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Ac­ta humanitaric­a universitatis Saulensis.T.17(2013).27–40.ISSN1822-7309

A u d r o n ė G E D Ž I Ū T ĖVilnius University

keywords: mythemes, goddess, abundanc­e, destruc­tion, olfac­tory elements, Celtic­ tradition, medieval literature.medieval literature.

introduction Mythisoneofthemostimportantconstituentpartsofculture.Ithelpstograsp

the values and their inter-relation in a particular community. As David Leeming putsit,“mythsrevealthenatureofcultures”(L e e m i n g 2003,xii).Studiesonmythagreedlongagothatmythisacomplexandhighlydynamicsemanticunitthat reacts to the changes of cultural environment thus introducing newvaluesintoitsstructure.Inthiswaymythanditsenvironment,i.e.culture,asiffeedeachother and are inter-dependent. On the other hand, since myth embraces various spheresoflife,duetoitscomplexityitbecomesinert.IvanMarazovclaimsthat“mythologicalthinkingisdeeplyconservative[hence]determinesthetraditionalcharacter of the images andmotifs that appear in the art” (M a r a z o v 2011,135).Toput it otherwise, the planeof expressionofmyth is stable andhardlysusceptibletotheinfluenceofotherculturalsystemsthoughinterpretationofitsfi­gurativeelementsmayvary.Thisleadstotheassumptionthatthefi­gurativelevelofmythexpressioncontainsconstantconstructionsofelementswhichconstitutethe core of certain myths.

One of the fi­rst scholars to have noticed such a peculiarity of a mythicaldiscoursewasA.G.vanHamelwhoalsointroducedthetermmytheme to refer to the crucialcomplexofimagesorcharacterswhichconstitutethestructuralframeworkof a particular myth (cf. v a n H a m e l 1934, 11).A similar deconstructivetechniquewaslateradoptedbyClaudeLevi-Strausswholaidgreatemphasisnoton the constituent elements but on their interrelation as for him a mytheme is a “bundleofrelations”(L e v i-S t r a u s s 1955,431).Inotherwords,hederivedtheessenceofmythfromthecombinationofelementswhichreoccurindifferentvariantsofmyth.Itislogicaltoexpectthatasemantichomogeneityofamytheme is determined by its cultural environment, i.e. it “attracts” only such elementswhoseinterrelationsareculturallyacceptable.Theconstituentsofamytheme may

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come fromvariousconceptualcategories: theymay includecharacters, specifi­cpeculiaritiesofappearance,environment,etc.Undeniably,theymayincludesuchunits as olfactory elements.

Everymythical system as a part of culture has suchmythemes or, to put it otherwise,typicalmodelsofexpressionwhichdonotceaseexistingeventhoughtheylosetheirreligioustopicality(cf.O l s o n 1980,45).Theyratherchangetheenvironmentoftheirfunctioning,forexample,“migrate”frommythtoliteratureandfolklore.Therelationbetweenmythandfolklorehasbeenwidelydiscussedinscholarlyliteratureandraiseslittledoubts(cf.L i s z k a 1989;P a l m e n f e l t1996; P a l m e n f e l t 2008; D o n a l d 2006;M e e s 2009). Northrop Fryehas rightly observed that the structural principles of literature actually reside in myth(cf.F r y e 1957,134f).EdgarM.SlotkindrawshissuggestionsonArcherTaylor’s ideas concerning the inter-dependence of literature and folklore andcomestotheconclusionthatintheCeltictradition“oralandwrittenliteraturesarebounduptogetherandself-reinforcing”(S l o t k i n 1983,213f).Followingthisline of thought, it seems reasonable to hypothesize that mythemes typical of the Celticculturefi­ndtheirplaceinalatervernaculartradition.Hence,thestudyofCelticfolktalesandfi­ctionalstoriesfoundinancientmanuscriptsmightrevealnewperspectives of the Celtic mythical thought.

Byallmeansitwouldbenaïvetomaintainthatamytheme registered in later timeshasremainedabsolutelyunaltered–under the influenceofeverchangingculturalenvironmentevensuchrigidconstructs“crumble”and“accept”newunitsofsignifi­cance.Nevertheless, thechangeofamytheme isa longprocesswhichmightbeobservedbyexaminingthedetailsandfunctionsofamytheme in various types of a literary tradition. To illustrate the mechanism of mytheme construction, migration and operation, the author of the present paper has set out the aim to characterize the role of olfactory elements as possible constituents of native Celtic mythemes in Celtic folktales, mythical narratives and medieval literature. For the aimtobeachievedthefollowingtaskshavebeensetout:

todeterminethegoverningprinciplesoftheCelticmythicalworldviewthus“distilling”essentialCelticmythemes;to designate the functioning of olfactory elements as mytheme constituents in Celtic folktales and mythical narratives;to discuss the signifi­cance of olfactory elements as inherited mytheme constituentsinmedievalfi­ction.

The analytical-comparative method has been applied in the research.

fundamentals of Celtic mythical thoughtBefore starting analyzing the extrapolations of Celticmythicalmodels in a

vernaculartraditionitisimportanttobrieflyintroducethemainissuesregardingtheCelticmythicalperspective.OneofthefundamentaldifferencesbetweenCelticmythologyand,forexample,awellattestedclassicalmythicaltraditionisabsence

•

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Olfactory elements as reflections of Celtic mythical Worldview in folktales and early medieval literature

ofafunctionallyorganizedpantheonofgodsandgoddesses.InSjoestedt’swayof thought, a single Roman deity may represent a number of local Celtic gods whosefunctionsonlypartiallycoincidewiththoseoftheRoman‘label’god(cf.S j o e s t e d t 2000, 15).Greenputs it even furtherwhen shediscussesCelticpreoccupationofwarfare.ShethinksthatCeltsdidnothaveafunctionalwargodbutwhattheyhadwerereallytribalprotectorsinawaraspect(cf.G r e e n 2011,101).Toputitinanotherway,Celtshadaholisticapproachtotheirdivinities–tribeprotectorsweretoguaranteesafetyfromenemies,diseases,famine,etc.

SjoestedtintroducedtheideathatCelticgoddessbearlocalcharacter,whereasgods – tribal responsibilities (cf. S j o e s t e d t 2000, 24). In other words,goddesseswererelatedwithlandandnature,whilegodsstoodforthesocialorderofaparticularcommunity.ItispossibletoarriveattheconclusionthenthatgoddesseswerefunctionallyisomorphiceventhoughtheywerecherishedbydifferentCeltictribesandboredifferentnames.GreennoticesthatCeltswereespeciallyconcernedaboutfertilityandthedivinefi­gurewhichrepresentsthisaspectoflifeistheMotherGoddess(ortheGreatGoddess)(cf.G r e e n 2011,69f).IntheCeltictradition,abundanceandprotectionfunctionswereundertakenbytheSovereigntyGoddesswho implemented them throughmonitoring thekingship succession.Wheneverthelandbecamebareandunfruitfulitwasthesignthatthegoddessisdissatisfi­edwiththeking,hencehemustbechanged.Themosttypicalmodelofdealingwiththe Sovereignty Goddess is transformation from an ugly hag to a beautiful maiden whichisusuallyincitedbyakissorsexualintercourse1.

TheCelticgoddessfi­gureisinseparableformthediscussionofthelifeanddeathcycle.Sheisthedeitythatistotakethedeceasedtotheafterliferealm(cf.L i n c o l n1991,78;M a c L e o d 2012,47).Thegoddess governs the birth-rebirth cycle and mayappearasadestructivehag(cf.S t e w a r d t,W i l l i a m s o n 1996,42).But this anthropomorphic shape is not the only one acquired by the goddess – she couldappearasanequinecreature,e.g.Epona(cf.S t e w a r t 1990,24).Anothercommonzoomorphicrepresentationofthegoddessisthebirdorsomeotherflyingcreature, e.g. an insect.Green suggests that birds “were regarded prophetic, ashavinglinkswiththeotherworld,andasrepresentativesofspiritwhenfreedfromthebody”(G r e e n 2011,178).Ingeneral,theCelticgoddessrulesthelifeanddeathspheresasshehastodowiththetransferofthehumanspiritualessencetotheotherworldly realmafter thedeathof thebody.When thegoddessmanagesearthlyaffairs,sheacquiresananthropomorphicshape;whenshedealswiththeotherworldlyrealitysheistheninseparableeitherfromabirdorhorsefi­gure.

the functions of Olfactory elements in Celtic mythical narratives and folktales

Without any doubts, Celticmythemesmight bewell attested by comparingvernacular and archaeological data as there is hardly any source of direct information

1 The model of Sovereignty Goddess transformation is provided in and ancient legend “EchtraMacnEchach”(CHA203-208).Itiscommonlyfoundinfolktales.

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abouttheCelticperceptionoftheworld.However,suchacollaborationofdifferentscholarlyfi­elds is sometimes impossible, as in the case of examiningolfactoryelementswhoseimportanceinstructuringtheworldviewcannotbeestablishedordeniedonthegroundsofarcheologicalfi­ndings.Nevertheless,wheneversmellismentioned in a vernacular tradition it can hardly be isolated from the mythological conceptionoftheworld.2

Oneofthefi­rstinstanceswheresmellappearsasanarrativefi­gurewithaclearmythical signifi­cation is the tale “Wooing of Étaín” (8-9 c.), an early text thatbelongstotheIrishmythologicalcycle.IttellsaboutamortalwomanÉtaínwhoisaloverofanotherworldlylordMider.ÉtaínoffendsMider’swifeFuamnachthussheturnsthegirlintoascarletflythathasstrongsupernaturalimplications:

Thisflywasthesizeoftheheadofthehandsomestanintheland,andthesoundof its voice and thebeatingof itswingswere sweeter thanpipes andharps andhorns.Itseyesshonelikepreciousstonesinthedark,anditscolourandfragrancecould sate hunger and quench thirst in any man; moreover, a sprinkling of the drops itshedfromitswingscouldcureeverysicknessandafflictionanddisease.<…>while [thefly]waswith [Mider]hedidnot takeanotherwife, for thesightof itnourishedhim.Hewouldfallasleeptoitsbuzzing,anditwouldawakenhimwhenanyoneapproachedwhodidnotlovehim.(EIMS45).

It should be brought into focus that Étaín-fly performs several functions:brings abundance and overall satisfaction, heals, causes sleep and protects. On the mythological plane, all the activities are carried out by the goddess in the Celtic perspective.Hence,thereislittledoubtthatÉtaínrepresentsanativeCelticgoddessinherbenevolentaspectbothfi­gurativelyandfunctionally.Nevertheless,normallyparticular intentions of the goddess, e.g., providing of abundance, are represented bysomeconcreteobject suchascornucopia.YetÉtaínhasnosuch thing–herfragranceservesasavehicletodeliverabundancewithoutanyinterruption.

The motif of smell as the source of satisfaction and plenty is reiterated in the folktale“TheApprenticeThief”.Consider:

ItwasaleelongtimeagowhenouldIrelandwashappyandcontented<…>andthefarmershadfi­eldsofwheatthatitwasaday’sjourneytowalkover,andthesmellofthemwasa’mostenoughtosatisfyahungryman,ifthelikecouldbefoundinthekingdom<..>,barrin’onafastday,when<…>theyusedtoschameitbygoin’outandsniftherm’upthesmellofthewheat,andfi­llin’themselves<...>thatway,tilltheirfren’swoulda’mosthavetotiesomeofthem<…>withropes,forfearedthey’dburst(ICC 207f).

2ThedataforthepresentresearchhasbeencollectedfromseveralcollectionsofIrishtales(ICC, WIFR, MFI, IFFT)aswellasrichcollectionsofancientIrishstoriesfoundinma-nuscripts(CHA, CRCT, TEI, EIMS).Itmustbeadmittedthatolfactoryelementsarerarelybrought into consideration: all the instances found are discussed in the present paper.

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The smell in the given episode is manifestation of an incredible fertility of land. Notonlyitstandsforthefruitofearthbutisalsocarriedtotheconsumerwithoutany labour,moreover,without evenwishing it.The smell replaces themagicalobject bringing abundance, it is manna itself. Structurally the episode coincides withtheschemegiveninthe“WooingofÉtaín”aswellastheestablishedmodeofabundanceexpressionintheCeltictradition:

Source Vehicle ReceiverGoddess cornucopia peopleÉtaín smell MiderLand smell people

Figurative, i.e. representative, elements vary, nonetheless, the fundamental layoutofvaluesispreserved.Itisworthnotingthatinthefolktale,smellservesasadefi­ningelementofatemporalaxis.Itdenotesthefarpasttime,theso-calledgolden age, which is qualitatively different from all subsequent ages, each ofwhichreflectshumandegradation.Here,thisdifferenceisexpressedinolfactoryterms.Thussmell,besidesmanifestingthegoddess-provider’sfunction,isalsoatemporal determinant.

The story aboutÉtaín-fly is not the only instancewhich takes a creature asthesourceofsmellbearingsupernaturalqualities.Inoneofhistales,CaíltetellsaboutthebitchofthethreesonsoftheKingorIrúaith.ThebeastactsasaproviderwhenshevomitspreciousmetalsandvariousdrinksaswellasaprotectorwhenshemanagestoguardtheentirekingdomofFian.WhensheisleftwithFinn,mennotice she spreads pleasant smell:

Themenclosesto[Finn]thoughtthatthefragrancecomingfromherwaslikethat of a vat of mead that had been strained. To others it seemed that the odour that wasemanatingfromher,whenshewentintoFinn’shouse,wasthatofafragrantorchard(TEI174).

However,whenFinngetsintoanargumentwiththesonsofÚarfromIreland,the bitch reveals her destructive side: after her owner Dub chants against theinvaders,thebitch“raisedhertailandputafoulwindunderneaththem,andtheyflewoffontothefruitful,green-edgedsea<…>sothattheywerethusslainandenteredintoHell”(Ibid.,175).

Theolfactoryelementsemployedintheepisodesexposeadualnatureoftheanimal:when the bitch is benevolent her smell is pleasant,whereas foul smellindicatesherhostilityandaggression.Inthisway,smellasanexpressivedevicethat contributes to thepictureof thebitch’s character.Actually, it servesas theindexofherintentionsandforetellspossibleconsequencesofheractivity.Here,smelldoesnotactasthedirectvehicleofimpactbutisatoken.Inotherwords,itisacomplementaryfi­gurewhichhelpstoreinforcethethemeofthesupernaturalpowerofthebeast.

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Foul smell as an indicator of dangerous situations is popular in the folk tradition. For example, the tale “The Spirit Horse” tells about Murtagh’s unfortunatepilgrimagetotheshrineofSt.Gobnait.MurtaghgetslostandmeetsahagwhoforceshimonthesupernaturalhorsePooka3whichbringshimtodestruction.Thehag,besidesbeinguglyandblackinappearanceandgazingwithredflamingeyeshas a peculiar olfactory specifi­cation – sulphruous steam rises fromhermouthwhenshespeaks(BIL 111). The stench that comes from the hag is indicative of Murtagh’sforthcomingdeath.Itsuggeststhatthepilgrimhasnohopeofescape.

Theparallelbetweenahostilefemalecharacterandsulphruoussteamisfurtherdevelopedinthetale“KingMananaun”.TheheroKaytuchafterhavingdefeatedSlaughter and theHagofSlaughter is involved ina fatal combatwith theHagof theChurch.Sheismorepowerful thanhercompanionsandcannotbeeasilykilled.SheasksKaytuchtoputherintobrimstone,i.e.sulphuracid,afterwhichsheraisesasfreshasever(WIFR71).Itprovesthatsulphurandsulphruoussmellisanaturalcharacteristicofthehagthatrepresentsdestructivepowersor,bettertosay,theGoddessinherdestructiveaspectwhenshestandsinadverserelationswithhumans,especiallymales.

It is worth mentioning that sulphruous smell is typical not only of femalecharacters but supernatural horses as well. To illustrate, the Pooka in the tale“TamingthePooka”issaidtobe‘breathin’flamesavbluewidashmello’sulfur”(IW18).ThisthePookaisoneofthemostdangeroussupernaturalcreaturesintheregion.Itkillsmanypeople;thePookaisdiffi­culttomanageuntilthekingtameshimandmakesforswearhisbadhabits.SincethenthePookasatisfi­eshimselfwithdestroying drunkards only. Sulphruous smell indicates malevolent intentions of the supernaturalhorseaswellashighlightshissupernaturalpowers.Inotherwords,smellhelpstoreflectuponthecreature’snatureandcharacter4. 3ThePookaisanotorioussupernaturalhorseofIrishfolklore.Thespiritusuallyhauntswildplacesandlureswearypeopletomountitsback–whensomeonedoesso,thePookarisestotheairanddashespeopleintopieces(cf.B r i g g s 1971,217).4Bothqualitativeandfunctionaldifferentiationofthetypesofsmellmarcheswiththedis-tinctionsetinthebiblicaltradition.InThe Bible, pleasant smells – scents, fragrances – are associatedwithrightfulnessandtruefaith:acanonicalphrase“asweetsmelltotheLord”isusedinepisodesdescribingsincereanddevotedsacrifi­cetotheLord(Eph5:2,Phil4:18;Ex29:18,25,41;Lev;Ezek20:28).DevotionandobeisancetothelawsoftheLordpleaseHimandonlythenheacceptsofferingsofpeople.Ifsinfulandunrepentantmortalsmakesacrifi­cestheireffortstopleasetheLordarefruitlessandhaveabadsmell(Ezek24:12).Inotherwords,olfactoryelementshelptoexposethenatureoftheLord:hedoesnotjudgepeopleonthegroundsoftheirofferings,butratherjudgeofferingswithregardtopeople’sbehaviour.Sweet scents are also associatedwith theLordHimself (Ge8:22,27:27;Ps45:8);love(Song1:3,4:11,7:8,33),life(Job14:9).StenchisinseparablefromHell(Rev9:17-18),deadbodies(Jn11:39;Isa19:6;34:3)anddestruction(Ex7:18,21;8:14,16:20;Ec10:1;Isa19:6,50:2;Joel2:20,Am4:10).Interestingly,destructivenessofahorseisvividly described in The Book of Job:itisstatedthatwheneverthehorsesmellsthebattlehecannothelprushingtoitingreatrage(Job39:19-25).Itcomesoutthatthebiblicaltradi-tiontendstoassociatepleasantsmellswithabundanceandfertilerelationswiththedivine

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the role of Olfactory elements in medieval fictionThe literary tradition of theMiddleAgeswas a rich terrain for the growth

of philosophical thought as well as fi­gurative expression. Nourished by localmythologiesfusedwithChristiantheologyandthuscreatingvividstorieswhoseaimwasnotonlytoentertainbutevenmoretoguidethereadersmorally,fi­ctioninevitably acquired an allegorical character and so every narrative detail came to represent some contemplative aspect of human nature. Olfactory elements make noexception.

Medievalfi­ctionalliteraturekeepstothebiblicalapproachandrelateshumanspiritualitywith different types of smell.But it should be noted that rarely thesceneswheresmellisinvolvedcandowithoutsomefemalecharacterexpressedeither directly as a concrete participant of the action or as an abstract entity. To illustrate,ChrétiendeTroyesinhisromance“WilliamofEngland”contemplatesuponhumannatureandemploysolfactoryelements tobetterexpresshis ideas.Consider:

[Nature]alwayscarriessauceswither,butone issweet, theotherbitter;onemurky, theother clear; one is old, theother fresh. Inone are cloves, cinnamon,cardamom,andnutmegblendedwithpomegranatejuiceandpurebalsam.Theotherisdreadfulblend,without sugarorhoney,butwithscammony,bile,venom,andpoison;noremedycancureorsavethepersonwhomNatureobligestoconsumeit.Suchnatureasisinaman,suchisaman<…>Nature,then,hassuchagreatinfluencethatshemakesapersongoodorevil(CRCT467).

The images of spices and poisonous, bitter substances help the author to determine the character of a humanbeing. In the given extract, different typesofsmellreflectmedievalphilosophy,thatistosay,theyareemployedonpurelytheoreticalgroundsandhavenodirectrelationwiththeparticipantsoftheaction–two princes raised by churls.The author uses the images of fragrant spices tomaintain that as spices do not change their odour under different circumstances, so poor living conditions and churlish environment could not erase the inborn nobility oftheboys.Chrétienconcludesthat“Nurture[wasnot]abletocombatNature”(Ibid.).Thoughtheboysfoundnogoodexampleintheirsurroundings,theirnatureallowedimprovingthemselves:theyneedednointerferenceingrowinganinbornperfection just as spices do not need any measures to be taken so that they could spread their pleasant smell.

Chrétiendrawsadoubleparallelbetweenolfactoryelementsandhumannature.Firstly,theauthorusesthemsymbolicallyandclaimsthatsweetfragrancesrelateto

agent,whereasstenchstandsfordestructivenessanddecay,bothphysicalandspiritual.Inthe light of the biblical evidence, the usage of olfactory elements on the folk tradition does notseemtobeoriginalregardingthelinkbetweenthefundamentalvaluesandfi­gurativeelements, namely, abundance-fragrance, destruction-stench.Nonetheless, the abovedis-cussedinstancesofsmellintheCelticvernaculartraditionshowcloseconnectionbetweensmellandfemalecharacterswhichisabsentinThe Bible.

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nobilitywhereasunpleasantsmellssignifychurlishnessandarrogance.Secondly,thoughitisnotsetoutstraightforwardly,thetextstillimpliesthereisananalogousmodel betweenthebehaviouroftheboysandthenaturalcharacteristicsofspices.Inotherwords,theauthormapstogetherdifferentrealities.Asaresult,theimageofspicesstartsfunctioningasapartoftheschemereflectingthefreedomofnaturalqualities from circumstances.

Thesamepositionisadoptedintheromance“ErecandEnide”whenkingArthuris introduced toEnide’sparents.Henotices thebeautyof thegirl’smotherandconcludesthat“whatcomesfromagoodsourcehasasweetfragrance”(Ibid.,82).Pleasantodoursareidentifi­edwithapleasantpersonalityaswellasindependenceof both, smell and nature, from circumstances is highlighted as the beauty and nobility of the mother is hidden neither by age nor poverty. To come back to the Celticmythicalmodelsandtheirrelationwitholfactoryelements,itisworthnotingthatinChrétien’s,i.e.aChristianauthor’stext,ananthropomorphicexpressionofcreativepoweriserased.Insteadtheauthoroffersanabstractagent–Nature–thusappealing to a creative element as such and avoiding an anthropomorphic agent so typicalofthepagantradition.Naturedeterminesacertaincharacterofapersonaswellasacertainpeculiarsmellofsomespice:thetwocomefromthesamesourcethusareorganizedfollowingthesameprinciplesandreflecteachother.

Somewhat different narrative schemes related with olfactory elements aredepictedinanotherChrétien’sromance,namely,“Cliges”.Thestoryspeaksabouttwolovers–CligesandFenice–whocannotbetogetherbecauseFeniceismarriedtoanoldemperor,Cliges’uncle.ThegirldespisestheideaofadulteryandaskshernurseThessalatohelpher.ThenursepreparesamagicpotionwhichlullstheemperortosuchadreamthatheisconvincedhismarriagewithFenicehasbeenconsummatedwhileactuallyhesleepssoundly.Thusthebrideremainsuntouchedand preserves herself to her only love – Cliges. Smell appears to be of crucial importance regarding the effect of a potion. Consider its preparation process:

Thessalamixedherpotion.Sheaddedprofusionofspicestosweetenandtemperit,batingandblendingthemwell,andfi­lteringthepreparationuntilitwasentirelyclear.Becauseofthesweetfragranceofthespices,thetastewasnotbitterorsharp(Ibid.,126).

Theimageofapotionbearsamultimodalsignifi­canceontheboth,symbolicand mythic, planes of the story. First of all, it takes the central role in the deceit scheme.Tosayitotherway,atthenarrativelevelitistheagentthatplaysatrickontheemperor’smind.Onthegroundsofmetonymicrelations,symbolicallyapotionstands for deceit itself hence its inherent bitter taste – lying and deception – is an unacceptablemoralbehaviourwhichisrepresentedbyunpleasantgustatoryandolfactorysenses.Sweetfragranceisusedtomaskdistastefulnessandthushidethetruenatureofapotion.Atfi­rstsightitseemsthatsweetfragrancesbearnegativeimplicationssuggestingtheirdeceitfulnature.Nevertheless,itisworthremindingherethatthewholeschemingisundertakentoprotectthetrueloveandpreserve

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Fenice’sgoodname.Thus,spicesandsweetfragrancescometorepresentsecurityand faithfulness which overcome other moral factors. Moreover, the emperor,thoughalawfulhusbandtothegirl,appearsasanintruderandviolatorofsacredlove relations because his determination to marry Fenice deprives the lovers from joy of being together.

Similar observations might be made regarding the mythological perspective, namely, the mytheme of the Sovereignty Goddess that judges upon kingship matters.WhenThessalawants to give drink to the emperor she noticesCligesserving his uncle and thinks he “wastes his service by being a servant to hisowndisinheritance”(Ibid.).TheemperorhasactuallyusurpedthethronewhichrightfullybelongstoCligesandThessala.whoclearlyrepresentstheSovereigntyGoddess5, is unsatisfi­ed.She sets the affair so thatfi­nallyCliges receiveswhatlawfullybelongs tohim:hisbeloved the right towhomhegetson thegroundsofthelawsoftrueloveandthethronewhichhehadtoascendaccordingtothecontemporarycivil law.Syntagmatic readingof theepisodesuggests thatsweetfragrance isused todeceive theemperor,yetparadigmaticexamination revealsthat it actually restores the values to their proper places under the supervision of the Sovereignty Goddess-like character.

Finally, olfactory elements appear in relation to death, especially burial rites asreflectedinthemedievalliterature.WhenFenicefeignsherdeathinordertoescapetheemperorandbetogetherwithCliges,acraftsmanJohnpreparesatombfor her:

He placed a feather bed inside on account of the hard stone, and even more on accountof thecold.And that itmightbe fragrant forher,hespreadflowersandleavesbeneath.Amoreimportantreasonforthis,however,wastopreventanyonefromseeingthemattresshehadplacedinthetomb(Ibid.,161).

The preparation of the tomb is structurally isomorphic to the potion making scheme. The function of fragrance is to cover deceit but occasions are entirely different:drinkwasofferedduringtheweddingfeast,flowersarespreadforthesupposed funeral. From themythological point of view, the bothwedding anddeathmomentsareperceivedofasmarginalpointsofhumanexistencemarkingthe change of one’s state. Likewise, in Chrétien’s story, the two occasions areassociatedwithdeceittosaveFenice,fi­rstly,fromloveandmaritalobligationstotheemperor,secondly,fromhispresenceingeneral.Inbothcases,smellappearsastheagentthateliminatestheabilityoftherightjudgmentofthesituation.Itshouldbehighlighted,however,thatasweetnatureofsmellisneverdeprivedofpositivesignifi­cation.5Thessalawhopreparesthepotionshowsexpertiseinthemagic;assheusesvariousspicescleverly,sheprovestoknowthesecretsofnatureandlandaswell.Evenherroleastheinventorandimplementerofthedeceitfulschemerevealher‘divine’characterbecauseshehasstrongintellectualpowersandisabletoarrangetheaffairthewayshewishes,inotherwords,herdecisionsareirrevocable.

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Anotherinstancewheresweetfragranceandspicesappearinrelationtofuneralritescomesfrom“TheQuestoftheHolyGrail”.AfterPerceval’ssistersacrifi­cesherlifetocureaheavilysicklady,hercompanionsembalmherbodywithcostlyspicesandput it intoarichlyadornedboatsothat thehandofGodwouldtakeittotheholycityofSarras(QHG 251). The maiden is the epitome of virtue and virginity – she has never faltered either in thought or in deed, therefore even after her death she spreads pleasant fragrance. Here, smell functions not only as the reflectionofherpersonalitybutalsoasitsextension:themaidenbroughtjoywhenalive, so the fragrance that comes from her incites pleasant senses after her death. Smelloperatesas the life forceofPerceval’s sister; itneitherceasesactingnorlosses its peculiarities even after an earthly death occurs.

Conclusions Togeneralize,theexaminationofthefunctionsofolfactoryelementsinCeltic

folktales, mythical narratives and literature has revealed that olfactory elements emerge insuchsituationswhichfi­tdifferent representativemodelsof theGreatGoddess as depicted in theCeltic tradition. In otherwords, olfactory elementsfunction as the constituents of the Sovereignty Goddess, an abundance guarantor, a divine protector and psychopomp mythemes.Qualitativeoppositionofpleasantfragrances and stench is clearly established but their signifi­cance in folktales,mythicalnarrativesandmedievalfi­ctiondiffers.

Infolktalesandmythicalnarratives,pleasantsmellisnormallyassociatedwithnatural objects thus adding to the picture of the benevolent goddess-like female characters that bring abundance and satisfaction. Sulphruous smell, in its turn, is a forcedinvitationtoexperiencethesupernaturaldestructivepowerofsomefemalecreature.Itisinterestingtonotethatpleasantfragranceoftenfunctionsasavehicleto bring abundance to theworld, i.e. fragrance is the immediate instrument ofdivineactivity,whereasstenchrarelyacquiressuchameaning–itrathercomesoutasatokenofforthcomingdangerandsignifi­esfatalconsequencesoftheencounterwiththesupernatural.

Theexaminationof the roleofolfactoryelements inmedieval literaturehasrevealed that a literary tradition took a turn from an immediate representation towards the allegorical philosophyofmorals: fragrances are related to positivevaluesandcharacteristics,whereasstenchrepresentstheopposingprincipals.Theemployment of the image of a certain type of smell varies from a purely theoretical contemplation of human nature in terms of fragrances to actual employment of smellasameansofadeceitcover.Yet,whateverthenatureandfunctionofsmellis,itnever“leaves”thesphereofCelticGoddessactivity.

It isdiffi­cult tosaywhetheraqualitativedistinctionof the typesofsmell isactuallyCelticorinfluencedbytheChristianperspectivederivedfromThe Bible. Nevertheless,theexaminedcasesshowthatsmellasafi­gurativeelementperfectlyinscribes into the mythemesrelatedtothepaganCelticgoddess.Evenifitdoesnotdirectly prove the Celtic heritage, it points to the vitality of mythical consciousness

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Olfactory elements as reflections of Celtic mythical Worldview in folktales and early medieval literature

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audronė Gedžiūtė

Olfakciniai elementai kaip keltų mitinio pasaulėvaizdžio atspindžiai pasakose ir ankstyvojoje viduramžių literatūroje

S a n t r a u k a

Pagrindinės sąvokos: mitema, keltų deivė­, gausa, destrukc­ija, olfakc­iniai elementai, viduramžių literatūra..

Straipsnyje aptariami olfakciniai elementai kaip mitinio keltų pasaulėvaizdžioindikatoriaifolklorinėseairiųpasakoseirankstyvojojeviduramžiųliteratūroje.Laikomasinuomonės,kadmitaskaiplankstussemantinisuniversumasatskleidžiaesminestamtikroskultūrosvertesirjųtarpusaviosandarą.Pakituskultūrineiaplinkai,mitaskaipdinamiškaprasmėsstruktūratransformuojasiįnaujusžanrus,todėlmitiniųelementųgausufolklorebeiankstyvojojeliteratūroje.Taiypačbūdingakeltųtradicijai.

KeltųmitiniomodeliopagrindinęašįsudaroDeivėsMotinosfi­gūra,kuriaibūdingasintegralumas: jos veikla apima visas žmogaus egzistencijai užtikrinti būtinas funkcijas:gausos teikimą, apsaugą nuo priešų, ligų bei kitokių negandų.Deivė taip pat valdo sumirties irgyvenimociklususijusiusveiksnius.Kaipgausos teikėja, ji siejamasužeme,kaip sielų lydėtoja anapilin pasirodo drauge su paukščiu ar arkliu.Nors keltų žodinėje

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Olfactory elements as reflections of Celtic mythical Worldview in folktales and early medieval literature

tradicijojesukvapususijęelementainaudojamiretai,tačiaujųpasirodymosituacijosturiaiškiųmitiniųužuominų.

Išskirtinidukvapotipai:malonūsaromataiirsmarvė.Folklorebeisenosioselegendosemalonuskvapas siejamas sugausos irgerovės sąvokomis,kvapasgalipakeistigėrybesarba apie jas pranešti. Nemalonūs kvapai siejami su destrukcinėmis jėgomis. Reikiapabrėžti,kadblogaskvapasretaitampamirtiespriežastimi,jistraktuotinaskaipženklas,suponuojantis neišvengiamybę. Ankstyvojoje viduramžių literatūroje olfakciniamselementamssuteikiamasryškusmoralinisaspektas:malonūsprieskoniųaromataitapatinamisukilniomisasmenssavybėmis,reprezentuojapozityviasvertybes,pvz.,meilę,teisėtumą,dievobaimingumąirskaistumą.Sunkupasakyti,arstraipsnyjeaptartosolfakciniųelementųfunkcijospaveldėtosiškeltųtradicijos,tikėtina,kadjosgalėjoateitiiškrikščioniškosiosverčiųsistemos.Visdėltonaujoseprasmėsstruktūrosetokieelementaiiliustruojaskirtingųkultūrųsąveikąiratverianaujaskeltiškųmotyvųinterpretavimogalimybes.

audronė Gedžiūtė

Olfactory elements as reflections of Celtic mythical Worldview in folktales and early medieval literature

S u m m a r y

keywords: mytheme, goddess, abundanc­e, destruc­tion, olfac­tory elements, Celtic­ tradition.

ThepaperdiscussesolfactoryelementsasindicatorsoftheCelticmythicalworldviewinIrishfolktalesandearlymedievalliterature.Mythasaflexiblesemanticuniverserevealsessential values and their inter-relation within a particular culture. When the culturalenvironment changes,myth as adynamic structureof signifi­cance transforms intonewgenres. Therefore, mythical elements can be found in folklore and early medieval literature whichisverytypicalofCeltictradition.

TheGoddessMotherfi­gure stands for the coreof theCelticmythicalmodelwhichfeaturesahighlyintegralnature:thegoddess’sactivityembracesallthespheresnecessarytoguarantee thehumanexistence: abundance,overallprotection, etc.Thegoddessalsogovernsthelife-deathcycle.Asaprovidersheisassociatedwiththeland;asanaccompanierofspiritstotheafterliferealmsheoftenappearstogetherwithabirdorahorse.Despitethat olfactory elements are rarely used in vernacular Celtic tradition, the situations that they operate in have clear mythical implications.

Two types of smell are distinguished: pleasant aroma and stench. In folklore andancient stories, pleasant smell is associatedwith abundance andwell being; smell cansubstitutethegoodsorsignifythem.Unpleasantsmellsarerelatedwithdestructiveness.Itmustbeemphasizedthatstenchisrarelyacauseofdeath;itmustratherbetreatedasasignsupposingtheinevitable.Inearlymedievalliterature,olfactoryelementsareendowedwithaclearmoralaspect: fragrancesof spicesare identifi­edwithnoblecharacteristics;they represent positive values, e.g. love, righteousness, faith, virginity or vice versa. It

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Audronė Gedžiūtė

isdiffi­culttosaywhetherthefunctionsofolfactoryelementsdiscussedinthepaperareinherited from native Celtic tradition. They are likely to have come from the Christian system of values.Nevertheless,when inscribed in new structures of signifi­cance, suchelementsillustratecorrelationofdifferentculturesandopennewinterpretativepossibilitiesof Celtic motifs.

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LT­44280 Kaunas[gedziute@gmail.c­om]@gmail.c­om]