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OPTIMIZATION OF SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER

Abhishek Arya1 , Dangar Sunilbhai Dhanjibhai 2

(Assistant professor Department of mechanical engineering, SCE Bhopal) (M.tech scholar department of Mechanical engineering, SCE Bhopal)

ABSTRACT A heat exchanger is a device, which

transfer internal thermal energy between two or

more fluids at different temperature. Without this

essential piece of equipment most industrial

process would be impossible. Heat exchangers are

widely used in refrigeration air conditioning, and

chemical plants. They can be employed in various

uses, for instance, to effectively transmit heat

from one fluid to the other. Shell-and-tube heat

exchangers (STHXs) are widely applied in various

industrial fields such as petroleum refining, power

generation and chemical process, etc. Tremendous

efforts have been made to improve the

performances on the tube side.

In this project experimental performance is done

on the fixed designed STHX and calculate the heat

transfer coefficient and effectiveness. Validation is

to be carried out using which gives the result

comparison with that of experimental result. Here

flow parameters are not varied but size and

number of tubes are varied and best efficient

model is selected as Optimized value. 3 different

number of tubes are used with same shell size

remaining same. 40 tubes , 32 tubes and 36 tubes

were tried . It's been observed for same input

temperatures and mass flow rates for three

different models one with 36 tubes , 32 tubes

model &other with 40 tubes, the temperature

variation in 36 tubes is more and also requires less

tubes compared to 40 tube model. so it is more

effective than tubes model.

1. INTRODUCTION Heat Exchanger:

heat exchanger is a device, which

transfer internal thermal energy between

two or more fluids at different

temperature. Without this essential piece of

equipment most industrial process would be

impossible.

Heat exchangers are widely used in refrigeration air

conditioning, and chemical plants. They can be

employed in various uses, for instance, to

effectively transmit heat from one fluid to the

other. Shell-and-tube heat exchangers (STHXs) are

widely applied in various industrial fields such as

petroleum refining, power generation and chemical

process, etc. Tremendous efforts have been made

to improve the performances on the tube side. For

the shell side, the velocity and temperature fields

are relatively complicated and the thermal

hydraulic performance depends on the baffle

elements to a great extent.

Shell-and-tube heat exchangers are fabricated with

round tubes mounted in cylindrical shells with their

axes coaxial with the shell axis. The differences

between the many variations of this basic type of

heat exchanger lie mainly in their construction

features and the provisions made for handling

differential thermal expansion between tubes and

shell. These are types of heat exchangers with the

outer area surrounding the tubes called shell side

and the inside of the tubes are called tube side

baffles are usually installed to increase the

A

27

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International Journal of Advanced Technology for Science & Engineering Research. www.ijatser.com, Volume 1, Issue 2, November 2015 – December 2015, 7-35

convective coefficient of the shell side fluid by

inducing turbulence.

1.1Classification of Shell-and-Tube Heat

Exchangers

Shell-and-tube heat exchangers can be classified

based on construction, or on service. Both

classifications are discussed in the paragraphs

below.

1.1.1 Classification based on construction:

Fixed Tube sheet:

A fixed tube sheet heat exchanger (Figure 1) has

straight tubes that are secured at both ends to tube

sheets welded to the shell. The principal advantage

of fixed tube sheet construction is its low cost

because of its simple construction. In fact, the fixed

tube sheet is the least expensive construction type,

as long as no expansion joint is required. Other

advantages are that the tubes can be cleaned

mechanically after removal of the channel cover or

bonnet, and that leakage of shell-side fluid is

minimized since there are no flanged joint.

A disadvantage of this design is that the since the

bundle is fixed to the shell and cannot be removed,

the outside of the tubes cannot be cleaned

mechanically. Thus, its application is limited to

clean services on the shell-side.

Figure 1.1 Fixed Tube sheet Heat Exchanger[B1]

U Tube Shell and heat Exchanger:

U Tube As the name implies, the tubes of a U-tube

heat exchanger (Figure 2.3) are bent in the shape of

a U. There is only one tube sheet in a U-tube heat

exchanger. However, the lower cost for a single

tube sheet is offset by the additional costs incurred

for the bending of the tubes and somewhat larger

shell diameter (due to the minimum U-bend

radius), making the cost of a U-tube heat exchanger

comparable to that of the fixed tube sheet heat

exchanger.

Figure 1.2 U-Tube Heat Exchanger[B1]

The advantage of a U-tube heat exchanger is that

because one end is free, the bundle can expand or

contract in response to stress differentials. In

addition, the outsides of tubes can be cleaned as

the tube bundle can be removed.

Floating Head:

The floating head heat exchanger is the most

versatile type of shell-and-tube heat exchanger,

and also is the costliest. In this design, one tube

sheet is fixed relative to the shell, and the other is

free to float within the shell.

Figure 1.3 Pull-through Floating Head Heat

Exchanger (TEMA S)[B1]

The TEMA S design is the most common

configuration in the chemical process industries.

The floating head cover is secured against the

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floating tube sheet by bolting it to an ingenious

split backing ring. This floating head closure is

located beyond the end of the shell and is

contained by a shell cover of a larger diameter.

1.1.2Classification based on service:

Basically, a service may be single phase (such as

cooling or heating of a liquid or gas) or two phase

(such as condensing or vaporizing). Since there are

two sides to shell-and-tube heat exchangers, this

can lead to several combinations of services.

Broadly services can be classified as follows:

• Single-phase (both shell-side and tube-side)

• Condensing (one side condensing and the other

single-phase)

• Vaporizing (one side vaporizing and the other

single-phase)

• Condensing/ vaporizing (one side condensing and

the other vaporizing)

The following nomenclature is normally used:

i. Heat Exchanger: Both sides single phase

and process streams (as opposed to

utility)

ii. Cooler: One stream a process fluid and

the other cooling water or air

iii. Heater: One stream a process fluid and

the other a hot utility such as steam or

hot oil

iv. Condenser: One stream a condensing

vapour and the other cooling water or air

v. Chiller: One stream a process fluid being

condensed at sub-atmospheric

temperature and the other a boiling

refrigerant or process stream.

vi. Reboilers: One stream a bottoms stream

from a distillation column and the other a

hot utility (steam or hot oil) or a process

stream.

1.1.3General TEMA exchanger classes-R, C and B.

There are three basic categories of shell and tube

type heat exchanger in heat exchanger in TEMA-

class R, class C, and class B. The difference I class is

the degree of severity of service the heat

exchanger will encounter. Descriptions of the three

classes are as follow:

i Class R – includes heat exchanger specified

for the most sever service in the

petrochemical processing industry. Safety

and durability are required for exchangers

designed for such rigorous conditions.

ii Class C – includes heat exchanged for the

generally moderate services and

requirements. Economy and overall

compactness are the two essential features

of this class.

iii Class B – are exchangers specified for

general process service. Maximum

economy and compactness are the main

criteria of design.

1.1.4 According to process requirement:

Process requirements dedicate the type of design

used. Figure shows some of the type of the major

construction. The standard TEMA classification of

exchanger is use the shell identification and

number with the exchanger designation type.

1.2 Introduction to Heat Exchanger Components

1. Shell 16. Tubes (U-type)

2. Shell cover 17. Tie rods and spacers

3. Shell flange

(channel end)

18. Transverse (or cross) baffles

or support plates

4. Shell flange (cover

end)

19. Longitudinal baffles

5. Shell nozzle or

branch

20. Impingement baffles

6. Floating tube

sheet

21. Floating head support

7. Floating head

cover

22. Pass partition

8. Floating head

flange

23. Vent connection

9. Floating head

gland

24. Drain connection

10. Floating head

backing ring

25. Instrument connection

11. Stationary tube 26. Expansion bellows


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sheet

12. Channel or

stationary head

27. Support saddles

13. Channel cover 28. Lifting lugs

14. Channel nozzle or

branch

29. Weir

15. Tube (straight) 30. Liquid level connection

1.3 Basic Component of Shell and Tube Heat

Exchanger Components:

Shell:

Shell is the container for the shell fluid and the tube

bundle is placed inside the shell. Shell diameter

should be selected in such a way to give a close fit

of the tube bundle.

Tube:

Tube OD of ¾’’ and 1’’ are very common to design

a compact heat exchanger. The most efficient

condition for heat transfer is to have the

maximum number of tubes in the shell to increase

turbulence. The tube thickness should be enough

to withstand the internal pressure along with the

adequate corrosion allowance.

2.1.1 Tube pitch, tube-layout and tube-count

Tube pitch is the shortest centre to centre

distance between the adjacent tubes. The tubes

are generally placed in square or triangular

patterns (pitch) as shown in the Figure 2.8.The

widely used tube layouts are illustrated in Table

1.1

Table 1.1 Common tube layouts

Tube OD, in Pitch type Tube pitch, in

¾ Square 1

1 - 1 ¼

¾ Triangular 15/16

¾ - 1

The number of tubes that can be accommodated in

a given shell ID is called tube count. The tube count

depends on the factors like shell ID, OD of tube,

tube pitch, tube layout, number of tube passes,

type of heat exchanger and design pressure.

Figure 1.7 Heat exchanger tube-layouts[B1]

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Vindhya Vasiny Prasad Dubey, Raj Rajat Verma:[1]- This paper is concerned with the study of shell & tube type heat exchangers along with its applications and also refers to several scholars who have given the contribution in this regard. Moreover the constructional details, design methods and the reasons for the wide acceptance of shell and tube type heat exchangers has been described in details inside the paper.

M. M. El-Fawal, A. A. Fahmy and B. M. Taher:[2]- In this paper a computer program for economical design of shell and tube heat exchanger using specified pressure drop is established to minimize the cost of the equipment. The design procedure depends on using the acceptable pressure drops in order to minimize the thermal surface area for a certain service, involving discrete decision variables. Also the proposed method takes into account several geometric and operational constraints typically recommended by design codes, and provides global optimum solutions as opposed to local optimum solutions that are typically obtained with many other optimization methods.

M.Serna and A.Jimenez:[3]-They have presented a compact formulation to relate the shell-side pressure drop with the exchanger area and the film coefficient based on the full Bell–Delaware method. In addition to the derivation of the shell side compact expression, they have developed a compact pressure drop equation for the tube-side stream, which accounts for both straight pressure drops and return losses. They have shown how the compact formulations can be used within an efficient design algorithm. They have found a satisfactory performance of the proposed


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algorithms over the entire geometry range of single phase, shell and tube heat exchangers.

Andre L.H. Costa, Eduardo M. Queiroz:[4]-Studied that techniques were employed according to distinct problem formulations in relation to: (i) heat transfer area or total annualized costs, (ii) constraints: heat transfer and fluid flow equations, pressure drop and velocity bound; and (iii) decision variable: selection of different search variables and its characterization as integer or continuous. This paper approaches the optimization of the design of shell and tube heat exchangers. The formulation of the problem seeks the minimization of the thermal surfaces of the equipment, for certain minimum excess area and maximum pressure drops, considering discrete decision variables. Important additional constraints, usually ignored in previous optimization schemes, are included in order to approximate the solution to the design practice.

G.N. Xie, Q.W. Wang , M. Zeng, L.Q. Luo:[5]- carried out an experimental system for investigation on performance of shell-and-tube heat exchangers, and limited experimental data is obtained. The ANN is applied to predict temperature differences and heat transfer rate for heat exchangers. BP algorithm is used to train and test the network. It is shown that the predicted results are close to experimental data by ANN approach. Comparison with correlation for prediction heat transfer rate shows ANN is superior to correlation, indicating that ANN technique is a suitable tool for use in the prediction of heat transfer rates than empirical correlations. It is recommended that ANNs can be applied to simulate thermal systems, especially for engineers to model the complicated heat exchangers in engineering applications.

B.V. Babu, S.A. Munawarb:[6]- in the present study for the first time DE, an improved version of genetic algorithms (GAs), has been successfully applied with different strategies for 1,61,280 design configurations using Bell’s method to find the heat transfer area. In the application of DE, 9680 combinations of the key parameters are considered. For comparison, GAs are also applied for the same case study with 1080 combinations of its parameters. For this optimal design problem, it is found that DE, an exceptionally simple evolution strategy, is significantly faster compared to GA and yields the global optimum for a wide range of the key parameters.

Resat Selbas, Onder Kızılkan, Marcus Reppich:[7]- Applied genetic algorithms (GA) for the optimal design of shell-and-tube heat exchanger by varying the design variables: outer tube diameter, tube layout, number of tube passes, outer shell diameter, baffle spacing and baffle cut. From this study it was concluded that the combinatorial algorithms such as GA provide significant improvement in the optimal designs compared to the traditional designs. GA application for determining the global minimum heat exchanger cost is significantly faster and has an advantage over other methods in obtaining multiple solutions of same quality.

Zahid H. Ayub:[8]-A new chart method is presented to calculate single-phase shell side heat transfer coefficient in a typical TEMA style single segmental shell and tube heat exchanger. A case study of rating water-to-water exchanger is shown to indicate the result from this method with the more established procedures and software available in the market. The results show that this new method is reliable and comparable to the most widely known HTRI software.

Yusuf Ali Kara, Ozbilen Guraras:[9]-Prepared a computer based design model for preliminary design of shell and tube heat exchangers with single phase fluid flow both on shell and tube side. The program determines the overall dimensions of the shell, the tube bundle, and optimum heat transfer surface area required to meet the specified heat transfer duty by calculating minimum or allowable shell side pressure drop. He concluded that circulating cold fluid in shell-side has some advantages on hot fluid as shell stream since the former causes lower shell-side pressure drop and requires smaller heat transfer area than the latter and thus it is better to put the stream with lower mass flow rate on the shell side because of the baffled space.

Su Thet Mon Than, Khin Aung Lin, Mi Sandar Mon:[10]- In this paper data is evaluated for heat transfer area and pressure drop and checking whether the assumed design satisfies all requirement or not. The primary aim of this design is to obtain a high heat transfer rate without exceeding the allowable pressure drop.

3. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION Problem definition:


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The most commonly used baffle is the segmental

baffle, which forces the shell-side fluid to go

through in a zigzag manner. But there are three

major drawbacks in the conventional shell-and-

tube heat exchangers with segmental baffles

(STHXSB):

(1) it causes a large shell-side pressure drop;

(2) it results in a dead zone in each compartment

between two adjacent segmental baffles, leading to

an increase of fouling resistance;

(3) the dramatic zigzag flow pattern also causes

high risk of vibration failure on tube bundle.

Thus, higher pumping power is often needed to

offset the higher pressure drop under the same

thermal load. Therefore, it is essential to develop a

new type of STHXs with improved baffles and

reduce pressure drop while maintaining and even

increasing shell side heat transfer performance.

Helical baffle heat exchangers have shown very

effective performance especially for the cases in

which the heat transfer coefficient in shell side is

controlled; or less pressure drop and less fouling

are expected. It can also be very effective, where

heat exchangers are predicted to be faced with

vibration condition.

From experimental performance, validation is to be

carried out. One design problem is taken from the

SAL STEEL, KANDLA as a case study and design

optimization of Heat exchanger and validate the

result with the software data.

Limitations:

1) Thermal and mechanical design should be

consider as basic aspects.

2) Design of shell and tube heat exchanger

has to be done in accordance to ASME

and TEMA standards.

3) The materials and size for the shell, tubes

and other components are to be selected

as available in Indian market.

Rating and sizing are the main problems related

with the STHX.

For Rating:

Experimental performance is done on the fixed

designed STHX and calculate the heat transfer

coefficient and effectiveness. Validation is to be

carried out which gives the result comparison with

that of experimental result. For the effective and

satisfactory solution of the given problem, a

systematic step by step procedure is required to be

followed as under: Calculation of heat transfer co

efficient and effectiveness of the experimental

data.

1) Validation of CFD code with experiment data.

2) Analytical calculation of mechanical design

data.

3) CFD analysis of shell and tube heat exchanger

for different number of tubes and optimising

result for greater effectiveness.

For sizing problem:

Design problem from a company has been taken as

a case study. For that purpose following steps are

required:

1. Thermal design and mechanical design is

calculated analytically.

2. Selection of the tube diameter, and other

data according from the different

standard.

3. Mass flow rates and inlet temperatures

are kept constant, no of tubes are to be

varied for effective heat transfer.

4. Calculation of the no of tubes required is

done by using CFD.

4. METHODOLOGY

Heat exchanger thermal design problems may be categorized primary as rating and sizing problems. The fluid outlet temperatures, total heat transfer capability, and pressure drops on each side of the heat exchanger are then determined in the rating problem. In contrast, in the sizing problem, the core lengths, surface areas and core dimensions are to be determined. Inputs to the sizing problems are surface geometries (including their heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics), fluid flow rates inlet and outlet fluid temperatures, fouling factors,


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and pressure drop on each side. The sizing problem is also sometimes referred to as the design problem Heat Exchanger design methodology for optimum design is illustrated in fig-4.1, which include various quantitative steps involved in arriving at the optimum heat exchanger design. These steps include thermal and hydraulic design, mechanical design, evaluation procedure and costing. Now mechanical design is done to ensure the mechanical integrity of the exchanger under steady and transient operating conditions.

A proper selection of the material and method of bonding fins thickness.

A proper selection of the material and method of bonding fins to plates or tubes is made depending upon the operating temperatures, pressure and fluids.

A proper selection of headers, tanks, manifolds, nozzles or pipes is made to ensure uniform flow distribution through the exchanger passages.

Several option solutions may be available when the thermal and mechanical designs are completed. The designer then considers the evaluation procedure (evaluation criteria and tread-off factors.) and cost estimating to arrive at an optimum solution.

4.1 Testing of the performance: Different types of tests are employed for the heat exchangers. For the evaluation of the heat transfer, pressure drop, temperature distribution and velocity by using small models to acceptance test of large full scale units. The selection and delineation of the test to be run, the design of the test set up, the conduct of the tests.

4.2 Heat transfer based performance test: a Heat Balances:- In the analysis of the heat

transfer test data is the heat balance obtained by comparing the heat given up by the hot fluids the heat absorbed by the cold fluid. The difference between these two quantities can be compared with the estimated heat losses.

b Temperature Stabilization:- For heat transfer performance tests, the test procedure should be worked out concurrently with the design of the test rig to facilitate the conduct of the test and the reduction of the test data. Depending on the size of unit, the heat capacity of various components m the test setup, and heat losses, it is usually necessary

to stabilize from several minutes to several hours for each point in order to obtain good equilibrium conditions and Constant. If room air is used care should be taken to avoid temperature irregularities arising from the opening and closing of door and windows

Correlation of data

It always important to correlated the experimentally evaluated performance of the heat exchanger with the analytically. This is desirable partly to check both the design and testing techniques and partly to provide the engineer to with a better background for future work of a similar nature. In reducing test data, first step in deciding how we organise •and reduce the data for finding out to which the physical properties of the fluid changes with the temperature covered in the test.

4.3 Flow Test: Tests of this sort may be carried out with simple models, since no provisions for heat addition or extraction need be employed. In these tests the only requirement is that the model be geometrically similar and that the Reynolds number be in the range of interest. Thus the tests may be carried out with water or air rather than with fluids that would be difficult to handle. Air is especially suited to tests of this sort, because the models can be inexpensive in construction and small leaks will not make a mess.

4.4 Structural tests:


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Structural tests on heat exchanger components such as pressure vessels or head can be carried out using any of a variety of techniques. Probably the most common approach is to build a fractional-or full-scale model of the structural element in question and determine the stress distribution with strain gauges. These can be applied in gauge lengths of as little as 6 mm. In one instance some 1300 strain gauges were installed on a 1/5-scale model of a complex pressure vessel; the cost of the test amounted to approximately 3% of the cost of the completed vessel, but it increased enormously the degree of confidence that could be placed in the design

4.5 Leak Test The problem related to the heat exchanger is to find out the location of the leakage and try to detect it. For that purpose various testing methods are applied.

I. Soap Bubble Test:

II. Rate of pressure rise:

III. Helium Leak Test

5. EXPERIMENTAL SET UP

5.1 Experimental Set up and Specification data of

Shell and tube heat exchanger:

Table 5.1Specification data

Tube Material: Stainless

steel

Tube side fluid: warm

water

Tube side pass number:

1

Tube Arrangement:

Triangular

Tube number: 24 Tube Effective Length:

750 mm

Tube Pitch: 16 mm Tube type: smooth

Tube inner diameter:

4.5 mm

Tube outer diameter:

6.35 mm

Shell inner

diameter:116 mm

Shell side Fluid: cool

water

Baffle No: 4 Baffle Type: 25% cut

Baffle Spacing: 300mm Baffle geometry Angle:

900

Figure 5.1 Dimension of the experimental set up

Table 5.2OBSERVATIONS

SR.no Hot water Cold water

INLET OUTLET INLET OUTLET

Parallel 42ᵒC 32ᵒC 24ᵒC 28ᵒC

Counter 53ᵒC 39ᵒC 26ᵒC 35ᵒC

Specifications:

Specific heat water = 4.174 kJ/kg k

Inside area of tube = 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 = 𝜋𝜋 × 4.5 × 10−3 ×0.75 × 24 = 0.2544 𝑚𝑚2

Outside Area of tube = 𝐴𝐴0 = 𝜋𝜋 × 6.35 × 10−3 ×0.75 × 24 = 0.359 𝑚𝑚2

Density of Water = 1000 kg/m3

For Parallel Flow:

1. Hot mass flow rate of the hot fluid mh = 1/th = 1/43 = 0.023 Lit/sec

2. Heat transfer rate at hot side Qh = mhcp∆Th

=0.023 × 4.174 × (42 − 32) =1.34 kJ/sec

3. Mass flow rate of cold fluid mc=1/tc= 1/26 = 0.038 Lit/sec

4. Heat transfer rate at cold side Qc = mc

cp∆th

= 0.038× 4.178 × 4


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= 0.6429 kJ/sec

∆T𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 =∆T𝑖𝑖 − ∆Tℎ

log∆T𝑖𝑖∆Tℎ�

𝑖𝑖

Where,∆T𝑖𝑖 = Thi -Tci= 42 – 24 = 18ᵒC

∆Tℎ = Tho - Tco = 32 – 28 = 4ᵒC ……….For Parallel Condition

5. Heat Transfer Co efficient

i) Inside Heat Transfer Co efficient

𝑈𝑈ℎ =𝑄𝑄ℎ

𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 × ∆T𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙=

1.34 0.2544 × 21.43= 0.2457 kW/𝑚𝑚2ᵒC

ii) Outside Heat Transfer Co efficient

Uc =Qc

Ao × ∆Tlm=

0.6429 0.359 × 21.43= 0.0835 kW/m2ᵒC

6. Effectiveness of heat Exchanger,

𝜀𝜀 = (Thi − Tho )(Thi − Tci)�

….………Because mh< R mc

𝜀𝜀 = 1018

= 0.55

6. REFERENCES

1. Vindhya Vasiny Prasad Dubey1, Raj Rajat Verma Shell & Tube Type Heat Exchangers: An Overview vol.2 issue 6 -2014 ISSN (ONLINE): 2321-3051 2. M. M. El-Fawal, A. A. Fahmy and B. M. Taher, “Modelling of Economical Design of Shell and tube heat exchanger Using Specified Pressure Drop”, 28 (2010) Journal of American Science. 3. M.Serna and A.Jimenez, “A compact formulation of the Bell Delaware method for Heat Exchanger design and optimization”, Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 83(A5) (2009): 539–550. 4. Andre L.H. Costa, Eduardo M. Queiroz, “Design optimization of shell-and-tube heat exchangers”, Applied Thermal Engineering 28 (2008) 1798–1805. 5. G.N. Xie, Q.W. Wang , M. Zeng, L.Q. Luo, “Heat transfer analysis for shell and tube heat exchanger with experimental data by artificial neural networks approach”, Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 1096–1104. 6. B.V. Babu, S.A. Munawarb, “Differential evolution strategies for optimal design of shell and

tube heat exchanger”, Chemical Engineering Science 62 (2007) 3720 – 3739. 7. Resat Selbas, Onder Kızılkan, Marcus Reppich, “A new design approach for shell and tube heat exchanger using genetic algorithms from economic point of view”, Chemical Engineering and Processing 45 (2006) 268–275. 8. Zahid H. Ayub, “A new chart method for evaluating singlephase shell side heat transfer coefficient in a single segmental Shell and tube heat exchanger”, Applied Thermal Engineering 25 (2005) 2412–2420. 9. Yusuf Ali Kara, Ozbilen Guraras, “A computer program for designing of Shell and tube heat exchanger”, Applied Thermal Engineering 24(2004) 1797–1805. 10.Sadik kakac, “Heat Exchangers Selection, Rating and Thermal Design”, 2002.


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