opportunities in non contracting environments

04/19/23 Prof. Dr. Shahid Naveed

Rules of Thumb for

Design & Development


What are Rules of Thumb ??

• Rules of thumb are numerical values

and suggestions that are reasonable to

assume based on experience.

• Rules of thumb are application of

fundamentals and practical experience.


Rules of thumb:• Help us to judge the reasonableness of

answers. Allow us to assess the applicability of

assumptions. Lead to better understanding of complex

systems. Allow rapid order-of-magnitude estimates.


Rules of thumb allow the decisions of:

1. Batch versus continuous process.

2. Set goals.

3. Preliminary scouting of reactor

configuration and conditions.

4. Explore mass recycle.

5. Explore separations.

6. Explore energy integration.


Rules of Thumb for Physical & Thermal Conditions

Vapor pressure doubles for every 20 oC. The latent heat of vaporization of steam is five times that of most organics. If two liquids are immiscible, the infinite dilution activity coefficient is > 8. 10% salt in water doubles the activity coefficient of a dissolved organic. Freezing temperature may be suppressed 1 oC for

every1.5 mol% impurity present. For distillation, the condenser cooling water usage is 15 L/kg of steam to the reboiler.


Physical Property HeuristicsUnits Liquids Gases

Water OrganicMaterial

Steam Air OrganicMaterial

Heat Capacity kJ/kgOC4.2 1.0-2.5 2.0 1.0 2.0-4.0

Latent Heat kg/m3 1000 700-1500 1.29@STP

Thermal kJ/kg 1200-2100 200-1000

Conductivity W/moC 0.55-0.7 0.10-0.20 0.025-0.07 0.025-0.05 0.02-0.06

Viscosity 0OC kg/ms 1.8 x 10-3 Wide Range 10-30 x 10-6 20-50 x10-6 10-30 x 10-6


Rules of Thumb for Process Improvement


Continue… Change control: change set points, tighten control variations of key variables. Better inventory control and reduction of fugitive emissions. Identify realistic needs for process units. Optimize the reactor/separation system. Manage the recycle of heat and mass networks; use pinch technology. Substitute reagents, catalysts, solvents, additives. If waste byproducts are formed reversibly, recycle.


Trouble Shooting StatisticsFirst time startup,

75% mechanical electrical failures such as leaks, broken agitators, plugged lines, frozen lines, air leaks in seals. 20% faulty design or poor fabrication, such as unexpected corrosion, overloaded motors, excessive pressure drop, flooded towers 5% faulty or inadequate initial data

For ongoing processes

a) 80% fluid dynamical for ambient temperature operationsb) 70% materials failure for high temperature operations


Continue… Averaged Statistics for Frequency of failures:

(based on type of equipment)

a) 17% heat exchangersb) 16% rotating equipment (pumps, compressors, mixers)

c) 14% vesselsd) 12% towerse) 10% pipingf) 8% tanksg) 8% reactorsh) 7% furnaces


Continue… Averaged Human Error Statistics:

No action taken when some kind of action is desired - - - - - - - 90% Corrective action taken in the opposite direction - - - - - - 5% Corrective action taken on the wrong Variable - - - - - - 5% The most likely operator error is due to in correctly reading / interpreting technical instructions.


Chemical Engineering Equipments…* 1. Piping* 2. Tanks / Vessels / Separators* 3. Heat Exchangers* 4. Distillation Column 5. Reactors 6. Absorbers* 7. Pumps, Compressors 8. Cooling Towers


Continue….

9 . Boilers 10. Crystallizers 11. Cyclone Separators 12. Filtration Units 13. Vacuum Systems 14. Pneumatic Systems 15. Furnaces and many other unit operations. Only the heuristics for Units with * shall be presented here.


PIPING


Heuristics for PipingA handy relationship for turbulent flow in commercial steel pipes is

Where = Frictional Pressure loss, psi/100 equivalent ft of pipe W = Flow rate, lb/hr = Viscosity, cp

Valid for N Re 2100-106

= Density, lb/ft3 d = Internal pipe diameter, in.

8.42.08.1 000.20/ dWPF

FP


Heuristics of Piping Line velocities (u) and pressure drop (M):

For liquid pump discharge; u = (5 + 0/3) ft/sec and M = 2.0 psi/100ft

For liquid pump suction; u = (1.3 + 0/6) ft/sec and M = 0.4 psi/100 ft

For steam or gas flow:

u = 200 ft/sec and M = 0.5 psi/100ft

Gas/steam line velocities = 61 m/s (200ft/sec) and pressure drop = 0.1 bar/100m

(0.5 psi/100ft).

Screwed fittings are used only on sizes 3.8 cm (1.5 in) or less, flanges or

welding used otherwise.

Flanges and fittings are rated for 10,20,40,103,175 bar (150, 300, 600, 1500 or

2500 psig).


Sizing Steam Piping in New Plants Maximum Allowable Flow and Pressure Drop

P

Laterals Mains

Pressure, PSIG

600 175 30 600 175 30

Density, lb/CF 0.91 0.41 0.106 0.91 1.41 0.106

, PSI/100 1.0 0.70 0.50 0.70 o.40 0.30

Nominal Pipe Size, In.

Maximum Lb/Hr x 10 -3

3 7.5 3.6 1.2 6.2 2.7 0.9

4 15 7.5 3.2 12 5.7 2.5

6 40 21 8.5 33 16 6.6

8 76 42 18 63 32 14

10 130 76 32 108 58 25

12 190 115 50 158 87 39

14 260 155 70 217 117 54

16 360 220 100 300 166 78

18 ---- 300 130 --- 227 101

20 --- --- 170 --- --- 132


Sizing Cooling Water Piping in New Plants Maximum Allowable Flow, Velocity and Pressure Drop

LATERALS MAINS

Pipe Sizein.

FlowGPM

Velocityft/sec ft/100

FlowGPM

VelocityFt/sec ft/100

3 100 4.34 4.74 70 3.04 2.31

4 200 5.05 4.29 140 3.53 2.22

6 500 5.56 3.19 380 4.22 1.92

8 900 5.77 2.48 650 4.17 1.36

10 1,500 6.10 2.11 1,100 4.48 1.19

12 2,400 6.81 2.10 1,800 5.11 1.23

14 3,100 7.20 2.10 2,200 5.13 1.14

16 4,500 7.91 2.09 3,300 5.90 1.16

18 6,000 8.31 1.99 4,500 6.23 1.17

20 --- --- --- 6,000 6.67 1.17

24 --- --- --- 11,000 7.82 1.19

30 --- --- --- 19,000 8.67 1.11

PP


Sizing Piping for Miscellaneous FluidsDry Gas 100ft / sec

Wet Gas 60 ft / sec

High Pressure Steam 150 ft / sec

Low Pressure Steam 100ft / sec

Air 100ft / sec

Vapor Lines (General) Max. Velocity 0.3, Mach 0.5 psi/ 100ft

Light Volatile Liquid Near Bubble Pt. Pump Suction

0.5 ft head total suction line

Pump Discharge, Tower Reflux

3-5 psi / 100ft

Hot Oil Headers 1.5 psi / 100ft

Vacuum Vapor Lines below 50MM Absolute Pressure

Allow max. of 5% absolute pressure for friction loss


Typical Design Vapor Velocities (ft / sec)

Fluid

Line Sizes

Saturated Vapor

0 to 50 psig 30-115 50-125 60-145

Gas / Superheated Vapor

0 to 10 psig 50-140 90-190 110-225

11 to 100 psig 40-115 75-165 95-225

101 to 900 psig 30-85 60-150 85-165

6 218 41


Typical Design Velocities for Process System Applications

Service Velocity, ft / sec

Average liquid process 4-6.5

Pump Suction (except boiling) 1-5

Pump Suction (Boiling) 0.5-3

Boiler feed water 4-8

Drain Lines 1.5-4

Liquid to Reboiler (no pump) 2-7

Vapor-liquid mixture out reboiler 15-30

Vapor to Condenser 15-80

Gravity separator flows 0.5-1.5


Heuristics for Pumps1. Net positive suction head (NPSH) of a pump must be in excess of 1.2-6.1 m of liquid (4-

20 ft).

2. Centrifugal pumps volumetric flowrate:

a) Single stage for 0.057-18.9 m3/min (15-5000 gpm),

b) 152 m (500 ft) maximum head; multistage for 0.076-41.6 m3/min (20-11,000 gpm),

c) 1675 m (5500 ft) maximum head. Efficiency 45% at 0.378 m3/min (100 gpm).

d) Efficiency 70% at 1.89 m3/min (500 gpm),

e) Efficiency 80% at 37.8 m3/min (10,000 gpm).

3. Axial pumps for 0.076-378m3/min (20-100,000 gpm), 12 m (40 ft) head, 65-85% efficiency.

4. Rotary pumps for 0.00378-18.9 m3/min (1-5000 gpm), 15,200 m (50,000 ft head),

50-80% efficiency.

5. Reciprocating pumps for 0.0378-37.8 m3 (10-10,000 gpm), 300 km (1,000,000 ft) head max. Efficiency 70% at 7.46 kW (10 hp), 85% at 37.3 kW (50 hp) and 90% at 373 kW (500 hp).


Heuristics for Compressors

1. Outlet temperature for reversible adiabatic process T 2= T1(P2/P1)a

2. Exit temperatures should not exceed 167-204°C (350-400°F); for

diatomic gases (CpICv = 1.4) this corresponds to a compression

ratio of about 4.

3. Compression ratio should be about the same in each stage of a

multistage unit, ratio = (Pn/P1) 1/n, with n stages.

4. Efficiencies of reciprocating compressors:

a) 65% at compression ratios of 1.5,

b) 75% at 2.0

c) 80-85% at 3-6.

5. Efficiencies of large centrifugal compressors, 2.83-47.2 m3/s

(6,000-100,000 acfm) at suction, are 76-78%.


Heuristics for Thermal Insulation

1. Up to 345°C (650°F) 85% magnesia is used.

2. Up to 870-1040°C (1600-1900°F) a mixture of asbestos and diatomaceous earth is used.

3. Ceramic refractories are used at higher temperature.

4. Cryogenic equipment -130°C (-200°F) employs insulations with fine pores of trapped air.

5. Optimal thickness varies with temperature: 1.27 cm (0.5 in) at 95°C (200°F), 2.54 cm (1.0 in) at 200°C (400°F), 3.2 cm (1.25 in) at 315°C (600°F).

6. Under windy conditions 12.1 km/h (7.5 miles/hr), 10-20% greater thickness of insulation is justified.


Heat Exchangers


Heuristics for Heat Exchangers SelectionType Designation

Significant Feature Applications Best Suited

Limitations

Fixed Tube Sheet

Both tube sheets fixed to shell

Condensers; liquid-liquid; gas-gas; gas-liquid; cooling and heating, horizontal or vertical, re-boiling

Temperature difference at extremes of about 200°F. Due to differential expansion

Floating Head orTube Sheet (Removable and no removable bundles)

One tube sheet “floats” in shell or with shell, tube bundle may or may not be removable from shell, but back cover can be removed to expose tube ends.

High temperature differentials, above about 200°F. extremes; dirty fluids requiring cleaning of inside as well as outside of shell, horizontal or vertical.

Internal gaskets offer danger of leaking. Corrosiveness of fluids on shell side floatingparts. Usually confined to horizontal units

U-Tube; U-Bundle

Only one tube sheet required. Tubes bent in U-shape. Bundle is removable.

High temperature differentials which might require provision for expansion in fixed tube units. Clean service or easily cleaned conditions on both tube side and shell side. Horizontal or vertical.

Bends must be carefully made or mechanical damage and danger of rupture can result. Tube side velocities can cause erosion of inside of bends. Fluid should be free of suspended particles.


Continue…Kettle

Tube bundle removable as U-type or floating head. Shell enlarged to allow boiling and vapor disengaging

Boiling fluid on shell side, as refrigerant, or process fluid being vaporized. Chilling or cooling of tube side fluid in refrigerant evaporation on shell side.

For horizontal installation. Physically large for other applications.

Double Pipe

Each tube has own shell forming annular space for shell side fluid. Usually use externally finned tube.

Relatively small transfer area service, or in banks for larger applications. Especially suited for high pressures in tube above 400 psig.

Services suitable for finned tube. Piping-up a large number often requires cost and space.

Pipe Coil

Pipe coil for submersion in coil-box of water or sprayed with water is simplest type of exchanger.

Condensing, or relatively low heat loads on sensible transfer.

Transfer coefficient is low, requires relatively large space if heat load is high.


Continue…

Open Tube Sections(Water cooled)

Tubes require no shell, only end headers, usuallylong, water sprays over surface, sheds scales on outside tubes by expansionand contraction. Can also be used in water box.

Condensing, relatively low heat loads on sensible transfer.

Transfer coefficient is low, takes up less space than pipe coil.

Open Tube SectionsPlain or finned tubes(Air Cooled)

No shell required, only end heaters similar to water units.

Condensing, high level heat transfer.

Transfer coefficient is low, if natural convection circulation,but is improved withforced air flow across tubes.


Heuristics for Heat Exchangers1. Standard tubes are 1.9 cm (3/4 in) OD, on a 2.54 cm (1 in) triangle spacing,

4.9 m (16 ft) long.

2. A shell 30 cm (1 ft) diameter accommodates 9.3 m2 (100f2);

A shell 60 cm (2 ft) diameter accommodates 37.2 m2 (400f2);

A shell 90 cm (3 ft) diameter accommodates 102 m2 (1,100f2).

3. Tube side is for corrosive, fouling, scaling, and high-pressure fluids.

4. Shell side is for viscous and condensing fluids.

5. Pressure drops are 0.1 bar (1.5 psi) for boiling and 0.2-0.62 bar (3-9 psi) for other services.

6. Minimum temperature approach are 10°C (20°F) for fluids and 5°C (10°F) for refrigerants.

7. Cooling water inlet is 30°C (90°F), maximum outlet 45°C (115°F).


Continue…8. Heat transfer coefficients for estimating purposes, W /m2°C (Btu/hr ft2 0F):

a) Water to liquid, 850 (150).

b) Condensers, 850 (150).

c) Liquid to liquid, 280 (50).

d) Liquid to gas, 60 (10).

e) Gas to gas 30 (5).

f) Reboiler 1140 (200).

9. Maximum flux in reboiler 31.5 kW /m2 (10,000 Btu/hr f2). When phase changes occur, use a zoned analysis with appropriate coefficient for each zone.

10. Double-pipe exchanger is competitive at duties requiring 9.3-18.6 m2 (100-200ft2).

11. Compact (plate and fin) exchangers have 1150 m2/ m3 (350 ft2 / ft3), and about 4 times the heat transfer per cut of shell-and-tube units.

12. Plate and frame exchangers are suited to high sanitation services, and are 25-50% cheaper in stainless steel construction than shell-and-tube units


Continue…13. Air coolers:

a) Tubes are 0.75-1.0 in. OD.

b) Total finned surface 15-20 m2 /m2 (ft2 /ft2 bare surface),

c) U = 450-570 W /m2°C (80-100 Btu/hr ft2 (bare surface) 0F). Minimum approach temperature = 22°C (40°F). Fan input power = 1.4-3.6 kW /(MJ/h) [2-5 hp / (1000 Btu/hr)].

14. Fired heaters:

a) Radiant rate, 37.6 kW /m2 (12,000 Btu/hr ft2).

b) Convection rate, 12.5 kW /m2 (4,000 Btu/hr ft2 ).

c) Cold oil tube velocity = 1.8 m/s (6 ft/sec).

d) Flue gas temperature 140-19SoC (2SD-3S00F) above feed inlet.

e) Stack gas temperature 345-S10°C (650-950°F).


Calculation of Tube side Pressure Drop in Shell and Tube Exchangers

Part Pressure Drop in Number of Velocity

Heads

Equation

Entering plus exiting the exchanger

1.6

This term is small and often neglected.

Entering plus exiting the tubes

1.5

End losses in tube side bonnets and channels

1.0

g

Uh

26.1

2

Ng

Uh

T

25.1

2

Ng

Uh

T

20.1

2


Calculation of Tube side Pressure Drop in Air-Cooled Exchangers

Part Pressure Drop in Approximate Number of Velocity Heads

Equation

All losses except for straight tube

2.9

Ng

Uh

T

29.2

2


Pressure Drop for Baffles

For the additional drop for flow through the free area above, below or around the segmental baffles use

Where

W = Flow in lb/sec

NB = Number of baffles in series per shell pass

SB = Cross-sectional area for flow around

segmental baffles, ft2

gS

NNWP

B

spBr 2

2

Continued…

Approximate Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, U *

Continue…

Approximate Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, U *

Continue...

Heuristics for Towers

Distillation is usually the most economical method for separating liquids. For ideal mixtures, relative volatility is the ratio of vapor pressures Tower operating pressure is most often determined by the temperature of the condensing media, 38-50°C if cooling water is used; or by the maximum allowable re-boiler temperature to avoid chemical ecomposition/ degradation. Economical reflux ratio is in the range of 1.2-1.5

times the minimum reflux ratio, Rmin. The economical optimum number of theoretical trays is

near twice the minimum value Nmin.

2

112

PP

Distillation & Absorption

Continue…

The minimum number of trays is found with the Fenske-Underwood equation.

Reflux pump are made at least 10% oversize. The optimum value of the Kremser absorption factor

A = (L/mV) is in the range of 1.25 to 2.0. Reflux drums usually are horizontal, with a liquid hold up of 5

min half full. For towers about 0.9 m add 1.2 m at the top for vapor disengage-

ment and 1.8 m at bottom for liquid level and re-boiler return. Limit the tower height to about 53 m because of wind load and

foundation considerations. An additional criterion is that L/D be less than 30 (20 < L/D < 30 often will require special design)

ln11min btmsovhd xxxxN

Tray Towers For reasons of accessibility, tray spacings are made 0.5-0.6 m

(20-24 in). Peak efficiency of trays is at value of the vapor factor

in the range of 1.2-1.5 m/s Pressure drop per tray is of the order of 0.1 psi or 3 in of water.

Tray efficiencies for distillation of light hydrocarbons and aqueous solutions are 60-90%; for gas absorption and stripping 10-20%.

Sieve trays have holes 0.6-0.7 cm dia., area being 10% of the active cross section.

Valve trays have holes 3.8 cm dia. each provided with a lift-able cap 130-150 caps/m2 (12-14 caps/ft2) of active cross section.

Valve trays are usually cheaper than sieve trays.

Bubble cap trays are used only when a liquid level must be maintained at low turndown ratio

Weir heights are 5 cm (2 in)/ weir lengths are about 75% of tray diameter, liquid rate a maximum of 1.2 m3/min m of weir (8 gpm/in of weir); multi-pass arrangements are used at higher liquid rates.

5.os uF

Packed TowersReplacing trays with packing allows greater throughput and separation in existing tower shells.For gas rates of 14.2 m3/min (500ft3/min), use 2.5 cm (1 in.) packing; for 56.6 m3/min (2,000 ft3/min) or more use 5cm (2 in) packing.Ratio of tower diameter/packing diameter should be >15/1. Because of deformability, plastic packing is limited to 3-4 m (10-15 ft) and metal to 6.0-7.6 m (20-25 ft) unsupported depth.

Liquid distributors are required every 5-10 tower diameters with pall rings and at least every 6.5 m (20 ft) for other types of dumped packing. Number of liquid distributors should be >32-55/m2 (3-5/ff) in towers greater that 0.9 m (3 ft) diameter and more numerous in smaller columns. Packed tower should operate near 70% of flooding (evaluated from Sherwood and Lobo correlation)


Tanks / Vessels / Separators


Process Units

Capacity Unit

Max. Value Min. Value Comment

Horizontal Vessels

Pressure (bar)

400 Vacuum L/D typically 2-5

Temp. (0C) 400b -200

Height (m) 10 2

Diameter (m)

2 0.3

L/D 5 2

Vertical Vessel

Pressure (bar)

400 400 L/D typically 2-5

Temp. (0C) 400b -200

Height (m) 10 2

Diameter (m)

2 0.3

L/D 5 2

Process Units in Common Usages


Continue…

Towers Pressure (bar)

400 Vacuum Normal Limits

Temp. (0C)

400b -200 Diameter L/D

Height (m) 50 2 0.5 3.0-40c

Diameter (m)

4 0.3 1.0 2.5-30 c

L/D 30 2 2.0 1.6- 23 c

4.0 1.8-13 c


Heuristics for Process Vessels (Drums)

1. Drums are relatively small vessels that provide surge capacity or separation of entrained phases.

2. Liquid drums are usually horizontal.

3. Gas/liquid phase separators are usually vertical.

4. Optimum length/ diameter = 3, but the range 2.5 to 5 is common.

5. Holdup time is 5 min for half-full reflux drums and gas/liquid separators, 5-10 min for a product feeding another tower.

6. In drums feeding a furnace, 30 min for half-full drum is allowed.

7. Knockout drums placed ahead of compressors should hold no less than 10 times the liquid volume passing per minute.

8. Liquid/liquid separations are designed for settling velocity of 0.085-0.127 cm/s (2-3 in/min).

9. Gas velocity in gas/liquid separators, m/s (ft/sec) k = 0.11

(0.35) for systems with mesh de-entrainer and k = 0.0305 (0.1) without mesh de-entrainer.

10. Entrainment removal of 99% is attained with 10.2-30.5 cm (4-12 in) mesh pad thickness; 15.25 cm (6 in) thickness is popular.

11 v

kU


1. Design temperature between -30 and 345°C is 25°C above maximum operating temperature; higher safety margins are used outside the given temperature range.

2. The design pressure is 10% or 0.69-1.7 bar (10-25 psi) over the max. operating pressure, whichever is greater. The max. operating pressure, in turn, is taken as 1.7 bar (25 psi) above the normal operation.

3. Design pressures of vessels operating at 0-0.69 bar (0-10 psig) and 95-540°C (200-1000°F) are 2.76 barg (40 psig).

4. Minimum wall thickness for rigidity; 6.4 mm (0.25 in) for 1.07 m (42 in) dia. and under, 8.1 mm (0.32 in) for 1.07-1.52 m (42-60 in) dia., and 9.7 mm (0.38 in) for over 1.52 m (60 in) dia.

5. Corrosion allowance 8.9 mm (0.35 in) for known corrosive conditions, 3.8 mm (0.15 in) for non corrosive streams, and 1.5 mm (0.06 in) for steam drums and air receivers.

6. Allowable working stresses are one-fourth of the ultimate strength of the material.

Heuristics for Pressure Vessels


Heuristics for Storage Vessels1. For less than 3.8 m3 (1000 gal), use vertical tanks on legs.

2. Between 3.8-38 m3 (1000-10,000 gal), use horizontal tanks on concrete supports.

3. Beyond 38 m3 (10,000 gal) use vertical tanks on concrete pads.

4. Liquids subject to breathing losses may be stored in tanks with floating or expansion roofs for conservation.

5. Freeboard is 15% below 1.9 m3 (500 gal) and 10% above 1.9 m3 (500 gal) capacity.

6. Thirty days capacity often is specified for raw materials and products, but depends on connecting transportation equipment schedules.

7. Capacities of storage tanks are at least 1.5 times the size of connecting transportation equipment; for instance, 28.4 m3 (7500 gal) tanker trucks, 130 m3 (34,500 gal) rail cars, and virtually unlimited barge and tanker capacities.

Liquid Residence Time

For vapor/liquid separators there is often a liquid residence (holdup) time required for process surge. Following tables give various rules of thumb for approximate work.

Separator

Continue…

Figure 1 relates the K factor for a vertical vessel (K,) to:

whereW = Liquid or vapor flow rate, lb/secFor a horizontal vessel KH = 1.25 K,.Figure 1 is based upon 5% of the liquid entrained in the vapor. This isadequate for normal design. A mist eliminator can get entrainment down to 1%.

For vapor/liquid separators, this is usually expressed in terms of maximum velocity which is related to the difference in liquid and vapor densities. The standard equation is

whereU = Velocity, ft/secp = Density of liquid or vapor, lbs/ft3K = System constant

An equation has been developed for Figure 1 as follows:

A = -1.942936B = -0.814894C = -0.179390

D = -0.0123790E = 0.000386235F = 0.000259550

Continue...


Vertical Drum

This method uses the separation factor given in the section titled Vapor Residence Time. The first three steps use equations and a graph (or alternate equation) in that section to get K, and U vapor max

Nomenclature is explained there.

I. Calculate separation factor =2. Get Kv from graph or equation3. Calculate U vapor max

Vertical Drum

Horizontal Drum

The following quick method for sizing liquid-liquid phase separators empirically. The separation of mixtures of immiscible liquids constitutes one of the important chemical engineering operations. This empirical design has proven satisfactory for many phase separations.

Liquid/Liquid Calculation Method

Pressure Drop Across Mist EliminatorUse 1” H20 pressure drop.

Pressure Drop Entering Plus leaving VesselOne velocity head for inlet and one half for outlet pipe velocity is close.

Pressure Drop

opportunities in non contracting environments

Documents

corrective action

heat exchangers16

kind of action

process units

latent heat of vaporization

better inventory control

freezing temperature

pressure doubles