest, western dry forests, southern desert and spiny forest. The island's diverse ecosystems and unique wildlife are severely threatened by human settlement and traditional slash-and-burn practices (tavy) which have denuded Madagascar of as much as 90% of its original forest cover. Under the administration of former President Marc Ravalomanana, the government of Madagascar partnered with the international community to implement large-scale conservation measures tied to ecotourism as part of the national development strategy. However, under Rajoelina's caretaker government there has been a dramatic increase in illegal logging of precious woods and the poaching and sale of threatened species such as lemurs in Madagascar's many national parks, several of which are classified as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Most archaeologists believe Madagascar was first inhabited sometime between 300 BCE and 500 CE by Austronesian peoples arriving on outrigger canoes from Borneo in the Indonesian archipelago who were later joined around 1000 CE by Bantu migrants crossing the Mozambique Channel. Arab, East African, Indian, Chinese and European (primarily French) migrants settled on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. The Malagasy ethnic group is often sub-divided into sixteen or more sub-groups of which the largest are the Merina of the central highlands around Antananarivo, and the Betsimisaraka people of the eastern coast around Toamasina. The Austronesian origins of the earliest population are evident not only in the physical appearance of many Malagasy people, but also in cultural practices related to the veneration

of ancestors, the prevalence of the valiha (a bamboo tube zither of East Asian origin) in Malagasy musical traditions, architectural methods and norms, and a cuisine based on rice that establishes the Malagasy people as the largest rice consumers per capita in the world; European, Asian and Indian influences are also evident in local cuisine. The first transcription of Malagasy using Arabic script (sorabe) and certain elements of Malagasy cosmology were introduced by Arabs, while Bantu influences are evident in the spiritual and monetary value placed on zebu. Malagasy, the Austronesian language spoken in various forms by the vast majority of the population, is the national language and one of two current official languages alongside French. The majority of the population adheres to a combination of traditional beliefs and Christianity, but followers of other faiths such as Islam and Hinduism are found in smaller numbers throughout the country.

Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was populated by a fragmented assortment of shifting socio-political alliances of varying sizes. Beginning in the early 19th century, however, the majority of the island was united and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of nobles (andriana) of the Merina ethnic group. The monarchy collapsed when the island was conquered and absorbed into the French colonial empire in 1896, from which the island gained independence in 1960. The autonomous state of Madagascar has since undergone four major constitutional periods, including a post-colonial First Republic under President Philibert Tsiranana (1960–1972), a Soviet-style socialist Second Republic under Admiral Didier Ratsiraka (1975–1991), and a democratic Third Republic under successive presidents Albert Zafy, Didier Ratsiraka and Marc Ravalomanana (1992–2009). Since 1992 the nation has officially been governed as a constitutional democracy from its capital at Antananarivo by an elected president who serves a renewable five-year term and is supported by the prime minister he or she nominates. However, following a popular uprising in 2009 instigated by then-mayor of Antananarivo and TGV political party president Andry Rajoelina, Ravalomanana was pressured to resign. Presidential power was then unconstitutionally transferred to Rajoelina with the support of a portion of the military. A 2010 constitutional referendum ushered in the Fourth Republic in which the nation continues to be managed by Rajoelina's unelected caretaker government known as the High Transitional Authority (HAT). Rajoelina (b. 1974), currently the youngest head of state in Africa, has failed to secure recognition from the international community, which largely views the current administration as illegitimate and has widely characterized Rajoelina's seizure of power as a coup d'état.

In 2010, the population of Madagascar was estimated at around 20 million, 85% of whom live on less than two dollars per day. Ecotourism, agriculture, expansion of international trade and greater investments in education, health and private enterprise are key elements of Madagascar's development strategy. Under Ravalomanana, these investments produced substantive economic growth but the benefits were not evenly spread throughout the population, producing tensions over the increasing cost of living and declining living standards among the poor and some segments of the middle class. Current and future generations in Madagascar are faced with the challenge of striking a balance between economic growth, equitable development and natural conservation.

Geography

At 587,000 square kilometres (227,000 sq mi), Madagascar is the world's 46th-largest country and the fourth-largest island. It is slightly larger than France, and is one of 11 distinct provinces of the South African Platform physiographic division. The country lies mostly between latitudes 12°S and 26°S with a small area lying north of 12°, and longitudes 43°E and 51°E. The prehistoric breakup of the Gondwana supercontinent separated the Madagascar-Antarctica-India landmass from the Africa-South America landmass around 135 million years ago. Madagascar later split from India around 88 million years ago, allowing plants and animals on the island to evolve in complete isolation.[7]

The capitol of Madagascar, the city of Antananarivo, is located in the highlands, a plateau region in the center of the island ranging in altitude from 2,450 to 4,400 ft (747 to 1,341 m) above sea level. The densely populated central highlands are characterized by terraced, rice-growing valleys lying between grassy, deforested hills. Here, erosion has exposed the island's red laterite soil, source of the country's sobriquet "The Red Island". Along the eastern, windward side of the island, a steep and mountainous escarpment drops abruptly from the Central Highlands to the Indian Ocean. This eastern terrain hosts most of the last remaining pockets of tropical rainforest that formerly covered the entire island of Madagascar. The Canal des Pangalanes is a chain of man-made and natural lakes connected by French-built canals just inland from the east coast, running parallel to it for some 460 km (286 mi) (about two-thirds of the eastern length of the island). The western and southern sides, which lie in the rain shadow of the central highlands, are home to tropical dry forests, thorn forests, and deserts and xeric shrublands. Presumably due to relatively lower population densities, Madagascar's dry deciduous rain forest has been better preserved than the eastern rain forests or the original woodlands of the high central plateau. The descent from the central highlands toward the west is gradual. The western coast features many protected harbours, but silting is a major problem caused by sediment from the high levels of inland erosion carried by rivers crossing the vast western plains.[citation needed]

The island's highest peak, Maromokotro, at 2,876 metres (9,436 ft), is found in the Tsaratanana Massif, located in the far north of the country. The Ankaratra Massif is in the central area south of Antananarivo and hosts the third highest mountain on the island, Tsiafajavona, with an altitude of 2,642 metres (8,668 ft). Further south is the Andringitra Massif with several peaks over 2,400 metres (7,900 ft) including the second and fourth highest peaks, Pic Imarivolanitra, (more widely known as Pic Boby) at 2,658 metres / 8,720 feet and the 2,630 metres / 8,630 feet-high Pic Bory. The massif contains the Andringitra Reserve and includes both Pic Soaindra (2,620 metres / 8,600 feet) and Pic Ivangomena (2,556 metres / 8,386 feet). On very rare occasions, this region experiences snow in winter at its high altitudes

Early history

Most archaeologists estimate that the earliest settlers arrived in outrigger canoes from southern Borneo between 200 BCE and 500 CE, making Madagascar one of the last major landmasses on Earth to be settled by people.[26] Upon arrival, early settlers practiced tavy

(swidden, slash-and-burn agriculture) to clear the virgin coastal rainforests for the cultivation of their crops.[27] The first settlers encountered Madagascar's wealth of megafauna, including giant lemurs, elephant birds, giant fossa and the Malagasy hippopotamus, which have since become extinct due to hunting and habitat destruction.[28] By 600 CE groups of these early settlers had moved inland and began clearing the forests of the central Highlands. Irrigated rice paddies emerged in highland Betsileo country by 1600 and were complemented with terraced paddies throughout Imerina a century later.[29] Zebu were introduced around 1000 CE by Bantu-speaking East African migrants who maintained large herds. The rising intensity of land cultivation and the ever-increasing demand for zebu pasturage in the central highlands had largely transformed the region from a forest ecosystem to barren grassland by the 17th century.[30]

Merina oral histories tell of migration from the southeast coast to the central highlands where the Merina encountered an established population called the Vazimba, who may have been the descendants of an earlier and less technologically advanced Austronesian settlement wave.[31] The Vazimba were vanquished by 16th and early 17th-century Merina kings Andriamanelo, Ralambo and particularly Andrianjaka, who founded Antananarivo around 1625 upon the site of a captured Vazimba capital on the hilltop of Analamanga. Merina legends relate that the Vazimba were largely driven from the Highlands or absorbed into the local population through intermarriage.[32] In the popular imagination today, the Vazimba are frequently characterized as powerful and even monstrous spirits (sometimes with pygmy-like features) that must be appeased because of their status as tompon-tany or ancestral masters of the land.[27]

The written history of Madagascar begins in the 7th century when Arabs established trading posts along the northwest coast and introduced Islam, the Arabic script (used to transcribe the Malagasy language in a form of writing known as sorabe), Arab astrology and other cultural elements.[8] European contact began in 1500, when the Portuguese sea captain Diogo Dias sighted the island.[33] The French established trading posts along the east coast in the late 17th century, around the same time that Captain Misson and his pirate crew allegedly founded the famous pirate utopia of Libertalia on the small island of Nosy Boraha off Madagascar's northeastern coast. From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar was a favorite haunt for pirates.[34]

Madagascar was an important transoceanic trading hub connecting ports of the Indian Ocean in the early centuries following human settlement. Later, it gained prominence among pirates and European traders, particularly those involved in the trans-Atlantic slave trade. The wealth generated by this trade spurred the rise of organized kingdoms, some of which had grown quite powerful by the 17th century.[35] Among these were the Betsimisaraka alliance of the eastern coast and the Sakalava chiefdoms of Menabe and Boina on the west coast. The Kingdom of Imerina, located in the central highlands with its capital at the royal palace of Antananarivo, likewise emerged at around the same time under the leadership of King Andriamanelo.[36]

Demographics

Madagascar's population is predominantly of mixed Austronesian (i.e. South-East Asian/Pacific Islander) and African origin.[76] Those who are visibly Austronesian in appearance and culture are the minority, found mostly in the highland regions. Recent DNA research shows that the Malagasy people are approximately of half Austronesian and half East African descent, although some Arab, Indian and European influence is present along the coast.[77]

Subsequent migrations from the East Indies and Africa consolidated this original mixture, and over a dozen distinct tribal groups emerged. Austronesian features are most predominant in the Merina (3 million); the coastal people (called côtiers) have relatively stronger African origins. The largest coastal groups are the Betsimisaraka (1.5 million) and the Tsimihety and Sakalava (700,000 each). The Vezo live in the southwest. Two of the southern tribes are the Antandroy and the Antanosy. Other tribes include Tankarana (northern tip), Sihanaka and Bezanozano (east), Tanala (south-east), An-Taimoro, Tambahoaka, Zafisoro, An-Taisaka and Timanambondro (south-east coast), and Mahafaly and Bara (south-west). Chinese and Indian minorities also exist, as well as Europeans, mostly French. In 1958, there were 68,430 European settlers living in Madagascar.[citation

needed] The number of Comorans residing in Madagascar was drastically reduced after anti-Comoran rioting in Mahajanga in 1976.[8]

During the French colonial administration (1895–1960) and some time after independence, people were officially classified in ethnic groups. This practice was abandoned in the first census (1975) after independence[citation needed] so any recent classification and figures for ethnic groups is an unofficial estimate. There is for instance no mention of ethnicity or religion in the national identity cards. Also, territorial divisions (provinces, regions) do not follow any ethnic division lines, despite an attempt by the colonial administration in the early 20th century. Ethnic divisions continue, and may cause violence, but their role is limited in today's society. Political tensions between the highlanders and coastal population periodically flare up into limited violent conflict. Regional political parties are also rare, although some parties receive most of their support in certain areas.[citation needed] Only two general censuses, 1975 and 1993, have been carried out after independence. In 1993 (last census) there were 18,497 foreign residents on Madagascar, or 0.15% of the population

Culture

Malagasy culture reflects a blend of Southeast Asian, Arab, African and European influences.

Houses in Madagascar are typically four-sided with a peaked roof similar to those commonly seen in Southeast Asia, rather than the circular style of hut more commonly found in Eastern Africa. Malagasy architecture varies widely depending on locally available materials and practical needs. Most traditionally, homes are built from plant materials; this form of construction remains prevalent outside of the central Highlands and major urban areas. In the Highlands, houses are most often two-story brick structures, occasionally with pillars supporting a front veranda. The orientation and interior layout of homes in traditional communities often followed certain cosmological norms. This tradition

has been increasingly abandoned over the past century, as has the use of traditional building materials among the upper classes for whom imported materials and foreign construction styles are associated with modernity and prestige.[88] Tombs are culturally significant in many regions and tend to utilize stone in their construction

The zebu (humped cattle), introduced to Madagascar by Bantu-speaking East African migrants around 1,000 years ago, have come to occupy an important place in traditional Malagasy culture. The animal can take on sacred importance and constitutes the wealth of the owner, a tradition originating on the African mainland.[90] Cattle rustling, originally a rite of passage for young men in the plains areas of Madagascar where the largest herds of cattle are kept, has become a dangerous and sometimes deadly criminal enterprise as herdsmen in the southwest attempt to defend their cattle with traditional spears against increasingly armed professional rustlers. Where African influences are strongest, as in the southern region around Tulear, wealth and social status are traditionally measured in cattle.[90]

Arab and Somali traders who called on the ports of Madagascar in the Middle Ages, although few in number compared to the Indonesians and Bantus, had a deep influence on the island and the coastal regions in particular.[citation needed] The Malagasy names for seasons, months, days, and coins are Arabic in origin, as is the practice of circumcision, the communal grain pool, and different forms of salutation. The Antaimoro people of southeastern Madagascar claim to be direct descendants of early Arab immigrants, and over at least the past five hundred years, the acclaimed ombiasy (astrologers) of this ethnic group have served as privileged counselors to the nobles of various communities across the island.

The cuisine of Madagascar likewise reflects diverse influences from around the world. Rice forms the basis of every meal in most parts of Madagascar,[91] which has the highest per capita rate of rice consumption in the world.[92] The dishes prepared to accompany the rice vary depending on local availability of food products and are known as laoka. Many of these dishes reflect the culinary influences of Indian, Chinese, French and other arrivals to the island. A wide variety of snacks and street foods are eaten, particularly mofo (fritter or cake-like treats).[93] In the arid south and west, rice may be supplanted by cassava (yuca), sweet potatoes and corn and supplemented with curdled or fresh zebu milk.[94] Rum (toaka gasy) and betsabetsa are two forms of traditional spirits produced on the island. Wine and beer are also locally produced, as are cocoa, tea and coffee, the latter widely consumed throughout the island. Herbal teas, sodas and fruit juices are also popular drinks.

Arts

Artistic traditions on the island of Madagascar are highly diverse and distinctive.

One of the island's foremost artistic traditions is that of its oratory as expressed in the forms of hainteny (poetry), kabary (public discourse) and ohabolana (proverbs).[citation needed] An epic poem showcasing these traditions, the Ibonia, has been handed down over the centuries in several different forms across the island and offers insight into the diverse

mythologies and beliefs of traditional Malagasy communities.[96] Storytelling and proverbs enabled traditional communities to express and preserve their histories and worldview and transmit it to future generations. The supernatural is featured in many of these stories, including witchcraft, the intercession of god or the ancestors, and the existence of a variety of fantastical creatures. Chief among these are the vazimba, the supposed first inhabitants of Madagascar who have in popular memory been transformed into capricious spirits that, if angered, will interfere in the lives of the living.[97]

Madagascar has also developed a distinctive and rich musical heritage. The early Austronesian settlers brought with them the predecessor to the bamboo tube zither known as the valiha - considered the national instrument of Madagascar - as well as numerous other instruments that constitute the foundation of traditional Malagasy music.[98] The influence of African musical tradition manifests in certain drumming and polyharmonic singing styles, particularly among the western and southern coastal communities, while the tendency toward minor chords in these regions reflects an Arab musical influence.[99] Europeans likewise contributed to Malagasy musical traditions, importing the guitar, accordion, piano and the instruments used in hiragasy performance including the violin, trumpet and clarinet.

Sport and recreation

A number of traditional pastimes have emerged in Madagascar. Maraingy, a type of hand-to-hand combat, is a popular spectator sport in coastal regions. It is traditionally practiced by men, but women have recently begun to participate. The wrestling of zebu is also practiced in many regions. In addition to sports, a wide variety of games are played. Fanorona is a board game that is associated with the Merina sovereigns and is widespread throughout the Highland regions. According to folk legend, the succession of King Andrianjaka after his father Ralambo was partially due to the unhealthy obsession that Andrianjaka's older brother may have had with playing fanorona to the detriment of his other responsibilities.[citation needed]

Western sports were introduced to Madagascar over the past two centuries. Football and rugby are especially popular. Pétanque, a French game similar to lawn bowling, is also widely played in urban areas and particularly throughout the Highlands. Madagascar has produced a world champion in pétanque.

Español

Madagascar, oficialmente República de Madagascar, es una nación insular situada en el océano Índico, frente la costa sureste del continente africano, a la altura de Mozambique. Además es la isla más grande de África y es la cuarta isla más grande del mundo. Está separada del continente por el canal de Mozambique. Hay que destacar que antiguamente la isla se encontraba unida al continente africano, del cual se separó, lo que ha hecho que el aislamiento originado a raíz de la separación sea la causa de la conservación en su territorio

de multitud de especies únicas en el mundo. Así, alberga el 58% de las especies de animales y plantas del mundo (del cual más del 80% son endémicas de Madagascar). De las más notables son los lémures que son una infraorden de primates, el fossa carnívoro, tres familias endémicas de aves y seis especies endémicas de baobabs. En efecto, se encuentra dentro de la lista de países megadiversos.[1]

El gentilicio de Madagascar es malgache (no madagascarense), y el idioma nacional es el malgache.

Historia

El primer asentamiento humano data probablemente del siglo IV o poco antes,en cualquier caso no hay pruebas de que hubiese presencia humana alguna antes del nacimiento de Cristo. Pese a que la distancia de Madagascar al punto más cerca de África es de 416 km (cerca de Lumbo, en Mozambique) y que la distancia al punto más cerca de Indonesia (en la isla de Siberut) está a más de 5.500 kilómetros, Madagascar fue colonizado por estos últimos antes que por los africanos.[3] Por ello los lugareños conservan rasgos asiáticos, costumbres típicas del sureste de Asia y una lengua del tronco malayo-polinesio.[3] Con ellos también llegaron sus animales domésticos, entre los que destaca el cebú, y poco después de su llegada se extinguieron varios animales endémicos de la isla, como el lémur gigante, el cerdo hormiguero de Madagascar, un hipopótamo pigmeo similar al que se encuentra actualmente en África occidental.

Posteriormente hubo migraciones bantúes desde el continente que se fundieron con la población local, sobre todo en la parte este de la isla. A comienzos de la Edad Media llegaron los primeros comerciantes persas y hacia el año 1000, los árabes. Fruto de su estancia es el que, en la parte norte de la isla se practique actualmente el Islam.

Durante los dos siglos siguientes, Portugal, España, Gran Bretaña y Francia intentaron instalarse en la costa, pero fueron expulsados por la resistencia de los nativos, que a finales del siglo XVII se habían unificado bajo el reino de Imerina, con base en la meseta central.

Sin embargo la población local también sufrió, como muchos pueblos africanos, el comercio de esclavos. Así, a modo de ejemplo, esclavos malgaches fueron llevados por europeos al Virreinato del Perú, asentándose principalmente en la costa norte de dicho país en una zona conocida como Piura.

Actualmente en Perú, descendientes de aquellos esclavos son conocidos como "mangaches" por una corrupción del idioma en el tiempo. Incluso existe en Perú un lugar bautizado como "Hacienda Malakasy" que data de la época en que los malgaches fueron explotados en el cultivo del campo y que evoca el nombre de su país de origen pero pronunciado en su propio idioma. Estos descendientes de malgaches conservan aún en muchos casos los rasgos afro-indonesios originarios. Su imbricación con el Perú fue tan fuerte que contribuyeron a la cultura de este país creando formas musicales como el tondero e incluso tuvieron influjo en el campo político pues el ex presidente peruano Luis Miguel Sánchez Cerro, que gobernó aquel país en el tercer decenio del siglo XX fue un "mangache".

Hubo una época en que los forajidos y bucaneros recorrieron sus costas. El capitán holandés Van Tyle navegó en consorcio con el capitán James e hizo varias presas en el océano Índico. Van Tyle poseía una plantación en Madagascar, en donde trabajaban sus prisioneros y esclavos. Este pirata fue asesinado por un esclavo. El pirata Thomas Tew también tenía su cuartel en Madagascar. Su lugar de operaciones fueron las aguas del mar Rojo y el océano Índico. Tew murió al estallar su barco durante un combate en alta mar. El más célebre pirata de esta región fue Thomas Collins, quien fue designado gobernador de la colonia pirata y construyó un fortín para su defensa. Pero cuando la isla fue atacada por las fuerzas francesas, Collins fue ajusticiado en la horca. [4]

Desde 1642 hasta 1674 los franceses quisieron ocupar las costas de Madagascar desde Fort Dauphin, sin conseguirlo. Aunque finalmente consiguieron construir diferentes bases comerciales en las costas malgaches, unas veces por la fuerza y otras diplomáticamente, a finales del siglo XVIII. Durante las Guerras Napoleónicas, el rey Radama I de Imerina se puso del lado de los británicos, que aumentaron su influencia en la isla a costa de los franceses y entrenaron a los nativos en el uso de armas modernas. No obstante, a la muerte de Radama I en 1828 se persiguió a los británicos, incluidos los misioneros. Durante el reinado de Radama II (1861–1863) se introdujeron una serie de reformas modernistas y Madagascar se abrió al contacto con franceses y británicos, lo que causó que los sectores más tradicionalistas mataran al rey y dieran marcha atrás a los cambios.

La última soberana de Madagascar fue la reina Ranavalona (1851 – 1916). Durante su reinado los franceses reclamaron parte de la costa noroeste que los jefes locales les habían cedido, pero los de la tribu de Imerina se negaron. El resultado de dicha negación fue la guerra (1882 – 85). A pesar del continuo apoyo de los ingleses, deseosos de establecer por lo menos su influencia sobre el territorio, los rebeldes tuvieron que firmar un tratado en por el cual la ciudad de Diego Suarez fue entregada a Francia y toda la isla pasó a formar parte de su protectorado. Durante la revuelta, la frágil economía de la isla y la falta de monedas, hizo que la reina Ranavalona permitiera la circulación legal de diferentes piezas extranjeras en todo el territorio. Para ello se estampó una marca circular con la letra “R”, leyenda “ROYAUME DE MADAGASCAR” y fecha. Se conocen piezas de 8 reales españoles, 5 francos franceses y talers de la reina María Teresa de Austria con esta curiosa contramarca. [5] Francia se anexionó la isla por completo en 1895 tras derrotar a la reina Ranavalona. Ésta se exilió un año después, al tiempo que se instituía un mandato militar francés y Madagascar era proclamada colonia francesa.

Ya en 1916 los franceses tuvieron problemas con las organizaciones secretas nacionalistas, pero lograron mantener el orden. Francia sólo perdió el control de la isla durante 1942, cuando los británicos la ocuparon por miedo a que Japón se hiciera con Madagascar. En 1943 fue entregada a la Francia libre, y en 1946 dejó de ser colonia y se convirtió en territorio de ultramar francés. Esto no impidió que al año siguiente estallase una revuelta que forzó a Francia a convocar elecciones en la isla, que ganaron los independentistas moderados. En 1960 Madagascar se independizó totalmente de Francia y se instituyó una república bajo el gobierno de Philibert Tsiranana, líder del Partido Socialdemócrata.

En 1975 hubo un golpe de estado militar que puso el gobierno en manos del capitán de fragata Didier Ratsiraka, que gobernó con puño de hierro hasta que en 1992 las presiones

populares le obligaron a designar un gobierno de transición a la democracia. Ratsiraka fue derrotado en las elecciones presidenciales de 1993 por Albert Zafy, pero ganó las legislativas que se celebraron simultáneamente. La situación de tensión entre los partidarios de Ratsiraka y el gobierno de Zafy llevó a la destitución de este último por el parlamento en 1996, siendo sustituido por Norbert Ratsirahonana. Éste era un colaborador cercano de Zafy que gobernó bajo su sombra hasta las elecciones de 1997, en las que Ratsiraka se hizo nuevamente con el poder.

Didier Ratsiraka conservaría el poder hasta las elecciones presidenciales de diciembre de 2001, cuando tras unos resultados controvertidos, su rival, el hasta entonces alcalde de Antananarivo Marc Ravalomanana se declaró ganador por mayoría absoluta de la primera vuelta de las elecciones, acusando de fraude al gobierno, que había publicado unos resultados que hacían necesaria una segunda vuelta.

La tensión de la primera mitad del año 2002 llegó a amenazar con la posibilidad de una guerra civil. La sociedad y el propio ejército malgaches se dividieron en dos, con la capital Antananarivo convertida en bastión de Ravalomanana, mientras Ratsiraka dirigía un gobierno en la ciudad costera de Toamasina. La comunidad internacional hizo diversos llamamientos al diálogo y a la calma. Ravalomanana consiguió consolidar su poder, mientras Ratsiraka iba perdiendo apoyos. En junio de 2002, algunos países como Estados Unidos, Suiza y Noruega reconocían ya al gobierno de Ravalomanana. Otros países europeos esperaron la decisión final de Francia que, a principios de julio, ya se dirigía públicamente a Ravalomanana como «presidente de Madagascar». El reconocimiento internacional confirmó el poder de Ravalomanana, y Ratsiraka huyó finalmente del país, refugiándose en Francia.

Desde la consolidación del poder por parte de Marc Ravalomanana, el país ha conseguido alcanzar unas cotas muy altas de crecimiento económico, apoyado por ayudas muy cuantiosas de instituciones internacionales como el Banco Mundial.

Demografía