On the Shoulders of Giants 237

On the Shoulders of Giants

Eugene Garfield

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The title for this talk was inspired by Robert K.Merton’s On the Shoulders of Giants (1993). This

book is an unusual exercise in scholarly detective work,which is often referred to as OTSOG. It tracks down theorigins of Isaac Newton’s famous aphorism, “If I haveseen farther, it is by standing on the shoulders of gi-ants”—an observation that certainly applies to my ca-reer in information science and science communication.I would like to remember tonight many giants whomI have known and whose contributions and personali-ties made my career a very enjoyable one. It has been aprivilege to be associated with such people.

Early Contacts

Robert K. Merton should not be confused with his NobelPrize–winning son, the Harvard economist Robert C.Merton. Robert K.’s association with the field of infor-mation science is quite strong. He has probably beencited by information scientists as often, if not more so,than many of those we usually recognize as pioneers ofinformation science. This is partly because of his path-breaking work in the sociology and history of science,but also because he is the inventor of numerous neolo-gisms now in common use in the field of informationscience. His “Matthew effect” (Merton, 1968a; Garfield,1982b) has been cited in hundreds of papers and is itselfthe subject of numerous research papers, including thoseby my dear friend Manfred Bonitz of Dresden in Ger-many (Bonitz, 1997). The Matthew effect is manifest,for example, in the unfair attribution to a single seniorauthor of work by two or more authors. Bob’s wife,Harriet Zuckerman, has sometimes been a victim of thiseffect. She is well known for her work on Nobel Prizes(Zuckerman, 1996), but the papers she and Bob co-authored are often cited as “Merton and Zuckerman”

when in fact the by-line was “Zuckerman and Merton.”Another one of Merton’s terms is OBI—“obliterationby incorporation” (Merton, 1968b, pp. 27–29, 35–38;Garfield, 1975), and all citation analysts will attest tothe frequency of this phenomenon.

In 1962, the year that I met Bob Merton and HarrietZuckerman, I wrote an almost identical letter to Bob,Derek De Solla Price, and J. D. Bernal suggesting thatthey might be interested in the Institute for ScientificInformation’s first experimental citation printouts.

British-born and -educated Derek Price was a physi-cist, historian of science, and an energizer of sciento-metrics worldwide.

Derek’s countryman and physicist Bernal was theacknowledged initiator of the field of “Science of Sci-ence,” which was a precursor of the social studies of sci-ence and the field of scientometrics. See my essay aboutthe Bernal Award of the 4S Society established by ISI in1981 (Garfield, 1982a). My first “contact” with Bernalwas even before World War II, when my uncle presentedme with a copy of Bernal’s 1939 book, the Social Func-tion of Science. I was just fourteen at the time. My firstprofessional contact with Bernal occurred in 1958, shortlybefore the International Conference on Scientific Infor-mation in Washington, D.C. (Proceedings of the Interna-tional Conference on Scientific Information, 1959).

The term “scientometrics” was coined by our be-loved Russian colleague Vassily V. Nalimov. We first metat the Moscow Book Fair. Four of his books were pub-lished by ISI Press in translation.

One of Bernal’s many disciples was the British physi-cist and journalist Maurice Goldsmith, who wrote a bi-ography of Bernal (1980), and just before he died, abiography of Joseph Needham (1995). Maurice was veryclose to Federico Mayor, director general of UNESCO,

238 Eugene Garfield

Robert Merton, HarrietZuckerman, and EugeneGarfield.

Eugene Garfield and J. D. Bernal.

Eugene Garfield and Derek De Solla Price.

On the Shoulders of Giants 239

Eugene Garfield and Vassily Nalimov at the MoscowBook Fair.

Calvin Lee, Federico Mayor,and Eugene Garfield.

240 Eugene Garfield

which published the Needham biography. I first metMayor in 1965 when he was rector of the University ofGranada, where he invited me to lecture about the Sci-ence Citation Index and Current Contents. Calvin Lee andI met with Federico in Paris on one occasion. Lee wasmy personal assistant at ISI for over a decade. He was aninformation scientist in London when we first met atOSTI. He is retired. He also accompanied me and Dr.Sher to China long before it was fashionable.

Another pioneer of information science, not listed asan ASIS pioneer, is Joshua Lederberg. I met him in 1959shortly after he had won the Nobel Prize in medicine.

At a critical juncture he weighed in with his sup-port for the concept of citation indexing and encour-aged me to seek support from the National Science Foun-dation to conduct a pilot project [see http://www.profiles.nlm.nih.gov/BB/]. Josh still occasionally sends handwrit-ten notes like his note of 9 May 1959, but he was also apioneer in using e-mail. His Eugram was an early pre-dictor of e-mail, the Internet, and electronic journals(Lederberg, 1978). Josh eventually became a member ofthe ISI board of directors. Our correspondence from1959 to 1962 is already posted on my Web site (http://165.12.33.33/eugene_garfield/lederberg/list.html.

But Josh, J. D. Bernal, Derek Price, and Bob Mertonwere not my first contacts in the field of science infor-mation. In early 1951, after an accidental explosion atColumbia University in Louis P. Hammett’s laboratory,I decided to look for a new job as a chemist. So I at-tended the spring seventy-fifth anniversary meeting ofthe American Chemical Society in March 1951, where Imet James W. Perry, then at MIT, who was chairman ofthe Division of Chemical Literature. After the meetingI went up to him and asked, “How do you get a job inthis racket?” I realized from attending that meeting thatpeople were getting paid for doing something I gladlydid for nothing. About a month later, after dining onseveral of my mother’s wonderful Jewish meals, he in-troduced me to Sanford V. Larkey, the director of theWelch Medical Library at Johns Hopkins University.(Through Jim Perry I also met his longtime associatesMadeline Berry Henderson as well as Allen Kent.)

The Welch Project

The Welch Project was established to find solutions tothe Army Medical Library’s retrieval problems and toevaluate machine methods for indexing. Every day SanLarkey and I would work across the table from each other,and then we would go out to lunch at a local bar. Hewould tell me all about his army experiences and his

interests in Elizabethan medicine, and then we woulddiscuss subject headings. We had a fight once aboutwhether “socialized medicine” would ever be acceptedas a MeSH heading. Eventually, he convinced BradRogers to use “medicine, social”—or something like that.

The Welch Project afforded me the unique oppor-tunity of meeting most of the ASIS pioneers. The Com-mittee of Honorary Consultants to the Welch Projectincluded, among others, Mortimer Taube, Verner C.Clapp, and Ralph Shaw. We are indebted to MortimerTaube for coordinate indexing and much else.

Peter Luhn and Herbert Ohlman simultaneously butindependently invented the now familiar key-word-incontext (KWIC) indexing. In 1951 Pete came to see howwe used the IBM 101 statistical machine at the project.

Verner Clapp was a great gadgeteer. As president ofthe Council on Library Resources, he later funded thedevelopment of the Copywriter—a device that I devel-oped for selectively copying references (Garfield, 1973).

Ralph Shaw (Garfield, 1978b), then director of theLibrary of the United States Department of Agricultureand later professor of the Rutgers Graduate School ofLibrary Service, attended the “First Symposium onMachine Methods in Scientific Documentation,” whichI organized at Welch in March 1953. The chef of JohnsHopkins Hospital prepared a marvelous buffet luncheon.Later Ralph wrote and said, “Garfield, as a documentalistyou make a great caterer!”

When Ralph was at the University of Hawaii, and Icould not get to Hawaii to visit my son Stefan, who hadbeen sent to the army hospital from Vietnam, Ralphwent in my stead—a kindness I will never forget. Andhe instantly began bossing all the nurses around, tellingthem what they should be doing.

Another person I met at the Welch Project was JohnMauchly, the co-inventor of ENIAC and UNIVAC. (TheUniversity of Pennsylvania recently celebrated the fifti-eth anniversary of ENIAC.) When I came to Philadel-phia, he and I became good friends. I had the sad task ofdoing a literature search for him about the blood diseaseto which he eventually succumbed.

Calvin Mooers, inventor of Zatocoding, was anotherpioneer I met at Welch (Garfield, 1997).

I never met the original chairman of the WelchProject’s Advisory Committee of Honorary Consultants,Lewis H. Weed. He was succeeded by Chauncey D.Leake, who was dean of the medical school at the Uni-versity of Texas at Galveston and the very first dean ofan American medical school to hold a Ph.D. rather thanan M.D. He was an authority on Leonardo da Vinci,

On the Shoulders of Giants 241

Joshua Lederberg.

James W. Perry.

Sanford V. Larkey.

242 Eugene Garfield

Peter Luhn.

Ralph Shaw. Courtesy American Library Association Archives.

Verner Clapp. Courtesy Council on Library and InformationResources.

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Calvin Mooers.Courtesy HelenSolorzano.

Chauncey D. Leake with his wife.

244 Eugene Garfield

medical papyri, amphetamines, and California wines(Garfield, 1970, 1978a). He also served as president ofthe American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Williamina Himwich and Helen Field were employ-ees of the Welch project when I arrived. Originallytrained as a brain physiologist, Mina single-handedly in-dexed fifty years of the American Journal of Physiologyafter her retirement from the Welch Project. Helen Fieldwas a medical librarian. Shortly afterward she marriedJudge Giles Rich of the U.S. Patent Court of Appeals,and they now live in Washington, D.C.

As project director, San Larkey reported directly tothe head of the Army Medical Library, originally Colo-nel McNinch and then Frank Bradway Rogers. BradRogers is the person mainly responsible for developingthe Medline system, described in my 1984 essay titled“Bringing the National Library of Medicine into theComputer Age: A Tribute to Frank Bradway Rogers”(Garfield, 1984). ISI is the continuing sponsor of theMedical Library Association Annual Award establishedin his name.

In that Current Contents essay I refer to Brad’s col-leagues at the Army Medical Library, which later be-came the Armed Forces Medical Library and then theNational Library of Medicine in 1956: Seymour Taine*,editor of the Current List of Medical Literature; EstelleBrodman,* doyenne of medical historians and librar-ians (Brodman, 1954); Sam Lazerow, director of thelibrary’s acquisition division; Scott Adams,* medical bib-liographer; Dave Kronick,* medical librarian (Kronick,1976); and Robert Hayne, an assistant editor who alsoworked on the Current List of Medical Literature. He wasa brilliant classics scholar. (In fact, I have found that thebest indexers are classicists—not scientists.)

ISI Staffers

Bob Hayne later came to work at SmithKline & Frenchin Philadelphia, where I was a consultant, and eventu-ally to ISI as editorial director (Garfield, 1977). I amstill in touch with his wife Virginia.

Another colleague I first met at SmithKline was Irv-ing H. Sher. He later came to work for me as director ofresearch. Not long after he came to ISI, Irv was joinedby Art Elias from Wyeth. Art was the former editor ofJASIS.

Bonnie Lawlor became a senior vice president ofISI, then left to go to UMI, and is now a consultant(Garfield, 1993a). She started as a chemical indexer andmoved up to increasingly responsible positions at ISI.She remains very active in the American Chemical Soci-ety and ASIS.

Henry Small has been one of my closest colleaguesfor nearly thirty years. His seminal research on co-citationmapping is now a classical paper in information science(Small, 1973; Garfield, 1993b). His group at ISI has beenresponsible for hundreds of citation studies (Small, 1992).He was trained as a chemist and historian of science.

I met George Valdutz in Moscow about 1965 whenhe was at VINITI. Eventually he migrated to Vienna,and then to Rome, where I met him again and facili-tated his emigration to the United States to work in ISI’schemical information research group.

I met Sam Lazerow when he was at the Army Medi-cal Library during the time of the Welch Project. Heserved in all three of the National Libraries (Agricul-ture, Medicine, and Library of Congress). He left theLibrary of Congress to become vice president of ISI(Garfield, 1972), but still maintained his Washington-Baltimore orientation by commuting from Baltimoreevery day. He became my closest personal friend andconfidant. At ISI he was much beloved by the staff. Inhis memory ISI established the annual Lazerow lectures,which are held at a dozen library and information sci-ence schools.

Current Contents

In a short personal retrospective, space does not allowme to even mention all the people and events drawnfrom almost half a century of experiences. The originsof Current Contents seem to interest a lot of people. Icould say that it all started in the Bronx, when I wasabout eight years old and happened to be living acrossthe street from the Woodycrest branch of the New YorkPublic Library. I was fascinated by titles. I used to sneakout of the children’s section, where I was supposed tobe, and literally read the titles of all the books in the restof the library.

Many of you know that I started Current Contents/Life Sciences in the 1950s. But ASIS people rarely knowthat my very first contents page endeavor was in the fieldof documentation itself. I do not even have a copy ofContents in Advance, which I started at Welch in late1952. Later on it got me into hot water with my boss,and he wanted it stopped. But it continued until after Ileft Columbia in 1954 and was taken over by AnneMcCann. It ceased publication about a year later.

The Life Sciences edition of Current Contents be-came an official subscription service in 1958. CharlotteStuder was the special librarian at Miles Labs who gaveme a contract in 1957. Contrary to general belief, thefirst CC title was in the management and social sciences,not the life sciences. The putative social sciences edition

On the Shoulders of Giants 245

FrankBradwayRogers.

Bonnie Lawlor.

Robert Hayne.

246 Eugene Garfield

Henry Small.

George Vladutz.

Sam Lazerow.

On the Shoulders of Giants 247

Eugene Garfield in front of the convertedchicken coop in Thorofare, New Jersey, whereISI began.

Group including Irving Sher, Arthur Elias withJudy Leondar, Charles Bernier, and Bob Maizel.

248 Eugene Garfield

James Murray Luck. With permission, from theAnnual Review of Biochemistry, Volume 50(1981), by Annual Reviews.

Eugene Garfield and Pierre Vinken.

On the Shoulders of Giants 249

started in 1954 with the name Management’s DocuMationPreview. So I called my company DocuMation, Inc.,which made Mort Taube very angry, since he hadfounded Documentation, Inc., in 1953. When wechanged the name of MDP to Current Contents around1955, I also changed the company name to EugeneGarfield Associates, Information Engineers. Mort wasmollified, but the new name made the Pennsylvania pro-fessional licensing board very angry, because I did nothave an engineering degree. So I dropped the subtitle“information engineers.” Then in 1960 I changed thecompany name to the Institute for Scientific Informa-tion under the inspiration of the Russian VINITI. Ibragged to a congressional committee that we could dowith twenty people what they could do with twenty thou-sand (U.S. House Committee on Government Opera-tions, 1974). (Later on I always enjoyed my visits toVINITI and respected their people a great deal.) Mostof the twenty thousand were outside volunteer part-timeabstractors who functioned much the way Chemical Ab-stracts did in those days. CA was their model.

I find that what people really want to know aboutthe origins of Current Contents is how it was financed. Iwrote an essay on this called “How It All Began: With aLoan from HFC” (Garfield, 1980). I have lost touchwith Richard Gremling of Bell Labs, but he gave me acontract to produce a customized edition of CC. How-ever, I did not have the sense to ask for an advance pay-ment. In order to pay the printer, I had to raise $500 soI could deliver the first issue. None of the banks wouldlend me money, so I went to the Household FinanceCorporation and got the money in about ten minutes.In those days, 6 percent per annum was normal bankinterest. HFC charged 18 percent, but you did not haveto keep the money for several months. So it turned outto be cheaper to pay 18 percent without service charges.And to get around the state law of a $500 maximum, Iwent to different branches of HFC. No networked com-puter records in those days!

What is significant about Current Contents vis-à-visASIS is somewhat bittersweet. CC has never been dis-cussed seriously in the literature of information science.Even Brad Rogers said Current Contents was a “sop toappease the guilty conscience of doctors who don’t read,”or words to that effect. He had underestimated the im-portance of timeliness and simplicity, the essence of theoriginal Current List of Medical Literature, which wasstarted by Atherton Seidel during World War II. Theproblem with Current Contents is that it is so simple andutilitarian that it gives theoreticians very little to talk

about. Current awareness is one thing—informationretrieval is something else. It is telling that when I taughtat the Moore School of Electrical Engineering at Pennin the 1960s, the engineers called CC an informationretrieval tool!

Science Communication

My world of information science has been very broad inits scope. Indeed, I have not really touched on the fieldof science communication which has been my main con-cern—not just the indexing and abstracting of the lit-erature, but also its reporting as exemplified by my news-paper, The Scientist. (I think it is reasonable to state thatit was the first full-text journal available continuouslyon the Internet.)

The Scientist was the culmination of my thirty-oddyears of writing over a thousand essays in Current Con-tents. That series appeared in CC because I realized earlyon that readers found going through CC a weekly nec-essary chore. The essays and cartoons provided a diver-sion—something concrete and amusing to read. It pro-vided me the unique opportunity to deliver a weeklymessage to readers worldwide, but especially behind theIron Curtain. I felt like a hero when I went to Czecho-slovakia to receive an honorary degree. Hence my fre-quent allusion to the old adage that you are a prophet ina foreign land. The censors in Eastern Europe and Chinaallowed what I had to say to go through, because CCwas regarded as a bibliographic tool—not as a journalthey had to censor.

Of the many science publishers I encountered inthis vast world of science communication, I would liketo mention Pierre Vinken, a neurosurgeon and editor—he may not be an information pioneer by ASIS stan-dards. I met him in the 1950s when the Excerpta MedicaFoundation was established. In time he converted thisto a commercial enterprise, which has become one ofthe world’s largest publishing conglomerates—ReedElsevier.

There are dozens of other publisher friends I couldmention, like Tom Karger, Gunter Heyden, Per Saug-man,* and others. On the other hand, this reflectionwould not be complete without mentioning RobertMaxwell. We met in the late 1950s. Over the next thirty-five years he tried to acquire my company in one wayor another, by hook or by crook. One day I will de-scribe in detail about how he tried but failed. He was adiabolical, driven genius. Fortunately, the competitiveworld of publishing is full of other people who live andlet live.

250 Eugene Garfield

I have also not mentioned the dozens of scienceeditors who are part of this scholarly publishing world,such as Stephen Lock, former editor of the British MedicalJournal; Arnold Relman, former editor of the New En-gland Journal of Medicine; Drummond Rennie, associ-ate editor of the Journal of the American Medical Associa-tion; George Lundberg, former editor of JAMA; and DanKoshland, former editor of Science, who recently receivedthe Lasker Award. I first met Dan when I joined theboard of Annual Reviews in 1979. Annual Reviews wasfounded in 1932 by J. Murray Luck, a biochemist whodied several years ago at age ninety-three. Now AnnualReviews comes out in twenty-nine different editions. In1979 Annual Reviews and ISI established the NationalAcademy of Sciences Award for Scientific Reviewing(Garfield, 1979), and I used to write an annual essayabout the winner.

Much of what I am telling you today has been cov-ered in two oral history interviews—one by ArnoldThackray and the other more recently by Robert V.Williams, both for the Chemical Heritage Foundation(“Oral History Program,” n.d.).

.

I am delighted that so many old timers have beenable to come to this meeting, but there are many whoare absent. Just last week I was able to contact SeymourTaine after a twenty-year hiatus. And I am glad to saythat Estelle Brodman is still with us. The MLA (Medi-cal Library Association) showed a remarkable video in-terview with her at the one-hundredth anniversary meet-ing in Philadelphia. I was delighted to hear that FredKilgour was able to come. I need not elaborate on hiscontributions to library and information science, in par-ticular, OCLC (Online Computer Library Center).

As a concluding remark, let me say why I have al-ways looked to ASIS as my home base. While I havebeen a member of many societies, including the ACS(American Chemical Society), ACM (Association forComputing Machinery), IEEE (Institute of Electricaland Electronics Engineers), ALA (American LibraryAssociation), SLA (Special Libraries Association), HSS(History of Science Society), NASW (National Associa-tion of Science Writers), and CBE (Council of BiologyEditors), I have always considered ASIS to be my pri-mary professional home base. ASIS provided a link be-tween my friends and competitors in both the nonprofitand for-profit worlds—the link between academia, gov-ernment, and industry. I hope that in the next severalyears as I serve as a board member and president thatI can help build bridges in those areas so that ASIScan not only survive but grow and thrive in the newmillenium.

Author’s NoteUnless otherwise noted, photographs illustrating this talk come from mycollection of photographs of information pioneers, which is available athttp://garfield.library.upenn.edu/papers/heritagey1998.html. Because oftime and space constraints, I cannot include all my photographs of pio-neers. Asterisks in the text indicate that a photograph of the person is avail-able on my Web page. There the reader will find images of still other wor-thies. I welcome the addition of even more.

ReferencesNote that Eugene Garfield’s Essays of an Information Scientist. 15 vols.(Philadelphia: ISI Press, 1977–1993) may be accessed in pdf form throughthe following site: http://garfield.library.upenn.edu/essays.html.

Bernal, J. D. (1967). Social function of science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.(Original edition. [1939]. London: G. Routledge & Sons.)

Bonitz, M. (1997 December). The scientific talents of nations. Libri, 47(4),206–213.

Brodman, E. (1954). The development of medical bibliography. Chicago:Medical Library Association.

Garfield, E. (1970). Calling attention to Chauncey D. Leake—renaissancescholar extraordinaire. Current Contents, April 22, 5–6. (Reprintedin Essays of an Information Scientist. [1977]. Volume 1, pp. 102–103. Philadelphia: ISI Press.)

Garfield, E. (1972). Introducing Samuel Lazerow, ISI’s Vice President forAdministration. Current Contents, November 1, 5–6. (Reprinted inEssays of an Information Scientist. [1980]. Volume 3, pp. 374–375.Philadelphia: ISI Press.)

Garfield, E. (1973). Introducing the Copywriter and ISI’s subsidiary, Selec-tive Information Devices, Inc. (SID). Current Contents, May 2, 5–8.(Reprinted in Essays of an Information Scientist. [1977]. Volume 1,pp. 438–442. Philadelphia: ISI Press.)

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Garfield, E. (1977). To remember my brother, Robert L. Hayne.” CurrentContents, August 22, 5–6. (Reprinted in Essays of an InformationScientist. [1980]. Volume 3, pp. 213–214. Philadelphia: ISI Press.)

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