Optimizing PerformanceOptimizing Performance in Sportin Sport

Prof. G.GalantiProf. G.Galanti A.A. 2002-2003A.A. 2002-2003

It is the process that make the athletesable to improve their exercise performance, efficency and tolerance to physical stress.

It represents the body adaptations to chronic exposure to exercise.

These adaptations are higly specific

to the type of training, and their magnitude are related to the volume (quantity) and

intensity (quality) of Training.

Sports training

CRMSCRMS

L’insieme di caratteristiche L’insieme di caratteristiche cardiorespiratorie,cardiorespiratorie,neuromuscolari e neuromuscolari e

psicologiche ,naturali odpsicologiche ,naturali odacquisite,che permettono all’atleta di acquisite,che permettono all’atleta di

effettuareeffettuarela prestazione sportiva con il massimo la prestazione sportiva con il massimo

rendimento rendimento e con il minimo pericolo di infortunioe con il minimo pericolo di infortunio

“ “ Condizione Atletica”Condizione Atletica”

Quantifying Sport TrainingQuantifying Sport Training

Over TrainingOver TrainingDemands of Demands of TrainingTraining

VolumeVolume

IntensityIntensity

Effects of OTEffects of OT

Predicting OTSPredicting OTS

Treatment OTSTreatment OTS

ANSANSHormonHormon

ImmunityImmunity

Blood EnzBlood EnzO2 consO2 cons

ECGECGHRHR

DetrainingDetraining RetrainingRetraining

Musc StrengthMusc StrengthMusc PowerMusc PowerMusc EndMusc End

CardioRe EndCardioRe EndFlexibilityFlexibility

Tapering Tapering of Peak of Peak

PerformancePerformance

Basic PrinciplesBasic Principles

1.1. The Principle of IndividualityThe Principle of Individuality2.2. The Principle of SpecificityThe Principle of Specificity3.3. The Principle of Progressive OverloadThe Principle of Progressive Overload4.4. The Principle of Hard / EasyThe Principle of Hard / Easy5.5. The Principle of PeriodizationThe Principle of Periodization6.6. The Principle of DisuseThe Principle of Disuse

Basic Training PrinciplesBasic Training Principles

Basic Training PrinciplesBasic Training Principles

1. The Principle of Individuality1. The Principle of IndividualityDifferent people respond to the same training in different Different people respond to the same training in different ways. Heredity plays a major role in determining how ways. Heredity plays a major role in determining how quickly and to what degree the athlete adapts to a training quickly and to what degree the athlete adapts to a training program.program.

For these reasons any training program For these reasons any training program “must take into “must take into account the specific needs and abilities of the individuals account the specific needs and abilities of the individuals for whom it is designed.”for whom it is designed.”

Basic Training PrinciplesBasic Training Principles

2. The Principle of Specificity2. The Principle of SpecificityTo maximize the benefits, training must be specifically To maximize the benefits, training must be specifically matched to the type of activity the athlete use to be matched to the type of activity the athlete use to be engaged in. (engaged in. (endurance vs strenght and power trainingendurance vs strenght and power training).).By this principle the training program must stress the By this principle the training program must stress the physiological systems that are critical for optimal athlete’s physiological systems that are critical for optimal athlete’s performance, in order to achieve performance, in order to achieve specific adaptations for specific adaptations for specific sports.specific sports.

3. The Principle of Progressive Overload3. The Principle of Progressive OverloadOverload Overload andand Progressive Training Progressive Training are the foundation of are the foundation of all training programs. all training programs. A well-designed Training Program must involve working A well-designed Training Program must involve working the muscles, respiratory and cardiovascular systems the muscles, respiratory and cardiovascular systems harder than normal (harder than normal (overloadoverload); as the body adapts, ); as the body adapts, Training progresses to a higher work level (Training progresses to a higher work level (progressive progressive trainingtraining))

Basic Training PrinciplesBasic Training Principles

4. The Principle of Hard / Soft4. The Principle of Hard / SoftBill Bowerman (former U.S. Olympic track coach and Bill Bowerman (former U.S. Olympic track coach and founder of NIKE) developed a training strategy for his founder of NIKE) developed a training strategy for his distance running that became known as distance running that became known as ‘ The principle of ‘ The principle of hard / soft’.hard / soft’.

According to this principle, one or two days of hard According to this principle, one or two days of hard training should be followed by one day of soft training, training should be followed by one day of soft training, allowing the fully recover of body and mind and prevent allowing the fully recover of body and mind and prevent the athlete’s overtraining.the athlete’s overtraining.

Basic Training PrinciplesBasic Training Principles

Endurance athletes mustEndurance athletes mustpay particular attention to pay particular attention to

their carbohydrate intake intheir carbohydrate intake inthe periods of hard training,the periods of hard training,

in order to avoid the depletionin order to avoid the depletionof glycogen reserves.of glycogen reserves.

Importance of the dietImportance of the diet

5. The Principle of Periodization5. The Principle of PeriodizationPeriodization is the gradual cycling of Periodization is the gradual cycling of

specificityspecificity, , intensity intensity and and volume volume of training to of training to achieve achieve peak levelspeak levels of fitnessof fitness for competition. for competition.

Basic Training PrinciplesBasic Training Principles

6. The Principle of Disuse6. The Principle of Disuse“ “ Use it or loose it”Use it or loose it”

According to this principle, training benefits are lost if According to this principle, training benefits are lost if training is either discontinued or reduced too abruptly.training is either discontinued or reduced too abruptly.

To avoid this, all training programs must include a To avoid this, all training programs must include a maintenance programmaintenance program..

Basic Training PrinciplesBasic Training Principles

The Volume of TrainingThe Volume of Training

Training volume can be increasedTraining volume can be increased by increasing eitherby increasing either

the the duration duration or the or the frequencyfrequency of training bouts. of training bouts.Numerous studies have shownNumerous studies have shown

no significant differences in improvment between no significant differences in improvment between athletes who train with typicalathletes who train with typical

training volumes and those who train withtraining volumes and those who train with twice the volume twice the volume

Changes in swimmers’sChanges in swimmers’s(a) blood lactate levels (a) blood lactate levels (b) heart rate (b) heart rate during standarized swim during standarized swim during 25 wk of training,during 25 wk of training,once once (group1) or (group1) or twicetwice (group2) day(group2) day

Volume of TrainingVolume of Training

0

0,2

0,4

0,6

0,8

1

1,2

LS group SS group

<5.000m/day<5.000m/day>10.000m/day>10.000m/day

Performance improvement of different Performance improvement of different trained male swimmers trained male swimmers

% i m

pro v

me n

t pe r

ye a

r%

i mp r

o vm

ent p

e r y

ear

Intensity of trainingIntensity of trainingTraining intensity relates to both the force of Training intensity relates to both the force of

muscle action (muscle action (strength and power trainingstrength and power training) and ) and the stress placed on the cardiovascular system the stress placed on the cardiovascular system

((aerobic trainingaerobic training).).Training Intensity is typically relate to the Training Intensity is typically relate to the %% of of

the athlete’s the athlete’s VO2 max.VO2 max.

Intensity of trainingIntensity of training

Training intensity of between Training intensity of between

50% and 90% VO2max50% and 90% VO2max

produce marked improvement in aerobic produce marked improvement in aerobic

capacity for most peoplecapacity for most people

OVERTRAININGOVERTRAININGMore is not always betterMore is not always better

OvertrainingOvertrainingThe only way to continue to improve exercise The only way to continue to improve exercise performance with training is to progressively performance with training is to progressively

increase the training stress. increase the training stress. However, when this concept is carried too far, pushing However, when this concept is carried too far, pushing the body beyond its ability to adapt, the training may the body beyond its ability to adapt, the training may

became excessive.became excessive.

An excessive training produces no additional An excessive training produces no additional improvement in conditioning or performance and improvement in conditioning or performance and

can lead to a chronic state of fatigue that is can lead to a chronic state of fatigue that is associated with muscle glycogen depletion.associated with muscle glycogen depletion.

This condition is termed This condition is termed OvertrainingOvertraining..

OvertrainingOvertraining

Overtraining is an imbalance between exercise and Overtraining is an imbalance between exercise and recovery in which the athlete’s training program recovery in which the athlete’s training program execeeds the body’s physiologic and psycologic execeeds the body’s physiologic and psycologic limits and causes fatigue and reduced functional limits and causes fatigue and reduced functional capacity.This problem results from a short-tocapacity.This problem results from a short-tomedium-term increase in training volume and/or medium-term increase in training volume and/or intensityover the athlete’s previously substantial intensityover the athlete’s previously substantial baseline. baseline.

OvertrainingOvertraining

Developement of OvertrainingDevelopement of Overtraining

Emotional factorsEmotional factors : : Demands of competitionDemands of competition Desire to winDesire to win Fear of failureFear of failure Unrealistically high goalsUnrealistically high goals

Physical factorsPhysical factors

OVERTRAININGOVERTRAINING

Decline in performance accompained by a loss in competitive desire and a loss in enthusiasm

for training

Developement of OvertrainingDevelopement of OvertrainingPhysical factorsPhysical factors

Too intenseToo intenseTraining loadTraining load

Too highToo highTraining volumeTraining volume

Excessive trainingExcessive training

Overcaming the body’s ability of recovering and Overcaming the body’s ability of recovering and adaptingadapting

Catabolism > AnabolismCatabolism > AnabolismOvertrainingOvertraining syndromesyndrome

OvertrainingOvertraining is characterized by a is characterized by a sudden decline in sudden decline in athlete’s performanceathlete’s performance that cannot be remedied by a few that cannot be remedied by a few

days of rest and dietary manipulation.days of rest and dietary manipulation.

It must be distinguished from It must be distinguished from FatigueFatigue that often follows one that often follows one or more exhaustive training session that is usually corrected or more exhaustive training session that is usually corrected

by a few days of rest and a carbohydrate-rich diet.by a few days of rest and a carbohydrate-rich diet.

Overtraining SyndromeOvertraining Syndrome

Subjective sense of loss in muscular Subjective sense of loss in muscular strenght, coordination and maximal working strenght, coordination and maximal working capacitycapacity

Decrease appetite and body weight lossDecrease appetite and body weight loss Muscle tenderness Muscle tenderness

Principal symptomsPrincipal symptoms

Overtraining SyndromeOvertraining Syndrome

Head colds, allergic reaction or bothHead colds, allergic reaction or both Occasional nauseaOccasional nausea Sleep disturbancesSleep disturbances Elevated resting heart rateElevated resting heart rate Elevated blood pressureElevated blood pressure

Other symptomsOther symptoms

Overtraining SyndromeOvertraining Syndrome

The symptoms of overtraining are highly individualized and subjective, so they cannot be

universally applied.

The presence of one or more of these symptomsThe presence of one or more of these symptomsis sufficent to alert the coach or trainer that an is sufficent to alert the coach or trainer that an

athlete migth be overtrained athlete migth be overtrained

Overtraining SyndromeOvertraining Syndrome

Changes associated with Changes associated with overtraining syndromeovertraining syndrome

Abnormal responses of Abnormal responses of Autonomic Nervous SystemAutonomic Nervous System

Sympathetic mediated symptoms (more frequents)Sympathetic mediated symptoms (more frequents) •• increased resting heart rateincreased resting heart rate

• • increased blood pressureincreased blood pressure

•• loss of appetite loss of appetite

• • decreased body massdecreased body mass

• • sleep disturbancessleep disturbances

• • emotional instabilityemotional instability

• • elevated basal metabolic rateelevated basal metabolic rate

Elevated blood levelsElevated blood levelsof epinephrine andof epinephrine and

norepinephrine norepinephrine

Abnormal responses of Abnormal responses of Autonomic Nervous SystemAutonomic Nervous System

Parasympathetic mediated symptoms (less frequents)Parasympathetic mediated symptoms (less frequents)

• • early onset of fatigue early onset of fatigue

• • decreasing resting heart ratedecreasing resting heart rate

• • less rapid HR recovery after exercise less rapid HR recovery after exercise

• • decreased resting blood pressuredecreased resting blood pressure

Overtraining on runner’s heart rate Overtraining on runner’s heart rate responseresponse

Hormonal response to Overtraining

TestosteroneTestosterone ThyroxineThyroxine CortisolCortisol

Testosterone/CortisolTestosterone/Cortisol

Protein catabolismProtein catabolism (( blood urea ) blood urea )

Loss in lean body massLoss in lean body mass

Changes in hormone blood levelsChanges in hormone blood levelsduring a period of intensified training during a period of intensified training

Overtraining and Immunity Overtraining and Immunity One of the most serious One of the most serious

consequences of overtraining is the consequences of overtraining is the depression of the immune responsedepression of the immune response

that places the athlete at an increased that places the athlete at an increased risk for infection and increase the risk risk for infection and increase the risk

of even greater complications.of even greater complications.

Amount of exercise and risk of upper Amount of exercise and risk of upper respiratory tract infections respiratory tract infections

May Overtraining syndrome May Overtraining syndrome be predictable?be predictable?

1.1. changes in blood levels of muscular enzymes changes in blood levels of muscular enzymes (CK, LDH, SGOT)(CK, LDH, SGOT)

2.2. Increased oxigen consumption at a fixed rate of Increased oxigen consumption at a fixed rate of work as performance becomes less efficentwork as performance becomes less efficent

3.3. Abnormal resting ECGs showing T wave inversionAbnormal resting ECGs showing T wave inversion4.4. Increased heart rate and blood lactate responses Increased heart rate and blood lactate responses

to a fixed rate of workto a fixed rate of work

Predicting overtraining syndromePredicting overtraining syndrome

Signs that have been consideredSigns that have been considered for diagnosing overtraining for diagnosing overtraining

Oxigen consumption inOxigen consumption inovertrained athletesovertrained athletes

30

40

50

60

70

80

Early season Late season

Vo2 maxsubmax

70%max70%max80%max80%max

10-km time10-km time

VO2m

axVO

2max

The advantages of this test are :The advantages of this test are :

•• providing an easly obtained , objective measurement ofproviding an easly obtained , objective measurement of the athlete’s cardiovascular response to a given rate ofthe athlete’s cardiovascular response to a given rate of workwork

• • providing a warning signal of developing overtrainingproviding a warning signal of developing overtraining syndromesyndrome

The best predictor of overtraining syndrome seems The best predictor of overtraining syndrome seems to be HR response to a standardized bout of work.to be HR response to a standardized bout of work.

Predicting overtraining syndromePredicting overtraining syndrome

Overtraining on runner’s heart rate Overtraining on runner’s heart rate responseresponse

May the athlete recover fromMay the athlete recover from overtraining syndrome ?overtraining syndrome ?

Treatment of Treatment of overtraining syndromeovertraining syndrome

Recovery from overtraining

syndrome is only possible with a

marked reduction in training

intensity or complete rest.

Prevention of Prevention of overtraining syndromeovertraining syndrome

The best way to minimize the risk The best way to minimize the risk

of overtraining is to follow cycling of overtraining is to follow cycling

training procedures, alternating training procedures, alternating

easy, moderate and hard periods easy, moderate and hard periods

of trainingof training

Tapering for peak performanceTapering for peak performance

Many athletes decease their training Many athletes decease their training

intensity before a competition to avoid intensity before a competition to avoid

reductions in strength, power and reductions in strength, power and

performance capacity that accompany performance capacity that accompany

high-intensity training.high-intensity training.

This practice is called Tapering.This practice is called Tapering.

Less training is Less training is needed toneeded to

maintain the gains maintain the gains previous attained previous attained with an intense with an intense

trainingtrainingSo Tapering does So Tapering does

not lead to a loss of not lead to a loss of condictioningcondictioning

Tapering for peak performanceTapering for peak performance

The most notable The most notable change during the change during the Taper period is a Taper period is a

marked increase in marked increase in muscular strength muscular strength

which best explains the which best explains the performance performance

improvement that improvement that occurs. occurs.

Tapering for peak performanceTapering for peak performance

Tapering also allows time for the muscle Tapering also allows time for the muscle

to repair any damage incurred during to repair any damage incurred during

intense training and for the energy intense training and for the energy

reserves (muscular and liver glycogen) reserves (muscular and liver glycogen)

to be restoredto be restored

DetrainingDetrainingMay physical inactivity affect highly trained athletes?May physical inactivity affect highly trained athletes?

Physiological responses to Physiological responses to detrainingdetraining

•• Muscular strength and powerMuscular strength and power

• • Muscular enduranceMuscular endurance

•• Speed, agility and flexibilitySpeed, agility and flexibility

• • Cardiorespiratory enduranceCardiorespiratory endurance

Physiological responses to detrainingPhysiological responses to detrainingMuscular strength and powerMuscular strength and power

Detraining causes losses in muscular strenght

and power.

However muscles require only minimal

stimulation to retain these qualities during

periods of reduced activity

(a training session once every 10 to 14 may be sufficent)

Physiological responses to detrainingPhysiological responses to detrainingMuscular enduranceMuscular endurance

• • decreased oxidative enzyme activitydecreased oxidative enzyme activity

• • decreased muscle glycogen storagedecreased muscle glycogen storage

• • disturbance of the acid-base balancedisturbance of the acid-base balance

• • decreased blood supply to thedecreased blood supply to the

musclesmuscles

Muscular endurance decreases after only Muscular endurance decreases after only 2 weeks of inactivity2 weeks of inactivity. . Possible explanations for this are:Possible explanations for this are:

Physiological responses to detrainingPhysiological responses to detrainingMuscular EnduranceMuscular Endurance

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

1st 2nd 3rd 4th

swimmersuntrained

Mus

cle

glyc

ogen

(mm

ol/k

g)M

uscl

e gl

ycog

en (m

mol

/kg)

Weeks of detrainingWeeks of detraining

Regression of Athlete’s HypertrophyRegression of Athlete’s Hypertrophy

0

50

100

150

200

250

LVM(gr) LVID(mm)

ContrAth BeAth Af

G.Galanti et al. Cardiologia 1989

Detraining losses in Detraining losses in

speed and agility are small.speed and agility are small.

FlexibilityFlexibility

is lost rather quikly, is lost rather quikly,

so stretching exercisesso stretching exercises

should be incorporated alsoshould be incorporated also

into off-season into off-season

training programs.training programs.

Physiological responses to detrainingPhysiological responses to detraining speed, agility and flexibilityspeed, agility and flexibility

Physiological responses to detrainingPhysiological responses to detrainingLoss of speed agility and flexibilityLoss of speed agility and flexibility

Although flexibility can be reestabilished in little Although flexibility can be reestabilished in little time, the athletes should maintain the desired time, the athletes should maintain the desired

flexibility level year-round.flexibility level year-round.

Reduced flexibility has been proposed to Reduced flexibility has been proposed to increase athletes’ susceptibility to serious injury.increase athletes’ susceptibility to serious injury.

Change in cardiorespiratoryChange in cardiorespiratory enduranceendurance

Cardiovascular effects of complete restCardiovascular effects of complete rest

Heart volumeHeart volume

Total blood volumeTotal blood volume plasma volumeplasma volume

contractilitycontractility

Stroke volumeStroke volume

Cardiac outputCardiac output VO2 maxVO2 max

How much activityHow much activity

is neededis needed

to prevent losses of to prevent losses of

physical conditioning?physical conditioning?

To maintain

cardiorespiratory endurance,

training must be conducted

at least 3 times per week

at an intensity

of at least. 70% VO2 max

Study QuestionsStudy Questions

What are the causes of overtraining? How can it be What are the causes of overtraining? How can it be identified? What is the suggested treatment for identified? What is the suggested treatment for overtraining?overtraining?

What physiological changes occur during the taper What physiological changes occur during the taper period that can be cretied with improvements in period that can be cretied with improvements in performance?performance?

What alterations occur in strenght, power and What alterations occur in strenght, power and muscular endurance with physical detraining?muscular endurance with physical detraining?

What changes take place in the muscle during What changes take place in the muscle during periods of inactivity?periods of inactivity?

What alteration occur in speed, agility and What alteration occur in speed, agility and flexibility with physical detraining?flexibility with physical detraining?

What changes occur in the cardiovascular What changes occur in the cardiovascular system as the athlete becomes deconditioned?system as the athlete becomes deconditioned?

During periods of reduced training what factores During periods of reduced training what factores (frequency, duration, intensity) must be stressed (frequency, duration, intensity) must be stressed in order to prevent a decline in long-term in order to prevent a decline in long-term endurance and aerobic capacity?endurance and aerobic capacity?