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International Multidimensional Engine Modeling User’s Group Meeting at the SAE Congress 2003

Optimizing the Scavenging System for a Two-Stroke Cycle, Free Piston Engine for High Efficiency and Low Emissions: A Computational Approach

S. Scott Goldsborough and Peter Van Blarigan

Sandia National Laboratories ABSTRACT

A free piston internal combustion (IC) engine operating on high compression ratio (CR) homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) combustion is being developed by Sandia National Laboratories to significantly improve the thermal efficiency and exhaust emissions relative to conventional crankshaft-driven SI and Diesel engines. A two-stroke scavenging process recharges the engine and is key to realizing the efficiency and emissions potential of the device. To ensure that the engine’s performance goals can be achieved the scavenging system was configured using computational fluid dynamics (CFD), zero- and one-dimensional modeling, and single step parametric variations. A wide range of design options was investigated including the use of loop, hybrid-loop and uniflow scavenging methods, different charge delivery options, and various operating schemes. Parameters such as the intake/exhaust port arrangement, valve lift/timing, charging pressure and piston frequency were varied. Operating schemes including a standard uniflow configuration, a low charging pressure option, a stratified scavenging geometry, and an over-expanded (Atkinson) cycle were studied.

The computational results indicated that a stratified scavenging scheme employing a uniflow geometry, and supplied by a stable, low temperature/pressure charge will best optimize the efficiency and emissions characteristics of the engine. The operating CR can be maximized through substantial replacement of the burned charge, while short-circuiting emissions can be controlled by late fuel introduction. The in-cylinder flows are important to both NOx and short-circuiting emissions with inadequate mixing (and resulting temperature stratification) the predominant driver of NO production, and fuel penetration to the exhaust valve region the main cause of unburned hydrocarbon emissions. INTRODUCTION

In an effort to improve the fuel economy and exhaust emissions of advanced electrical generators, Sandia National Laboratories is developing a novel free piston IC engine [1]. The approach utilizes a free piston, double-ended cylinder arrangement with a linear alternator integrated directly into the cylinder’s center section. Lean (φ~0.35) HCCI combustion at alternating cylinder ends is used to drive permanent magnets fixed to the piston, back and forth through the alternator’s coils. The alternator serves to generate useful electrical power, and to control the piston’s motion by dynamically varying the

rate of electrical generation. Engine startup is also achieved using the alternator. Charging of the engine’s cylinders is accomplished using a two-stroke cycle process. Figure 1 illustrates the engine concept.

Figure 1 – Free Piston Engine-Generator

Critical to the engine’s operating efficiency and

emissions capabilities however, are the design and performance of the scavenging system. Without adequate charging the HCCI combustion process will be degraded, becoming less efficient (e.g. non-constant volume, incomplete, or autoigniting at a low CR) and producing excessive emissions such as unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and NOx. In addition, improper fuel delivery can lead to short-circuiting emissions while further reducing fuel economy. To address these concerns a computational investigation was undertaken.

BACKGROUND

Conventional two-stroke engines are plagued by problems of insufficient charging and high short-circuiting emissions throughout parts of their operating regimes, with this generally resulting from the wide range of speeds and power outputs over which the engines operate. For the free piston engine however, a much more narrow range of operating speeds is expected to be utilized. This is due to the electrical generating scheme employed by the device; efficient generation will be achieved by operating at a fixed oscillation rate. Single speed operation significantly simplifies the scavenging system design, in effect allowing the

Piston

Intake Manifolds

Exhaust

Magnets

CompressorIntake

CoolingFluid

Delivery Tank

Alternator Windings

CoolingFluid

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charging process to be optimized about a specific operating point.

However, several parameters are still critical to the design. First, the scavenging process must ensure rapid, TDC combustion, while high compression ratio should be achieved before combustion initiates. In addition, the local fuel mixtures must be lean and the gas temperatures low enough so that NOx formation is inhibited. Further, lean operation requires that losses in the engine be minimized so that a high fraction of the work output can be converted into useful electrical power. As such, restrictions on the scavenging scheme (e.g. low pumping power, low blowdown losses, etc.) are imposed. Two more items are the desire of a long stroke-to-bore ratio (for adequate TDC clearance at high CR, and an advantageous surface area to volume ratio), and mechanical simplicity (since no crankshaft is available to operate a pump, or valves, etc.).

The thrust of the present study was to develop the first steps towards configuring an optimal scavenging system for the free piston engine, based on the efficiency and emissions goals of the generator. Multi-dimensional modeling was used to facilitate an understanding of the gas flow process, and a single step parametric method was employed to narrow the range of design possibilities. COMPUTATIONAL TOOLS

KIVA-3V was used for this study where changes to the code included calculating pertinent scavenging parameters (e.g. scavenging and trapping efficiencies, flow rates, etc.), defining the free piston motion, modifying the intake boundary conditions to accept time dependent values, and incorporating an intake charge compression model as a subroutine to the code. HCCI combustion and NOx generation were simulated using chemical equations exclusively (4 reduced kinetic, and 6 partial equilibrium, with propane as the fuel); there were no turbulent mixing parameters, as has been suggested in Ref. [2].

A significant aspect of analyzing the KIVA results was the capability to visualize gas motion through the cylinder. To facilitate this the 3D post-processing software Ensight was used.

To assess the pumping and friction losses in the system, the charge compression and piston ring friction processes were modeled. For the compressor component this process was modeled assuming zero-dimensional (0D) behavior (thermodynamic control volumes allowing quasi-steady inlet and outlet flows) where important results were the pressure and temperature histories input into the KIVA-3V code. The ring friction process (the dominant component of friction in the free piston engine) was modeled using a one-dimensional (1D) analysis of the ring-oil-wall system (assuming Reynold’s equation is applicable) where important results were the relative variations in friction work due to changes in piston-cylinder configuration (e.g. stroke, frequency(ƒ), etc.).

OPTIMIZATION PROCEDURE A single step parametric method was adopted as the

main optimization tool since a wide range of geometric and operating parameters was to be investigated. The following procedure was used. First, the performance of three different scavenging methods (loop, hybrid-loop and uniflow) was investigated in order to determine the capabilities and limitations of each. Parameters such as the charging pressure, intake/exhaust area/timing, and piston frequency were varied. High scavenging efficiency (ηsc~0.9) (needed for high CR operation) and high trapping efficiency (ηtr~1.0) were used as the metrics. These initial simulations allowed a number of design options to be eliminated from consideration, and provided a knowledge base for configuring an optimal arrangement.

Using the uniflow geometry several charge delivery options (e.g. delivery tank size, tank temperature, etc.) were then explored. The effects on both power consumption and in-cylinder flows were determined.

Following these computations, four select operating schemes (standard uniflow, low charging pressure / low frequency, stratified scavenging, and over-expanded cycle) were analyzed, this time with the overall thermal efficiency and output emissions as the metrics. COMPUTATIONAL RESULTS Scavenging Methods

The arrangements for the three scavenging methods are illustrated in Figure 2 with the desired flow patterns for each arrangement included for clarity.

(a) Loop (b) Hybrid-Loop (c) Uniflow Figure 2 – Scavenging Arrangements

Figure 3 presents the results of the parametric

simulations for these scavenging methods. As can be seen, the loop and hybrid-loop options produce unacceptable scavenging, however the uniflow geometry provides a means of achieving the efficiency and emissions goals of the engine.

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0.6

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Trap

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Uniflow

Hybrid-Loop

Loop

Figure 3 – Trapping Efficiency vs. Scavenging Efficiency To maximize the scavenging performance for this

arrangement (ηsc~0.85, ηtr~0.99), the following conditions should be met. The exhaust valve lift and timing should be adjusted so that the cylinder pressure can blow down to the intake manifold pressure before the intake ports open; this will allow maximum recharging with minimal trapping losses. The generation of plug-type flow is best achieved when the incline angles are set to 0° and the swirl angles set uniformly to about 15°; there seems to be little change in performance when either an 8-port or 12-port configuration is used. The cylinder’s recharging can be maximized if the scavenging time is adequately adjusted; the most effective means of achieving this is by modifying the piston’s frequency. Charge Delivery System

Simulations with the charge delivery system were conducted to determine parametric effects on power consumption and in-cylinder flows. The 0D/KIVA-3V calculations assumed an internal compressor arrangement, where the magnets attached to the working piston function as a stepped compressor piston within a concentric design. Parameters investigated included the volumetric compression ratio of the compressor, the delivery tank volume, the delivery tank temperature, and the compressor’s valve areas. The calculations indicated that a large tank supplying a stable, low temperature charge and utilizing sufficient compressor flow area will maximize the performance of the scavenging system. Operating Schemes

Four different operating schemes were investigated with the objective to maximize the thermal efficiency of the engine cycle. The effects of the scavenging process on the thermodynamic cycle and output emissions were studied. The schemes included: a standard uniflow arrangement (Case I), a low frequency / low pumping pressure option (Case II), a stratified scavenging configuration (Case III), and an over-expanded cycle (Case IV).

The expected benefits of these schemes, relative to the standard arrangement, were:

Case II – decreased pumping power, with the operating frequency reduced to ensure adequate charging.

Case III – increased scavenging efficiency, with short-circuiting controlled by late fuel introduction; the higher operating compression ratio will lead to improved cycle thermal efficiency.

Case IV – increased work output through recovered blowdown potential.

The metrics used here were thermal efficiency (ηTH) (including the work output of the cycle, the work input to the compressor, and friction losses; the total delivered fuel was used to account for fuel losses) and exhaust emissions (including short-circuited fuel (C3H8) and NO.)

For each of these cases a uniflow geometry (4 exhaust valves, 8 intake ports) was used with the orientations and timings configured based on the findings of the previous sections. For the stratified scavenging case four tall ports delivered the initial air charge, and four short ports introduced the premixed fuel-air charge. A series of iterations was used to arrange the geometries to achieve the desired performance (ηsc ~ 0.8, ηtr ~ 0.99 for Cases I, II, and IV; ηsc ~ 0.9, ηtr(fuel) ~ 0.99 for Case III; power output ~ 20kW).

Case I

Case II

Case III

Case IV

Bore [cm] 7.62 8.85 7.24 7.62

Stroke [cm] 21.46 29.63 25.56 44.05

Effective CR 19:1 19:1 26:1 19:1

EVO [CAD] 116 102 99 142

IPO (Air) [CAD] NA NA 132 NA

IPO (Fuel/Air) [CAD] 146 130 148 139

IPC (Fuel/Air) [CAD] 208 222 207 214

IPC (Air) [CAD] NA NA 220 NA

EVC [CAD] 232 245 248 285

Valve Diameter [cm] 2.54 2.86 2.38 2.54

Valve Lift [cm] 0.925 0.925 0.925 0.925

Port Width (Fuel/Air) [cm] 2.00 2.27 2.20 1.93

Port Width (Air) [cm] NA NA 1.63 NA

Port Height (Fuel/Air) [cm] 2.30 5.80 2.70 6.50

Port Width (Air) [cm] NA NA 4.70 NA

Swirl Angle 15 15 15 15

Frequency [Hz] 45 33 45 45

Charging Pressure [bar] 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.2

Intake φ 0.475 0.475 2.70 0.475

Table 1 – Geometric and Operating Parameters

Table 1 lists the geometric and operating parameters for these arrangements. (Here CAD is used to note the port and valve timings. However, it is only a time notation since the free piston engine does not have a

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crankshaft to define the piston’s motion. (CAD = (t-tTDC) · ƒ ·360.) Operating Results

The operating results are presented in Table 2. It can be seen here that the overall thermal efficiency for Case II is the same as for the standard configuration; however, the short-circuiting and NO emissions are increased (+200% and +250%, respectively). On the other hand, Case III has an increased thermal efficiency (+10%), with higher short-circuiting losses (+300%) and lower NO (-70%). (The higher short-circuiting emissions for this case resulted from the imprecision of the iteration process, and could probably be reduced.) Case IV also operates with a higher thermal efficiency (+3%), but greater short-circuiting and NO emissions (+200%) result.

Case

I Case

II Case

III Case

IV ηsc 0.83 0.83 0.93 0.84

ηtr 0.997 0.995 (A) 0.928

(F/A) 0.988

0.994

mdel [g] 0.96 1.15 (A) 1.03

(F/A) 0.16

0.92

Wcycle [J] 480 790 644 697

Wcomp [J] 24.6 29.7 45.1 35.6

Wfric [J] 19.2 31.2 24.3 59.9

ηTH 0.475 0.475 0.525 0.491

C3H8 [ppm] 67 133 206 136

NO [ppm] 281 707 94 560

Power [kW] 18.7 23.1 24.6 25.7

Table 2 – Operating Results

The results of the simulations are explained by studying the operating cycle and cylinder/port flows for the four arrangements. The effects of compressor and friction work on the overall cycle are also important.

Figure 4 presents the thermodynamic cycles for the four configurations. Comparing these runs, it can be seen that for Case II the initiation of HCCI combustion occurs somewhat earlier in the stroke, with more over-compression of the burned charge after combustion. This leads to the higher NO emissions noted in Table 2, and will be discussed in greater detail below. The thermodynamic cycle for Case III is very similar to the standard case, however the increase in compression ratio before combustion is evident. This is due to the lower bulk cylinder temperature at EVC, achieved through more complete flushing of the burned charge. For Case IV the change in the scavenging cycle is considerable with no blowdown present (though there is some pressure drop after EVO/IPO due to continued piston expansion). In this arrangement, there is also early HCCI combustion with significant compression after combustion, as seen in Case II.

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sure

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r]

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Case I

Case IV

Case II

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Figure 4 – Cylinder Pressure vs. Cylinder Volume

Figure 5 presents the flow visualization for the

standard uniflow case for reference. Here Ensight’s particle tracing routine was used to track the fresh and burned charge flow through the engine. In this figure small blue spheres represent the fresh charge and small orange spheres represent the burned charge. Trailing lines indicate velocity.

Similar flow patterns were seen with the other three arrangements; however, two notable changes result as the port heights are increased for Cases II, III and IV. First, some of the burned charge becomes trapped just above the piston, with some of this forced into the intake manifold as the piston begins its compression stroke. For the short ports in Case III this reverse flow is substantial.

A more significant result is a change in bulk flow motion with reduced swirl and decreased in-cylinder mixing. [For these runs the swirl ratio (SR) dropped from 2.9 for Case I to 1.9 for Case II, 2.7 for Case III and 1.7 for Case IV.] This affects both the short-circuiting and NO emissions.

In terms of short-circuiting, the change in in-cylinder bulk motion and decreased mixing allows greater penetration of fuel-rich mixtures to the exhaust valve region. In terms of NO emissions, greater temperature stratification results during scavenging and compression, with this leading to pre-ignition near the cylinder core. This can be seen in Figure 6 where the maximum cylinder temperature is plotted versus instantaneous compression ratio over the engine cycle. For Case I the earliest ignition point is at CR=14:1, for Case II this decreases to CR=11:1, and for Case IV this is closer to CR=9:1. For these three arrangements the bulk of the cylinder combusts, as determined by the maximum rate of pressure change, near CR=16:1. (Case III is included in this plot for reference, where the bulk combustion occurs at about 24:1.)

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Figure 5 – Scavenging Flow Visualization vs. Crank

Angle Degree [Case I]

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]

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SRCase I 2.9 16.8:1Case II 1.9 15.7:1Case III 2.7 24.2:1Case IV 1.7 16.1:1

CRop

Figure 6 – Maximum Cylinder Temperature vs. Compression Ratio

Although this pre-ignition problem has only a small

impact on the cycle efficiency (↓2%), the NO production increases substantially since the burned charge is over-compressed to TDC. This is most significant for Case II since the piston’s velocity is slower and the over-compression is sustained for a longer period of time.

With regard to fuel distribution for these configurations, it seems that the in-cylinder flows similarly dilute the incoming charges through the scavenging and compression processes. This is important for the stratified scavenging option. This point is illustrated in Figure 7 where the maximum and average dilution ratios for Cases I and III are plotted versus CAD. It can be seen that even though there are significant differences between these two arrangements, the bulk flow dilution during compression yields similar differences between the maximum and average dilution ratios at the time of combustion. This seems to indicate that fuel dispersion might not be problematic with the stratified scavenging configuration, if a premixed charge is used.

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Case I

Figure 7 – Maximum and Average Dilution Ratios vs.

Crank Angle Degree

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Compressor Work Table 2 above shows that the compressor work

fraction decreases for Case II (-25%) while it increases for Case III (+37%). This was expected due to the lower charging pressure and higher delivery ratio, respectively. However, with respect to ηTH these changes are offset by changes in the thermodynamic cycle. For Case II the conversion efficiency is decreased due to early ignition problems, while for Case III it is higher due to the higher compression ratio achieved. Friction Work

Table 2 shows that the only significant change in friction work fraction occurs with the over-expanded configuration (+200%). This is due to the increased piston velocity used for this arrangement. However, the increased friction work is offset by an increase in the conversion efficiency, in this case due to the additional charge expansion. Design Robustness

A final series of simulations was run with the four operating schemes to assess the ‘robustness’ of these designs. The effects of slight variations in the input conditions of equivalence ratio and piston frequency (±10%) were investigated in an attempt to simulate fluctuations seen in actual engine operation.

From these calculations it was seen that the changes in emissions are more significant for Case II, relative to Case I. The thermal efficiency for Case II, however, seems to be slightly more stable for these variations. For Case III the thermal efficiency is also stable, while the changes in emissions are comparable to the standard configuration.

An important result of this simulation series was that the over-expanded configuration (as designed) was extremely sensitive to fluctuations in the operating conditions. For the small changes investigated the operating cycle became unstable, with large cycle-to-cycle variations in delivery ratio and power output. Similar inconsistent behavior has been observed in actual Atkinson-cycle engine operation [3,4], however the degree of variation was not as severe as with these calculations. This may simply be a numerical problem with the computational setup; however it may suggest that rigorous control of the input conditions might be required for effective, and stable operation with the over-expansion scheme.

As an additional point, it was seen that the increases in emissions can be substantial for some of the variations. This may be important in actual engine operation. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Multi-dimensional, 0D and 1D modeling, and single step parametric variations have been used to analyze and optimize the scavenging system for a free piston engine-generator, in order to ensure high efficiency operation with low output emissions. KIVA-3V was employed, along with models for the compressor and friction processes. A range of design options was

investigated including the use of loop, hybrid-loop and uniflow scavenging methods, different charge delivery options, and various operating schemes. The post-processing software, Ensight, allowed the in-cylinder and port dynamics to be visualized and more thoroughly understood. Using these tools, the overall array of design possibilities was significantly narrowed, while some interesting configurations were explored.

The results of the analyses indicated that the loop and hybrid-loop methods as investigated here, cannot achieve sufficient scavenging performance, while the uniflow method, although it increases the mechanical complexity of the engine, yields the most desirable scavenging characteristics.

As calculated, an optimal arrangement employs a stratified scavenging scheme supplied by a steady, low temperature/pressure (~300K/1.2bar) charge. The highest possible thermal efficiency should result; however, control of fuel short-circuiting emissions, especially over small variations in the engine’s operating frequency, may prove challenging. In addition, the means of supplying the fuel (carburetor or port injection) has not been addressed, and this will require additional study. On the other hand, this configuration seems to be capable of providing adequate mixing during scavenging and compression to enable rapid, TDC HCCI combustion, while maintaining efficient performance as the operating conditions vary slightly.

It was seen that the in-cylinder flow characteristics, resulting from the scavenging process can significantly affect the operating performance. The KIVA-3V calculations suggested that in the premixed HCCI operating mode, with low φ and moderate ηsc, the production of NOx is more dependent on hot residual initiated pre-ignition and subsequent over-compression, than on the combustion of fuel-rich regions within the cylinder.

In addition, changes in the flow patterns with frequency variation can lead to large increases in the short-circuiting emissions. Without adequate control, these losses may become unacceptable. One option to limit this may be to utilize low pressure, port injection, late in the scavenging cycle, in combination with a uniform intake manifold geometry. The injection timing and duration could be dynamically adjusted depending on the operating conditions, and as a result short-circuiting emissions may be better managed. REFERENCES 1. Van Blarigan, P., Paradiso, N. and Goldsborough, S. “Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition with a Free Piston: A New Approach to Ideal Otto Cycle Performance,” SAE Paper 982484, 1998. 2. Kong, S. C., Marriott, C. D., Reitz. R. D. and Christensen, M., “Modeling and Experiments of HCCI Engine Combustion Using Detailed Chemical Kinetics with Multidimensional CFD,” SAE Paper 2001-01-1026, 2001. 3. O’Flynn, G. T., Saunders, R. J. and Ma T. H., “Combustion characteristics of an Otto-Atkinson engine using late inlet valve closing and multi-point electric fuel injection,” SAE Paper 925107, 1992. 4. Raynes, S. H., “An Atkinson cycle engine for low pollution,” SAE Paper 984064, 1998.