on-line session 2

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On-Line Session 2The Early Roots & Behaviorism

EDUC 622Chapters 2&3 Morrow & Tracey

(Content Cited from Lenses on Reading unless otherwise stated)

Morrow, L. M., & Tracey, D. H. (2006). Lenses on Reading: An Introduction to Theories and Models. New York, N.Y.:

The Guilford Press.

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Session 2 Objectives

In Session 2, you will: Review Session 1 content Examine the components of Early Roots theories Explain specific examples of Unfoldment theory in a

literacy classroom Determine and discuss the relevance of early roots

theories and their application in a literacy classroom Review important aspects of theories within

Behaviorism Determine and discuss how the components of

direct instruction apply in a classroom…by reading the slides and completing all activities

and assessments presented in Session 2 PPT.Benedictine University

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Benedictine University 3

Session 1 Review

EDUC 622

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What is a Theory?According to the American Heritage

Dictionary (2001), a theory is “…a set of statements or principles devised to explain a group of facts or phenomena, especially those that have been repeatedly tested or is widely accepted.”

Theories are grounded in belief systems, that are often held by large groups of people and typically supported by extensive research and databases

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Theory: A Definition for EducationIn the field of education, a theory is a

well documented explanation for a phenomenon related to teaching and/or learning

This explanation (i.e., theory) then becomes part of the body of content knowledge that constitutes the field

In our field, theories are used to explain learning, motivation, memory, achievement, and intelligence, among other things

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Importance of Theories to Educational Practice

Teachers who understand the full range of theories from which instructional strategies are derived can select interventions that best suit a particular teaching situation, thus optimizing the effectiveness of their instruction

A broad understanding of theories allows educators to coordinate and provide complementary instructional interventions from a wide variety of theoretical orientations

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What IS Best Practice?Evidence-based instruction involves

teachers making decisions using “…professional wisdom integrated with the best available empirical evidence” (Allington, 2005, p. 16)

This definition of evidence-based instruction utilizes the wisdom and evidence derived from professional experience and recognizes the important role of empirical research (Allington, 2005; Pressley, 2007)

No single investigation or research study by itself establishes a practice as effective

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SESSION 2

The Early RootsEarly Theories and

Models Applicable to Reading (400 B.C. -1899) Chapter 2 -Tracey and Morrow

Content Citation from Tracey and Morrow unless otherwise statedMorrow, L. M., & Tracey, D. H. (2006). Lenses on Reading: An Introduction to Theories and Models. New York, N.Y.: The Guilford

Press.

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The Early Theories and Models

The Early Theories and Models include:

Mental Discipline TheoryAssociationismUnfoldment Theory Structuralism and Early

Scientific Foundations of Reading

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MENTAL DISCIPLINE

THEORY

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Mental Discipline Theory428 B.C.---322 B.C. and Beyond

This is an example of Plato and Aristotle’s work that has widely permeated educational and psychological literature for approximately 2,500 years, it includes:◦The mind lies dormant until it is exercised◦Memory, will, reason, and perseverance

are the “muscles of the mind”◦Learning is a matter of strengthening or

disciplining the faculties of the mind, which combine to produce intelligent behavior

Benedictine University

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ASSOCIATIONISM

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Associationism…4th Century B.C.----18th Century

Is a theory of psychology and education that is devoted to the study of how learning occurs

It examines how events or ideas can become associated with one another in the mind, to result in a form of learning

It contains three kinds of connections that aid memory and learning:◦Contiguity◦Similarity◦Contrast

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AssociationismContiguity: The ideas that things occurring together

in time or space tend to become associated in the mindExample: Brushing one’s teeth, taking a shower, and getting dressed are all ideas that go together with what we do in the morning

Similarity: The idea that people tend to associate things that have similar features and propertiesExample: If a person were trying to remember a grocery list, one could organize the items according to dairy, produce, breads and meats

Contrast: Association by opposites Example: The concepts of light/dark, high/low, and happy/sad

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Mental Discipline Theory

and AssociationismRetained their prominence in educational

thought for an unprecedented, and still unequaled, period of time

In retrospect, these two theories persisted as the predominant theories of education and learning for approximately 2,000 years from the time of Plato and Aristotle (428-322 B.C.) until the period of Enlightenment in the 18th century

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Modern AssociationismJohn Locke’s Tabula Rasa Theory

John Locke (1632-1704) is one of the most well-known, and relatively modern associationists

He directly challenged Modern Discipline Theory with the concept of Tabula Rasa -- “Blank Tablet” Theory

Tabula Rasa Theory suggests that people are born without any internal, innate knowledge

In this theory, all learning is a consequence of the individual’s reactions or interactions with the environment

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Locke’s Work Locke’s work as been credited as a

turning point in professional thinking about learning

As a result of his theory, attention was turned away from an emphasis regarding the importance of innate knowledge and toward an emphasis on the importance of external influences on learning

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Locke and AristotleDespite their opposing viewpoints, both Locke

and Aristotle are considered Associationists because their primary interest was the way by which knowledge is constructed:Aristotle focused on internal connectionsLocke focused on the importance of external

information

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Importance of Associationism

Traveling forward in time, ◦Associationism laid the groundwork for behaviorism and for models of cognition based on mental connections

As you journey through the theories and models, keep this important point in mind!

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UNFOLDMENT

THEORY

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Unfoldment Theory 18th Century

The first serious challenge to Mental Discipline Theory and Associationism occurred with Unfoldment Theory

It suggests that learning is most facilitated through natural unfolding of the mind based on individual curiosity and interest

This shift in educational philosophy mirrored the shift in social philosophy at the time

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Unfoldment TheoryAlthough the dominant approach in

the Age of Enlightenment continued to be the cultivation of rational thought through mental discipline

Some thinkers in this period began to advocate cultivating feeling and passion through the development of a natural unfolding of personal interests

This pointed the way to a new period called Romanticism

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Rousseau is one of the earliest educational theorists to hold this perspective

He wrote an educational novel, Emile, in 1762 about a young boy who is raised in nature, away from the evils of society, and allowed to follow his own curiosities and interests

By the novel’s end, Emile develops into an adult of high moral character and goodness as a result of his unique upbringing

In accordance with Unfoldment Theory, first presented in this novel, Rosseau suggests several ideas about education

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Unfoldment TheoryRousseau’s Belief System

Rousseau:◦Advocated that educators should follow children’s

leads regarding what and when they wanted to learn

◦Argued that learning would be impeded if children were forced to learn information about which they were not interested

◦Firmly believed that children’s verbal abilities would be developed as a result of extended and enriched experiences with manipulatives

◦Believed strongly in the idea that nature should be at the center of learning that he recommended postponing reading and writing instruction until students were 10-15 years old

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Unfoldment TheoryPestalozzi (1746-1827)

Pestalozzi was a Swiss education reformer who was greatly influenced by Rousseau’s beliefs concerning natural learning, but felt that, in addition to “natural unfolding”, children needed informal instruction from adults to facilitate their learning

Using these ideas, he created a philosophy of child-centered learning, and built a school to implement his ideas

Central to his vision of Unfoldment Theory was his belief that for an educational environment to be effective it must also be warm and nurturing

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Unfoldment TheoryPestalozzi’s School

Pestalozzi’s school was designed to stimulate children’s natural curiosity for learning by: A positive affective climate An engaging physical environment Instruction based on children’s learning

interests Heavy emphasis on sensory

manipulative experiences as foundational for educational growth

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Unfoldment TheoryRousseau and Pestalozzi’s Influence

Rousseau and Pestalozzi’s influence led to: The use of familiar objects, pictures,

and storylines in early reading materials Disciples of their thinking who further

influenced the educational realm• Froebel (1782-1852) was a disciple

who emphasized the importance of play in the development of young children’s learning.

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Unfoldment TheoryRousseau and Pestalozzi’s Influence on

FroebelFroebel specified that realizing the

fullest benefits of playing-to-learn required adult guidance and direction and a planned environment

He saw the teacher as a designer of activities and experiences that facilitate learning

He coined the word kindergarten which means children’s garden


Sess. 2: Short Answer – Rousseau – Slide 29

Individual Activity: Practical ApplicationRousseau advocated that educators follow children’s

leads regarding what and when they wanted to learnHe argued that learning would be impeded if

children were forced to learn information about which they were not interested◦Examine your teaching style and your curriculum◦Identify 2 relevant examples of how you allow the

students in your classroom to “unfold”o As you reflect, pinpoint 2 – 3 specific examples,

write a short answer and be ready to debrief your response in Session 3

o Submit your Short Answer to:o Sess. 2: Short Answer – Rousseau – Slide 29

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STRUCTURALISM AND EARLY SCIENTIFIC

FOUNDATIONS OF READING


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Early Scientific Foundations of Reading

Mental Discipline Theory, Associationism, and Unfoldment Theory were developed as non-experimental, general philosophies that would apply to all areas of education

In contrast, the historical roots of the specific study of reading were embedded within the early history of cognitive psychology, which was situated within an experimental, structuralist, theoretical framework

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Early History of Reading Research

StructuralismStructuralism is usually thought of

as the first major school in psychology

It explains the structures of the mind through the study of perception

Due to this, reading was first studied through perception research designed to explain general psychological functioning rather than to explain reading in and of itself!

An Interesting Note

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Early studies of reading took place within the world’s first psychology laboratory, established in the late 1870’s in Leipzig, Germany by German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)

• J.M. Cattell, an American student and Wundt’s assistant, pursued the study of perceptual processes by investigating aspects of the reading process such as: Letter and Word Recognition Legibility of Print Span of Attention

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Cattell’s findings demonstrated that subjects’ speed for reading:

Words connected in sentences was faster than their speed for reading disconnected words

Letters connected in words were faster than their speed for reading disconnected letters

Unfortunately, these findings were not investigated or fully understood until the 1950’s

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In the late 1870’s and early 1880’s, Javal was conducting early reading research by studying eye movements at the University of Paris

His major contribution was identifying and naming the “saccade” ◦ Saccades are the quick multiple movements that the eye

makes as it moves between ‘fixations’ or the ‘pauses’ the eye makes to visually process information

The process of eye movements during reading occurs in small jumps (saccades) and pauses (fixations) are not smooth, progressive, or linear movements as once thought

Previously, eye movements were presumed to be steady, continuous, and flowing during the reading process

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Early History of Reading Research Summary

Contributions continued in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s:Three major summaries in cognitive processing theories, often referred to as “psychology of reading”, were published during this period

Psychologists focused on reading as a perceptual process, their primary focus was: ◦ Measuring the perception of print (single

letters, words) through reaction time studies or◦ On areas such as eye-voice span, speed of

reading, and lip movements during silent reading

Within these lines of research, virtually no attention was paid to whether or not the readers had comprehended the text

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How Can I Apply These Theories

in My Classroom?

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Classroom ApplicationsThere are several ways that these theories are demonstrated in classroom situations:• Mental Discipline Theory – Every time teachers’

engage in strengthening students’ skills through practice, it is present

• Mental Discipline Theory is highly visible in: Spelling and vocabulary instruction Sight word identification The use of context clues One current practice in literary instruction is Repeated Reading During repeated reading, students read passages aloud

repeatedly and the teacher responds with feedback and guidance for further improvement in the areas of pronunciation, expression, and pace A basic premise of the repeated reading theory, as with a

muscle, the reading process needs to be exercised to be strengthened

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Classroom ApplicationsAssociationism: It is imperative to build

prior knowledge, so this can be accomplished by using various reading strategies that include: Brainstorming Webbing Activities Anticipation Guides

• Unfoldment Theory: In order to facilitate children’s authentic engagement with a wide variety of literacy materials, one may create: Literacy Centers

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Classroom Applications

• Structuralism – Classroom instructional practices that support students’ increased accuracy regarding print perception are utilized in accordance with this theory

• One may utilize the following methods in order to assist students with accuracy: Using a pointer or a flashlight on a word wall Using different colors to draw students’ attention

to varying aspects of print Examples of tools that help student reading

accuracy are: Intellitalk software allows students to highlight words and

audio technology allows words to be “read” to students See-N-Read® Reading Tools allow students to focus on

the line of text being read without losing their place

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How Are These Theories Utilized

in Research?

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Research Applications

Theory RelationCurrent literacy research also reflects

these theories in various waysPractice effects are often noticed in

studies that involve: Oral language development Phonemic awareness Exposure to print Experience with storybook reading Skill practice activities

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Research Applications

AssociationismAssociationism provides the

foundation for two branches of psychology that eventually emerged in the 1950s:

Cognitive Psychology Behaviorism

• As a result, any educational or psychological study conducted within these two very broad frameworks could ultimately link its theoretical framework back to Associationism

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Among many areas of reading study that could conceivably be situated in an associationist theoretical context are those of: Metacognition Reading Think-Alouds Schema Building Schema Activation Comprehension Activities such as:

Venn Diagrams KWL charts Story Mapping

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Research ApplicationsUnfoldment Theory

Research into the practice of literacy centers demonstrates the following results in students:

Increased enjoyment of reading and writing

Improved skills in print recognition Phonemic awareness Phonics Reading comprehension Vocabulary development Oral reading fluency Writing

Sess. 2: Large Group Threaded Discussion–Slide 46Large Group Activity: Click on the “Sess. 2: Large Group Threaded Discussion– Slide 46” Participate in a Large Group Threaded Discussion based on the content from Slides 12- 45 (Chapter 2).

Focus your discussion on the following questions:

1. How have early roots theories influenced your teaching methods or curriculum?

2. Provide an example from your classroom when mental discipline theory, associationism,

unfoldment theory or structuralism impacted your instruction.

3. In your opinion, are these methods still relevant and would they fit into best practice instruction?

Why or why not?

4. What are the possible drawbacks of using “dated” methods?

5. Provide rationale for your example and your thoughts

• Be prepared to discuss and debrief these questions at the beginning of Session 3

Benedictine University 46Please respond to the initial question/s and to a minimum of two other Threaded Discussion entries

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The Next Chapter….

‘Behaviorism’Dominant Educational

Theory for 50 Years(1900-1950s)

Chapter 3 – Tracey and MorrowContent Citation from Tracey and Morrow unless otherwise stated

Morrow, L. M., & Tracey, D. H. (2006). Lenses on Reading: An Introduction to Theories and Models. New York, N.Y.: The Guilford Press.

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What is Behaviorism?

Behaviorism is a theoretical perspective on learning that focuses on observable changes in behavior

From a behavioral perspective, the outcome of learning is an observable change in behavior

Two Underlying Assumptions:• Behavior is the result of an organisms,

or persons, response to stimuli• External stimuli can be manipulated to

strengthen or reduce an organism’s or an individual’s behavior

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BehaviorismThree Major Behavioral

Theories Behaviorism changed the depiction of reading from one of perceptual processing to one of reading as a behavior composed of isolated skills, each of which could be reinforced to increase student achievement

It continues to be significant today as the theoretical underpinning associated with direct instruction

It is important to note that within Behaviorism three theoretical perspectives (grounded in Associationism) are prominent:

1.Classical Conditioning Theory: Ivan Pavlov

2.Connectionism: Edward Thorndike3.Operant Conditioning Theory: B.F.

Skinner

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Classical Conditioning Theory

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Pavlov created Classical Conditioning Theory as a result of his research studying dogs’ digestion in the 1920s◦During his research Pavlov noted that his

dogs began to salivate at the sight of their food bowls, even when the bowls were empty

◦Pavlov hypothesized that the dogs were salivating because they associated the presence of their dishes with the arrival of their dinners

In other words, the dogs had learned through association to connect their food bowls with food

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Pavlov continued to experiment with other forms of associational learning◦Eventually, he was able to produce salivation

in his dogs by simply ringing a bell◦This conditioning was achieved by the repeated

pairing of bell ringing with the delivery of food to the dogs

◦Thus, the ringing of the bell, even in the absence of the food dishes, was enough of a stimulus to produce the salivation response in the dogs

This form of associational learning became known as classical conditioningBenedictine University

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Classical Conditioning TheoryClassical Conditioning Theory exemplifies

Behaviorism because it focuses on observable changes in behavior and responses to stimuli as demonstrative of learning

For example: Children come to school hesitant and nervous

about learning to read, and through numerous positive experiences, they become happy and successful learners

In contrast, when children come to school as curious and engaged learners and then are exposed to negative experiences, their responses to learning to read change to unenthusiastic or unmotivated

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Connectionism

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Connectionism: The Four Laws

Thorndike concentrated on the effects of varying stimuli that occurred after a behavior and created the theory while proposing its four laws:1. Law of Effect : Also known as the Principle of

Reinforcement◦ If an act is followed by a satisfying

change in environment, the likelihood that the act will be repeated in similar situations increases

◦ If the behavior is followed by an unsatisfying change in the environment, the chances that the behavior will be repeated decreases

◦Thus, the consequences of present behavior were shown to play a crucial role in determining one’s future behavior

2. Law of Readiness: States that learning is facilitated when easier tasks precede those that are relatively more difficult

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Connectionism- The Four Laws

3. Law of Identical Elements States that the more the elements (i.e.,

content and procedure) of one situation are identical to the elements of a second situation, the greater the transfer, and thus the easier the learning in the second situation

3. Law of Exercise States that the more stimulus-response

connections are practiced, the stronger the bonds become

The less the connections are used, the weaker the bonds

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Operant Conditioning

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Operant Conditioning TheoryB.F. Skinner (1904 -1990)

This is also known as “Programmed Learning” or “Programmed Instruction”◦In Programmed Learning, instruction is

broken down into small, successive steps that are designed to maximize the likelihood of students’ success, and to minimize the likelihood of students’ frustration and failure

◦As students successfully accomplish each step, they are rewarded

Teaching, from a strict behavioral perspective, requires the arrangement of the instructional situation to produce errorless learning


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Programmed Learning and Behavior Management

Programmed Learning is usually implemented through the use of behavioral objectives◦ A behavioral objective is a statement that is

created to identify a target behavior in need of change, as well as to identify what behavioral change will constitute success or the measurement of success

After identifying a behavioral objective, teachers will then employ operant conditioning theory methods to achieve their objective◦ A schedule of reinforcement (How often the reinforcement

is delivered) can be manipulated to achieve behavioral objectives Benedictine University

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Programmed Learning and Behavior Management

Two other common techniques used in behavior management to achieve behavioral objectives are called “shaping” and “chaining”:Shaping:

◦ Initially, gross approximations of a behavior are supported with the use of positive enforcement

◦Subsequently, only progressively more refined approximations of the desired behavior are reinforced

Chaining: ◦Enables a person to hook together a sequence of small,

individual conditioned acts to compose a complex skill ◦ It is a central element of Skinner’s application of

operant theory to the classroom

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How Can I Apply Behaviorism in My Classroom?

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BehaviorismClassroom

ApplicationsMany educational software products

are built on the behavioral principles of ◦Breaking complex tasks down into simpler

tasks that can then be mastered, and ◦Sequencing tasks in order of difficulty in

order to ensure learners’ success◦Additionally, they may deliver immediate

feedback to students regarding the accuracy of their responses to a learning task (reinforcement)

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BehaviorismClassroom

ApplicationsBehaviorism has affected the field of

reading in multiple ways, including: The way reading is understood Perceptions of how reading

instruction should proceed Creation of Reading Materials Assessment of Reading Progress

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BehaviorismClassroom ApplicationsBehaviorism created a new perception of the task of reading as a complex act consisting of different parts:

1.Visual Discrimination (of shapes and letters)2.Auditory Discrimination (of sounds of the alphabet)3.Left-to-Right Progression During Reading4.Vocabulary (word knowledge)5.Comprehension (understanding of what you have

read)This understanding of reading led to a sub-skills

approach: The complex task of reading is broken down into

its many components Emphasis of reading instruction becomes mastery

of these components

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BehaviorismClassroom ApplicationsDirect Instruction is a one form of reading instruction that is clearly linked to a behavioral theoretical perspectiveThere is an explicit focus on the

following in Direct Instruction:◦Phonics◦Vocabulary◦Comprehension Skills

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BehaviorismClassroom ApplicationsThe 3 charts on Slides 67, 68 and 69 illustrate the basic premise of Direct Instruction which is currently a prominent approach to teaching reading:CHART 1 illustrates the foundational

principles of direct instructionCHART 2 illustrates the most effective and

efficient approach to reading instruction in six steps

CHART 3 illustrates the 5 steps to be taken when teaching a skill


DIRECT INSTRUCTIONFoundational Principles

CHART

1


DIRECT INSTRUCTIONTEACHING READING IN 6 STEPS

CHART

2


TEACHING A SKILL IN 5 STEPS

CHART

3

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BehaviorismClassroom ApplicationsReading Readiness is another form

of reading instruction that is reflective of a behavioral theoretical orientation

Skills associated with reading readiness include:◦Auditory Discrimination◦Visual Discrimination◦Left-To-Right Progression◦Visual-Motor Skills◦Large-Motor Abilities

Check out a detailed

description of these skills on the chart on Slide 71!


Reading Readiness Skills

CHART

4

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BehaviorismClassroom Applications

According to Kame’enui, et al. (1997), in direct instruction:◦“Children’s failure to learn

is unacceptable and unnecessary if we understand what we want to teach and design the teaching carefully, strategically, and with full consideration of the learner” (p.62)

Sess. 2: Large Group Threaded Discussion–Slide 73Large Group Activity:Click on the “Sess. 2: Large Group Threaded Discussion– Slide 73” located On-

LineParticipate in a Large Group Threaded Discussion based on the content from

Slides 51-72 (Chapter 3). Focus your discussion on the following questions:1.Review charts 1-4. What specific aspects of the chart mirror your own

philosophy about instruction? What aspects conflict with your beliefs or personal experience concerning methods of direct instruction?

2.Describe how you view your role in your literacy environment. Cite specific examples from the charts regarding direct instruction and explain how you will utilize these ideas in your classroom

3.Provide a rationale for the chosen methods•Be prepared to discuss and debrief these questions at the beginning of Session 3


Please respond to the initial question/s and to a minimum of two other Threaded Discussion entries

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SESSION 2 ASSIGNMENTS

EDUC 622

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Session 2 Reading Assignments

Read: Lenses on Reading Chapter 2- (Pages 15-31) Early Roots: Early Theories and Models Applicable to Reading (400 B.C.-

1899) Chapter 3- (Pages 32-46) Behaviorism: The Dominant Educational Theory for 50 years (1900-1950s)

Read: Best Practices in Literacy Instruction(Group A Best Practice Briefcase) Chapter 3- (Pages 67-93) Early Literacy Chapter 6- (Pages 138-169) Adolescent Literacy Chapter 14-(Pages 343-358) Content-Area Literacy

• Read: NEA Brief Article “Learning and Teaching” (PDF located in Session 2 Resource Folder) – Bring article to Session 3 and be prepared to debrief information The original article is also provided but you do not need to read the entire

original article: Peterson, S. M. (July 2006). Theories of Learning and Teaching: What Do They Mean for Educators. Atlanta, GA: National Education Association



GROUP A

BEST PRACTICE BRIEFCASE

WORKSHOPSESSION 3

THEME:LITERACY FROM

PRE-K TO HIGH SCHOOL

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Group A Member Best Practices – Chapters 3, 6 & 14

READING ASSIGNMENTS

Group Member #1 CH.3 ( 67- Top of 80)Best Practices in Early Literacy

Group Member #2CH. 3 (Bottom of 80-93 )Best Practices in Early Literacy

Group Member #3 CH. 6 (138-153)Best Practices in Adolescent Literacy

Group Member #4 CH. 6 (154-169)Best Practices In Adolescent Literacy

Group Member #5CH. 14 (343-358)Best Practices in Content-Area Literacy

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Major Assignment 3: Best Practice Briefcase Workshop Assignment

Each Group will provide the class with Group Overview and Lesson Plan Handout s based on the chapters below during a 25 – 30 minute presentation & workshop in Session 3

GROUP

A

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SESSION 2 & 3 OBJECTIVES

EDUC 622

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Session 2 ObjectivesIn Session 2, you have: Reviewed Session 1 content Examined the components of Early Roots theories Explained specific examples of Unfoldment Theory in

a literacy classroom Determined and discussed the relevance of early root

theories and their application in a literacy classroom Reviewed important aspects of theories

within Behaviorism Determined and discussed how the components of

direct instruction apply in a classroom…by reading through the slides and completing all

activities and assessments presented in Session 2 PPT. Benedictine University

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Benedictine Univerisity 80

Session 3 ObjectivesIn Session 3, you will:Review Session 2 ContentParticipate in a Literacy Warm Up ActivityAnalyze achievement gap statisticsDiscuss the role of federal programs and national

reports in literacy environmentsExamine Ten Evidence-Based Best Practices for

Comprehensive Literacy InstructionAnalyze and discuss recent research concerning

contemporary ideas about literacy and learning and its connection to best practice instruction

Participate in Group A’s Best Practice Briefcase Workshop

…by reading through the slides and completing all activities and assessments presented in Session 3 PPT.

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On-Line Session 2The Early Roots & Behaviorism

EDUCATION 622Chapters 2 & 3 ---Tracey and Morrow

on-line session 2

Documents

range of theories

importance of theories

early rootsearly theories

modelsthe early theories

review session

online session

objectivesin session

evidencebased instruction