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    1. Urban populations

    Urbanization Define urbanization and explain the variation in global growth rates and patterns.

    Inwardmovement

    Explain the process of centripetal movements (rural-urban migration,gentrification, re-urbanization/ urban renewal).

    Outward

    movement

    Explain the process of centrifugal movements (suburbanization, counter-

    urbanization, urban sprawl).

    Natural change Explain the contribution of natural change to patterns of population density

    within urban areas.

    The global

    megacity

    Explain the global increase in the number and location of megacities (population

    over 10 million).

    2. Urban land use

    Residential areas Explain the location of residential areas in relation to wealth, ethnicity and family

    status (stage in life cycle).

    Examine patterns of urban poverty and deprivation (such as slums, squatter

    settlements, areas of low-cost housing and inner-city areas).

    Examine the causes and effects of the movement of socio-economic groups since

    the 1980s.

    Areas of

    economic

    activity

    Explain the spatial pattern of economic activity, the zoning of urban and

    suburban functions and the internal structure of the central business district

    (CBD).

    Describe the informal sector; its characteristics and location in urban areas.

    Examine the causes and effects of the movement of retailing, service and

    manufacturing activities to new locations, including brownfield sites.

    3.Urban stress

    Urban microclimate Examine the effects of structures and human activity on urban

    microclimates, including the urban heat island effect and air pollution.

    Other types ofenvironmental and

    social stress

    Examine the other symptoms of urban stress including congestion,overcrowding and noise, depletion of green space, waste overburden, poor

    quality housing, social deprivation, crime and inequality.

    4.The sustainable city

    The city as a

    system

    Describe the city as a system in terms of:

    - inputs - energy, water, people, materials, products, food (urban agriculture)

    - outputs - solid, atmospheric and liquid waste, noise, people

    Distinguish between a sustainable circular system where inputs are reduced and

    outputs are recycled and an unsustainable (open/ linear) city system with

    uncontrolled inputs and outputs.Case studies Referring to at least two city case studies, discuss the concepts of:

    - sustainable city management

    - the urban ecological footprint.

    Syllabus25 February 2013 19:59

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    Sustainable

    strategies

    Evaluate one case study of each of the following.

    - One socially sustainable housing management strategy.

    - One environmentally sustainable pollution management strategy.

    - One strategy to control rapid city growth resulting from in-migration.

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    1. Urban populations

    Term Definition

    Urbanization The increasing percentage of a population living in urban areas due to rural-urban migration and higher levels of natural increase in the urban areas.

    Growth rate The rate of increase or decrease in the population numbers.

    Inward

    movement

    The process of people migrating into cities or towns (centripetal movement).

    Centripetal

    movements

    The process of people migrating into cities or towns.

    Rural-urban

    migration

    The movement of people from rural areas to urban areas.

    Gentrification The renovation of the housing fabric in an old, usually inner-city area, when moreaffluent groups displace lower income groups en masse over a relatively short

    period of time. May be triggered by a clear event such as the improvement or

    provision of a better transport link, or by something less tangible such as a

    fashion trend taking off in the housing market.

    Reurbanization/

    urban renewal

    The process of redeveloping a previously developed area, due to the aging

    facilities.

    Outward

    movement

    The process of people migrating out of cities or towns (centrifugal movement).

    Centrifugal

    movements

    The process of people migrating out of cities or towns.

    Suburbanization The process of affluent people moving out from the city center, into quieter and

    bigger housing areas.

    Counter-

    urbanization

    Decentralization of population from large urban areas to smaller ones or rural

    areas. Thought to be a result of both

    improved communication and connectivity as well as a reaction against the

    problems associated with large urban areas.

    Urban-sprawl The unchecked spread in the land area occupied by an urban area when

    development is low-rise and it is felt that space efficiency is not an issue.

    Green Belt In the UK, an area of land surrounding an urban area in which planning

    restrictions severely curb new housing, commercial and industrial developments.

    Designed to stop urban sprawl. As they generally remain as they were when

    designated, and as building developments have occurred either in settlements

    beyond them or taken place as redevelopment of derelict land in the urban area,

    they can be said to have been a success. Pressure continues to build however,

    and it remains to be seen whether they will survive.

    Natural change This is difference between birth rate and death rate. It tells you by how many the

    population will be growing per thousand of population per year.

    Megacity Megacities are large metropolitan areas or urban agglomerations of 10 million

    inhabitants or more.

    Agglomeration An agglomeration is the metropolitan area incorporating several large towns and

    cities (e.g. New York/ Newark).

    2. Urban land use

    Glossary25 August 2012 11:17

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    Term Definition

    Residential areas An area where the dominant land-use is for homes.

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    Urbanization Define urbanization and explain the variation in global growth rates and patterns.

    Inward

    movement

    Explain the process of centripetal movements (rural-urban migration,

    gentrification, re-urbanization/ urban renewal).

    Outward

    movement

    Explain the process of centrifugal movements (suburbanization, counter-

    urbanization, urban sprawl).

    Natural change Explain the contribution of natural change to patterns of population density

    within urban areas.

    The global

    megacity

    Explain the global increase in the number and location of megacities (population

    over 10 million).

    Urbanization

    An increasing percentage of a country's population comes to live in towns and cities. It

    may involve both rural-urban migration and natural increase.

    For more information, see source 1.

    Urbanization

    Graph: global growth rates and patterns

    This is due to the high economic burden raising a child has on parents in

    HICs.

    Middle-class families in HICs are often small, with all members of the family

    working in day jobs. This is due to their high aspirations, and the lack of

    time to take care for a child.

    Child planning services/ classes allow parents in HICs allow parents to know

    that having a lot of children may not necessarily be a good thing.

    High income countries (core areas) typically have a stable population level, and a

    low birth rate. This therefore means that the proportion of people in HICs are

    relatively minimal in relation to that of the low income countries, or peripheral

    areas. Reasons include:

    Low birth rates in HICs/ stable population rates

    The next generation is needed to continue everyday activities, such as agricultural

    activities.

    Continuous increase in LICs

    Variation in global growth rates and patterns

    Define urbanization and explain the variation in global growth rates and patterns.

    1. Urban populations16 August 2012 19:52

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    The chances of death are still relatively high in some areas, due to the lack of

    medical support and clean water. Some parents produce more children, as they

    worry that their children will die from sicknesses.

    People in rural areas often place more rigid social pressures on women.

    Map: The world's biggest cities that house over 5 million people in 1955

    Map: The world's biggest cities that house over 5 million people in 1965

    Map: The world's biggest cities that house over 5 million people in 1975

    Varied rates of urbanisation between LICs and HICs

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    Map: The world's biggest cities that house over 5 million people in 1985

    Map: The world's biggest cities that house over 5 million people in 1995

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    Map: The world's biggest cities that house over 5 million people in 2005

    Back in the 1950s, the majority of the build and urban environments were situated

    in Europe and North America. These were considered to be the "powerhouses" or

    cores of the world. However, as the numbers in peripheral areas (LICs) increased

    dramatically, more and more people want to live in urban areas, as these areas

    are deemed to be full of job opportunities. The rural population may have

    migrants moving towards the urbanised areas; and people living in already

    urbanised areas, may elect to move to other urbanised cities (international or

    even intra-national migration).

    The urbanisation of HICs (cores) on the other hand is relatively slow. This is due to

    the lack of population growth, as well as the lack of need to move into more

    urbanised areas. Whilst some people may still deem this to be necessary, due tothe perceived increase in job opportunities, many may think that living in rural

    areas would give them an equal quality of life.

    Inward movement

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    Countryside (rural areas)

    Other places around the world (international migration)

    Suburbs (reurbanization)

    Centripetal forces/ movements are ones that cause the inward movement (in towards

    the different towns and cities) of people. There are several places that people may

    come from; these include:

    Process of moving from the countryside (rural areas), to towns and cities

    (urbanized areas).

    the increase in job opportunities

    The increase in salary at the job opportunities

    Gets away from the quiet way of life in the countryside

    Better schooling

    The reduction in the vulnerability of natural hazards

    This is an important process in LICs as the population believes that they would be

    better off there, due to:

    Rural-urban migration

    Gentrification is the process of redeveloping old and deprived areas.

    This process is usually done by younger generations that are relatively wealthy.

    When the restoration/ renewal process is complete, new markets would move in.

    Common in brownfield sites (e.g. abandoned, derelict, underused industrial

    buildings and land) that may be contaminated, but has the potential for

    redevelopment.

    Can be used for residential purposes, or commercial purposes.

    May cause social-displacement (the rich replacing the poor, forcing the poor to

    move out).

    Greenwich Village

    Brooklyn Heights

    New York

    Riverdale

    Toronto

    Fulham

    Chelsea

    London

    Examples:

    Gentrification

    Process of revitalizing urban areas, and moving people back into them.

    The use of the 1992 summer Olympic Games to re-establish the city.Barcelona, 1992

    Example:

    Reurbanization

    Rehabilitation of areas of a city that have gone into decline.

    Manhattan, New York

    Example:

    Urban renewal

    Note: Reurbanization and urban renewal are both similar to gentrification, in the way

    that they both "renew" and "redevelop" the city. However, whilst gentrification utilises

    buildings that were previously built, and refurbishes them; reurbanization and urban

    renewal build new buildings to replace the old ones.

    Centripetal movements

    Explain the process of centripetal movements (rural-urban migration, gentrification, re-urbanization/

    urban renewal).

    Outward movement

    Centrifugal forces/ movements are ones that cause people to move away from the city

    centre and towards areas such as the countryside.

    Centrifugal movements

    Explain the process of centrifugal movements (suburbanization, counter-urbanization, urban sprawl).

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    This is often the case with older, more affluent people.

    These people may want to dodge the busy life that CBDs and inner city areas

    bring, hence move outwards to suburbs.

    The increase in efficiency and ease of use of transportation systems (by use

    of railways, electric trams and buses).

    The reduction in price of farmland, hence the scope for urban expansion.

    Lower costs of living

    Very low interest rates

    Expansion of building societies

    Willingness of local authorities to provide utilities (e.g. sewers,

    electricity, gas, water)

    Increased public transport

    In the 20th century, rising wages and living standards were coupled withrising expectations, hence there was a boom in private house building.

    Other reasons included:

    Causes for the phenomena

    Suburbanization

    Process of counter-urbanization is similar to that of suburbanization. It is a process

    of population decentralization, and causes people to move from inner urban areasto areas beyond city limits (rural areas).

    High land prices

    Congestion

    Pollution

    High crime rate

    A lack of community

    Declining services

    Push factors of the inner city area:

    All the opposites of the push factors from the inner city area.

    IT and the option of teleworking (there is no need to work in the CBD).

    Pull factors

    Reasons for the movement include:

    Counter-urbanization

    Urban sprawl is the process of an unplanned and uncontrolled physical expansion

    of the urban area into the surrounding countryside. It is closely linked to the

    process of suburbanisation.

    Some areas have "Green Belts" (area of land with development restrictions) that

    prevent the further expansion, creating a limit.

    Seoul

    Mexico City

    Riyadh (Saudi Arabia) - population of 500000 in 1970s; 6000000 in 2007

    Examples:

    Urban sprawl

    Natural change

    Natural change can occur due to the various patterns, relating to migration, as

    well as the level of disparities.

    Natural change

    The level of poverty or wealth would often change the rate of natural change. Families

    that are wealthier would often have less children, due to the financial demands, and the

    economic aspirations of both partners. Meanwhile, families that are of poorer

    background would often have more children, due to the perceived economic demands.

    However, as the health care is improved, the death rate decreases, thus causing anatural increase. The population density in poorer areas are therefore also increased.

    In addition to the factor of health care improvement, thus natural change, the amount

    of wealth and therefore land owned may also cause a disparity in population density.

    For instance, a wealthy person may not have a big family, but may own a large plot of

    Explain the contribution of natural change to patterns of population density within urban

    areas.

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    land. This would reduce the population density of the area. However, a poor family

    may have a relatively large family due to traditional factors, whilst living in a small

    apartment. This would increase the population density of the area.

    Combine the factors of wealth and improved health care, we will see a disparity in

    population density within an urban environment, where wealthier locations often have a

    lowered population density, and vice versa.

    The global megacity

    Megacities are cities that have 10 million inhabitants or more.

    Economic growth

    High rates of natural increase

    Rural-urban migration

    Causes include:

    Expansions of megacities (or large cities that are on the verge of becoming megacities)

    may swallow up nearby rural areas and small towns.

    Megacities become multi-nuclei centres.

    The population of megacities can be bigger than the entire population of some countries

    (e.g. Tokyo has a greater population than the whole of Canada).

    Year Year Year

    1975 2009 2025

    Rank Megaci

    ty

    Pop.

    millions

    Rank Megaci

    ty

    Pop.

    millions

    Rank Megaci

    ty

    Pop.

    Million

    s

    1 Tokyo 26.6 1 Tokyo 36.5 1 Tokyo 37.1

    2 New

    York/

    Newark

    15.9 2 Delhi 21.7 2 Delhi 28.6

    3 Mexico

    City

    16.7 3 Sao

    Paulo

    20.0 3 Mumba

    i

    25.8

    4 Mumba

    i

    19.7 4 Sao

    Paulo

    21.7

    5 Mexico

    City

    19.3 5 Dhaka 20.9

    6 New

    York/

    Newark

    19.3 6 Mexico

    City

    20.7

    7 Shangh

    ai

    16.3 7 New

    York/

    Newark

    20.6

    8 Kolkata 15.3 8 Kolkata 20.1

    9 Dhaka 14.3 9 Shangh

    ai

    20.0

    10 Buenos

    Aires

    13.0 10 Karachi 18.7

    As invaders set up coastal cities in previously uninhabited areas, or

    rural areas, people from overseas may arrive to seek their fortunes.

    Colonial influences

    Great increase in the number of megacities from the 1970's, with only 3

    megacities (Tokyo, New York/ Newark and Mexico City), to the ever-increasingnumber of megacities today. Factors for this increase include:

    Global increase in the number of megacities

    MegacitiesExplain the global increase in the number and location of megacities (population over 10 million).

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    The Spanish and Portuguese created Lima (Peru) and Buenos

    Aires (Argentina) which then grew as Europeans flocked to the

    "new world" to seek their fortunes.

    Example:

    Some coastal cities developed from the 1600s till the 1800s, and

    specialise in trade in particular products.

    Shanghai grew through export of cotton, silk and textiles.

    Example:

    Ports and trading cities

    During the reassignment of a city as the national capital, people would

    flock to them.

    Prior to the independence of Bangladesh, Dacca (Dhaka) was

    the eastern regional administration capital and an old trade

    centre. In 1950 the population was only 430000, but by 1975 (4

    years after independence), the population had risen to 2.3

    million, with an annual growth rate of 7.25%.

    Example:

    Reassignment of a city as a capital city

    Industrialisation became a major component of the post-independence strategies of many countries, as terms of trade had

    begun to favour Britain and the United States. These industries were

    primarily located in the bigger cities, and hence attracted many rural

    migrants.

    Latin America (Mexico City, Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires) and

    India had major industrialization components in their post-

    independence strategies, causing a large centripetal movement,

    as people flocked in, in search for job opportunities.

    Example:

    Post independence policies frequently favoured urban areas over rural

    After the world depression in the 1930s and the Wall Street crash,

    developed countries had the need for manufactured goods from other

    countries, as they had converted their factories to produce goods for

    war use. Developing countries such as the ones in Latin America were

    therefore used in place, and started to manufacture goods for the

    developed regions. This caused the attraction of many rural migrants,

    hence the increase in population.

    Latin America

    Example:

    Post-war modernisation and industrialisation

    Due to the bettering medical facilities in the modern world, the

    vulnerability of people, both in urban and rural environments have

    decreased, causing people to live longer, and hence the increase inpopulation.

    Declining mortality rates

    Classic push and pull factors for rural to urban migration caused a

    large increase in populations in megacities.

    Rural to urban migration accounted to 20% of Buenos Aires'

    growth between 1940 and 1980.

    Example:

    Rural to urban migration

    Governmental incentives to rural populations to move into urbanised

    areas caused many people to move from rural areas to urbanised

    areas, inducing rural to urban migration.

    In 1950s China, people were either classified as "entitled"

    ("entitled" people were people who lived in urbanised areas,

    and were allowed to access subsidies and welfare) and "non-

    Example:

    Settlement laws

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    entitled" ("non-entitled" people were not entitled to the

    subsidies and welfare). This caused the "entitled" sector to

    become attractive, causing a large volume of people migrating

    to urban areas.

    Peripheral areas such as areas in South East Asia have been major

    players in the economic markets, as developed countries would invest

    in these developing regions, to profit in the cheap labour that these

    places may bring. This would therefore cause an influx of people frominternational to rural origins.

    Bangkok accounts for 86% of Thailand's GNP in banking,

    insurance and real estate and 74% of manufacturing.

    Example:

    Location of international production into urban areas

    Previously, megacities were mostly located in developed regions. This was due to

    the high influx of job opportunities in these areas, from the manufacturing to the

    financial industries. However, as time passed, economical, social and political

    factors as listed above have caused cities in developing areas to become more and

    more popular, causing an great increase in population, and thus making them

    megacities. Megacities in developed countries on the other hand, may have areduction in population, due to the various push factors it brings, such as the high

    costs of living, causing people to move outward (centrifugal movements), away

    from the core of the megacity.

    Map: Distribution of global megacities in 1980

    Map: Distribution of global megacities in 2010

    As the maps show, there has been an increase in the number of megacitiesin LICs, or peripheral areas. Areas such as that of North America and

    Western Europe may be considered as the core area, whilst others such as

    South America, Africa, Central/ Eastern parts of Asia may be considered to

    be peripheral areas.

    The progression of the locations of mega-cities:

    Locations of megacities

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    What's an urban area?Dateline: 06/09/97

    It is difficult to compare countries based on the percentage of urban population since manycountries have different definitions of what size population is necessary to make a community

    "urban."

    In Sweden and Denmark, a village of 200 people is counted as an "urban" population but it takes a

    city of 30,000 in Japan. Most other countries fall somewhere in between. Australia and Canada use

    1000, Israel and France use 2000 and the United States and Mexico call a town of 2500 residents

    urban.

    Due to these differences, we have a problem with comparisons. Let us assume that in Japan and in

    Denmark there are 100 villages of 250 people each. In Denmark, all of these 25,000 people are

    counted as "urban" residents but in Japan, the residents of these 100 villages are all "rural"

    populations. Similarly, a single city with a population of 25,000 would be an urban area in

    Denmark but not in Japan.

    Japan is 78% and Denmark is 85% urbanized. Unless we are aware of what size of a population

    makes an area urban we can not simply compare the two percentages and say "Denmark is more

    urbanized than Japan."

    Below is a table with some countries, the minimum population which makes an area urban and the

    percent of the country which is "urbanized." Notice that some countries with a higher minimum

    population have a lower percentage of urbanized population.

    Country Min. Pop. Urban Pop.

    Sweden 200 83%

    Denmark 200 85%

    South Africa 500 57%Australia 1000 85%

    Canada 1000 77%

    Israel 2000 90%

    France 2000 74%

    United States 2500 75%

    Mexico 2500 71%

    Belgium 5000 97%

    Iran 5000 58%

    Nigeria 5000 16%

    Spain 10,000 64%

    Turkey 10,000 63%

    Japan 30,000 78%

    Sources

    Hartshorn, Truman A. Interpreting the City: An Urban Geography. 1992.

    Famighetti, Robert (ed.). The World Almanac and Book of Facts. 1997.

    From

    Source 1: What's an urban environment?31 January 2013 11:34

    http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa060997.htmhttp://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa060997.htmhttp://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa060997.htm
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    Residential areas Explain the location of residential areas in relation to wealth, ethnicity and family

    status (stage in life cycle).

    Examine patterns of urban poverty and deprivation (such as slums, squatter

    settlements, areas of low-cost housing and inner-city areas).

    Examine the causes and effects of the movement of socio-economic groups since

    the 1980s.

    Areas of

    economic

    activity

    Explain the spatial pattern of economic activity, the zoning of urban and

    suburban functions and the internal structure of the central business district

    (CBD).

    Describe the informal sector; its characteristics and location in urban areas.

    Examine the causes and effects of the movement of retailing, service and

    manufacturing activities to new locations, including brownfield sites.

    Residential areas

    As the city centre (CBD) has an incredibly expensive land price, residents

    cannot afford to live there, and hence the population density is low.

    Crater in the middle

    For the ease of access to job opportunities, people would try to live as close

    to the CBD as possible. This creates a steep slope in terms of the population

    density, as people can afford the housing options surrounding the crater.

    Steep slopes around crater

    Traditionally, the poorer people would live closer in towards the city centre,

    as this would provide a higher chance in getting a job. Meanwhile the

    richer, more affluent population would live further out, causing a gradual

    decline in population density.

    Shallow slope following peak (traditional model)

    Graph: The density curve

    Residential patterns due to wealth

    Explain the location of residential areas in relation to wealth, ethnicity and family status (stage in life

    cycle).

    Around the city, there may be various ghettos for various religious or ethnic

    Ghettoization

    Residential patterns due to ethnicity

    2. Urban land use25 August 2012 16:44

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    groups. Groups of people from the same ethnic background would typically group

    and live together in a part of town, that is separate from the host society. This is

    often in the suburban areas, or in the countryside.

    For example, people of a Western background that live in Hong Kong would often

    choose to live in Sai Kung, where there is a greater number of Westerners.

    Individual (student) - A student would often live with his or her parents, in a

    relatively upsized apartment or house.

    1.

    Individual (student of higher education) - When going to college, or other forms

    of higher education, the student would often rent an apartment. These are often

    small, but cheap. During this stage, the person would move several times.

    2.

    Living with a partner (early years - from about 25 to 30) - Often, people would

    find living partners at around this age. The pair would move into a small house.

    3.

    Living with a partner (children) - Once the pair have a child, they would often

    move to another bigger house, to accommodate for their needs.

    4.

    Living with a partner (more children) - At around the age of 35, more children

    would come into the pair's lives, and will therefore require a bigger house.

    5.

    Family life - As the person progresses in his or her carrier, the family's income

    would increase. This would allow for the family to afford bigger housing.

    6.

    Retirement - When the children have grown up, and the person is growing old

    (reaching retirement age), the partners will retire. The children will move out as

    they move on in life, and the size of the house they're in may be too large. The

    pair will therefore move to a smaller sized house.

    7.

    Death of the partner - As a partner dies, the other partner would want to leave

    the house they were living in, to forget the memories. The spatial need is also

    reduced. The living partner would therefore relocate to a smaller home.

    8.

    Incapacity - After a certain age, it becomes more and more difficult for people to

    care for themselves. They would therefore move to care homes for assisted living.

    9.

    The family status of a person would often dictate the location in which he or she is living

    in.

    Residential patterns due to family status (family life cycle)

    Although there are regions within a city that is relatively well off, with large numbers of

    facilities serving the local population, there are also parts of a city that are deprived.

    The quality of life is reduced.

    In MEDCs, the areas of deprivation are often seen in inner-city areas or ghettos.

    Meanwhile in LEDCs, urban deprivation is seen in shanty towns.

    Physical indicators would include looking at the urban fabric. This would

    include the quality of housing, as well as the quality of the infrastructure in

    the city, in general.

    Physical indicators would also include the level of pollution, as well as the

    frequency of crimes, vandalisms and graffiti.

    Physical indicators

    Social indicators such as the rate of crime, the fear of crime, as well as the

    levels of education and health care are used. Other social factors such as

    the amount of subsides given to the population, as well as the number of

    lone-parent families are used.

    Social indicators

    The level of employment or unemployment, levels of income and the ability

    for one to access jobs are looked at.

    Economic indicators

    Political indicators

    There are multiple factors that one can look at, when considering an area's level of

    deprivation.

    Urban deprivation

    Examine patterns of urban poverty and deprivation (such as slums, squatter settlements, areas of

    low-cost housing and inner-city areas).

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    Political factors include the opportunity for one to vote, as well as the ability

    for one to take part in community organisation.

    Slums and squatter settlements are often highly deprived. They are typically

    located in areas where urban planners would not use, such as on slopes,

    floodplains, on the edge of town, or close to major industrial complexes.

    These areas are often deprived due to the lack of money from the residents.

    Residents of this area are usually poor, and come from various locations (residents

    are typically migrants looking for jobs). Basic services such as running water isn'talways possible, and the sites are often hazardous.

    Slums also have poor levels of hygiene and sanitation. This problem is worsened

    by the number of people living in these areas.

    An example of this is the slum in Lagos. The slum of Lagos (in Nigeria) is situated

    on multiple islands off the CBD. It has a high level of deprivation, with an

    extremely unhygienic environment. One can see multitudes of garbage floating

    around everywhere.

    There isn't a built infrastructure for sanitary purposes, and the quality of housing is

    extremely poor.

    However, there are lowered levels of crime, in comparison to inner-city areas.

    There are also many forms of informal employment, allowing people to work athome.

    One of the main reasons for why some of the population have moved into this

    settlement, is the close proximity between the slum and the CBD. The local

    people believe that Lagos would provide better job opportunities, in comparison

    to the rural areas that they come from. Furthermore, the housing in a slum is

    often cheap, and affordable.

    For more information, see source 1.

    Image: Lagos slum

    Slums and squatter settlements

    Areas of low cost housing would often have a high level deprivation. This is due to

    the lack of money available to improve the urban fabric. Low cost housing can beseen in all cities around the world, and are typically relatively close to the CBD.

    For instance, the "tong lau"in Hong Kong are often cheap, but offer a

    high level of deprivation. For instance, the levels of wealth of the people who live

    in these places may be low, and people may not have jobs. Furthermore, the

    Areas of low-cost housing

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    quality of the building may not be guaranteed. For instance, a "tong lau" in To

    Kwa Wan collapsed in 2010, due to the poor quality of the building, and errors by

    workers.

    For more information, see source 2.

    Image: Tong Lau in Hong Kong

    Other examples of low cost housing include the cage-homes seen in Hong Kong.

    These homes are often small, are can only fit a bed. Toilet and kitchen services

    are often communal, and are shared between multiple families. There areconstant risks of fire, and are generally highly deprived.

    Image: cage-homes in Hong Kong

    Properties have deteriorated

    Social Problems

    Inner-city areas are often highly deprived, with poor urban fabrics and multitudes

    of social problems. This is particularly obvious in MEDCs, where there are manyovercrowded households, and high rates of crime. The following is a concise list of

    problems related to urban deprivation, seen in many inner-city areas in MEDCs

    Inner-city areas

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    High percentage of overcrowded households

    Higher death & infant mortality rates

    Lower life expectancy

    Social segregation Racial discrimination e.g. Brixton. People are

    socially excluded.

    Persistent unemployment culture of poverty

    High levels of stress due to poverty family breakdowns.

    Loss of business & industry massive unemployment (51% abovenational average.

    Few people can afford to own their own houses or invest any money.

    Local authorities have little taxes so lack of investment in the local

    area.

    Environmental decay spiral of decline.

    Businesses put off by high land prices, lack of space, high crime &

    traffic congestion.

    Economic problems

    Decay & deprivation of factories seedbeds for crime e.g. drugs.

    Lack of open space

    Dereliction and poor state of repair causes depressing environment.Air pollution

    Local watercourses often badly polluted by factories.

    Environmental Problems

    For more information, see source 3.

    Since the 1980s, companies have moved manufacturing activities to peripheral

    areas. These areas include South East Asia (e.g. India, Indonesia), as well as areas

    such as in Sub-Saharan Africa (newly industrialised countries - NICs). This

    movement is due to the reduction of manufacturing costs, whilst retaining thesame quality.

    Examples of products being manufactured in these peripheral areas include shoes

    and clothing.

    As a result of the movement of TNCs to NICs, there have been movements within

    the population to areas where there are more job opportunities. For instance, as

    core countries started to invest into China's manufacturing industry on the

    coastline of China, the Chinese population started migrating towards these areas.

    One of the main manufacturing zones in China is Guangzhou. More than 5 million

    of Guangzhou's population are migrants (accounting for 40% of the population).

    For more information, see sources 4 and 5.

    Industrial movements

    Since the 1980s, there has been an increased trend of rural to urban migration.

    This is due to the perceived increase in job opportunities. For instance, many

    Nigerians would travel hundreds of miles to Lagos to live in a slum, in search for a

    higher paid job.

    Through technology, many nodes around the world have been connected, thus

    increasing the number of global connections, thus financial flows. These

    connections have encouraged people to work in urbanised areas, for TNCs.

    Urbanisation around the world

    As people become richer and more affluent, they would want to move away from

    the CBD, to suburbs where the environment is a lot quieter. This has been a trend

    seen in many core countries.

    For instance, the more affluent people of Hong Kong would move to quieter

    corners of the busy city, such as that of Fei Ngo Shan, located in the mountains

    between Sai Kung and Kowloon.

    Suburbanisation for the riches

    Causes and effects of movement of socio-economic groups

    Examine the causes and effects of the movement of socio-economic groups since the 1980s.

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    Areas of economic activity

    Image: The Burgess Model

    The Burgess Model states the CBD is in the middle of the model, with rings

    surrounding it. Most of the economic activity would be conducted in the CBD and

    factories. Meanwhile, surrounding that would be the various residential areas for

    the different classes.

    Companies such as TNCs will be situated within the first two rings, whilst the low

    class residents would be situated next to it. Low class residents would live here,

    due to the proximity between their homes and the companies. It is perceived that

    there are high chances of occupation if one is located near to the CBD.

    Cities may follow this model if the entire city is located on flat land.

    An example of the Burgess model in real life is Chicago. For more information, see

    source 6.

    Burgess model

    Spatial pattern of economic activity

    Explain the spatial pattern of economic activity, the zoning of urban and suburban functions and the

    internal structure of the central business district (CBD).

    Image: Hoyt Sector Model

    This model dictates that the CBD is in the centre, but there are various sectors that

    stretch out from here. For instance, high class residential areas stretch out fromhere to the edge of the urban environment. This is surrounded by a ring of

    medium class residential areas.

    On the opposite side of the urban environment are the low class residential areas.

    In between the CBD and the low class residential areas are the factories and

    Hoyt Sector model

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    industrialised areas.

    Cities may follow this model due to a major transport link, such as a major road, or

    a river.

    An example of the Hoyt Sector Model in real life is Newcastle upon Tyne.

    Image: Multi-nuclei model

    Multi-nuclei model

    The multi-nuclei model shows that although the CBD is in the middle of town,

    there may be other business districts surrounding it. Residences of different

    classes and various industries may be in between these districts.

    An example of a multi-nuclei city would be Hong Kong. Hong Kong's CBD isbetween Tsim Sha Tsui and Central. However, Hong Kong multiple business

    districts, such as Tuen Mun, Tseung Kwan O etc. There are residential areas and

    industrial areas of different classes and levels between these districts.

    Image: Zoning of urban environments

    Zoning of urban and suburban functions

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    The CBD is where most of the business is conducted. The CBD houses facilities

    such as banks, businesses, high class retailing etc. Skyscrapers may also be found

    in these areas. Hong Kong's CBD is Tsim Sha Tsui and Central.

    Central business district (CBD)

    The inner-city area surrounds the CBD and houses lower class housing. For

    instance, there may be high numbers of terraced housing. These areas are

    typically gentrified, or are in the process of being gentrified. An inner-city area in

    Hong Kong may be the mid-levels.

    Inner-city area (zone of transition)

    Industrial areas are typically set along major transport links. They can be new or

    old, and are areas that are undergoing change. An old example of an industrial

    area in Hong Kong, is Kwun Tong. This area used to house many industrial

    factories, such as toy companies. It was set in this location, due to its proximity to

    the sea, and the ability for ships to simply pull up to the dock.

    Industry

    Inner suburbs would often house middle-class housing. As people increase their

    wealth, they would start moving out. This will be the first point of movement. An

    example of an inner suburb would include Kowloon Tong.

    Inner suburbs

    Outer suburbs are filled with modern housing, that are mainly privately owned.

    These are usually reserved for the wealthy and high class.

    However, there may be isolated examples where the government would have

    built council estates.

    An example of an outer suburb in Hong Kong would be Tai Po. The government

    has built multiple council estates in this region. However, there are also multiple

    resorts reserved for the riches. Examples include Hong Lok Yuen.

    Outer suburbs

    Industrial estates are typically on the rural-urban fringe (similar position to that of

    outer suburbs). They are typically placed on cheap land, that is accessible and

    allows room for expansion. An example of an industrial estate in Hong Kong is the

    Industrial estates

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    Tai Po Industrial estate.

    Department stores

    Specialist shops

    High rise office blocks

    Commercial offices (e.g. banks)

    The inner core is reserved for the most important of businesses, and utility

    stores. Examples of services available in the inner core include:

    Inner core

    Smaller shops

    Public administration

    Theatres and cinemas

    Offices (e.g. insurance and solicitors)

    The outer core is reserved for other less important businesses. These

    include:

    Outer core

    Education

    Social services

    Care sales and services

    Light manufacturing

    Wholesale services

    The remaining services and businesses that are of lesser importance are

    placed in the frame. These include:

    Frame

    Zones of assimilation are areas which increasingly develops the functions of

    the CBD; the CBD of the future, characterized by whole scale redevelopment

    of shops, offices, and hotels.

    Zones of assimilation

    A zone of discard is an area, once a part of the CBD but now in decline and

    characterized by low status shops and warehouses, and vacant property.

    Zones of discard

    Image: The core-frame model

    Internal structure of CBD

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    The informal sector includes self-employment and the jobs that are done by self-

    employed people, and which are neither declared to, nor regulated by, the

    authorities.

    Definition

    South America and Asia- 60% of the urban population in the informal sector

    Sub-Saharan Africa - 70% of the urban population in the informal sectorMost are unskilled and poorly paid jobs. No qualifications or training required.

    Some are skilled jobs (such as tutors) in core areas.

    There aren't any set hours of work, and pay may fluctuate.

    There is no legal protection or job security.

    Jobs may be labour intensive, and may be illegal.

    There aren't specific locations in the city, although street vending and services

    tend to happen within the CBD. Other informal activity may occur elsewhere,

    such as in residential areas.

    Characteristics of the informal sector

    Fruit vendor

    Rickshaw puller

    Barber

    Taxi driver

    Waste-picker

    Tutors

    Examples of informal activity

    Advantages Disadvantages

    Plays a vital role in the economies of developing

    countries, as they bring in income

    There are negative

    connotations with the

    informal sector, such as

    drug pushing, prostitution,

    political corruption etc.

    Doesn't cost a lot. For instance, in Angola, setting up

    a formal business requires 13 procedures, 124 days

    and almost 500% of the average income. Informal

    businesses don't cost as much.

    Negative connotations

    may be a push factor for

    some.

    Informal sector and formal sector often

    interdependent - informal sector may produce goods

    at minimal costs, which are finished by the formal

    sector.

    No benefits from the

    government.

    Aids the economy (was the basis of the Industrial

    Revolution in the 19th century)

    They are often exposed to

    health and safety risks.

    They may be exposed to

    chemicals that are harmful

    to one's health, but yet

    have no protective

    clothing on.

    Advantages and disadvantages of informal sector

    Informal sector

    Describe the informal sector; its characteristics and location in urban areas.

    Retailing is sale of goods and services to the public.

    Definition

    Increased rent - Movements of retailing and services are often down to the

    Causes for movements to new locations

    Retailing and services

    Causes and effects of the movement of retailing and services

    Examine the causes and effects of the movement of retailing, service and manufacturing activities to

    new locations, including brownfield sites.

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    increased price for land. For instance, a small sized (approximately 1500 ft)

    shop can be on rent for up to $30000 per month in Hong Kong. This is often

    not sustainable for small businesses, and are therefore forced to move

    elsewhere. Brownfield sites are often cheaper to rent, and most

    governments do encourage the use of these locations. For instance, Hong

    Kong has launched "Operation Building Bright" to salvage the many

    brownfield sites/ disused locations in Hong Kong, to reduce urban sprawl,

    and increase Hong Kong's sustainability.

    Proximity to market - There are some services that may target particularmarkets. For instance, tuition firms often have the target market of

    students. By moving to residential areas, they are reducing the distance

    between their business, and the target market.

    Place for expansion - Some businesses may simply be expanding to increase

    their markets. For instance, restaurant chains in Hong Kong would often

    start in the CBD, then move out to the suburban areas, once they are

    known. Examples may include Hong Kong's Caf de Coral.

    Quality of the environment - The quality of the environment may be a pull

    factor for business' to move. For instance, services relating to personal

    treatment (massage, spas etc.) may benefit from the improved

    surroundings, thus move.

    Decentralised CBD - As businesses start to move around, a decentralised

    CBD is formed. Businesses will be scattered all around the city, and will not

    follow the core-frame model.

    Increased air pollution due to more frequent commutes - As people start to

    commute to the edges of the city (rural-urban fringe), or to other locations,

    such as brownfield sites, the amount of air pollution generated increases,

    thus increasing the factor of air pollution.

    Change in land prices - As businesses shift out of the CBD, the land prices

    within the CBD starts to reduce.

    Destruction of green field sites - As businesses search for alternativelocations for relocation, the possibility of moving to green field sites

    appears. Some businesses will therefore move to these locations,

    destroying the original vegetation.

    Effects from movement to new locations

    Manufacturing activities typically involve factories that produce products.

    Definition

    Increased rent - Movements of manufacturing activities are often down to

    the increased price for land. For instance, a small sized factory in the CBD

    can cost up to $20000 for rent each month. The prices of factories in the

    outer urban area is significantly lower.

    Political factors - Policies such as environmental policies may dictate the

    amount of air pollution permitted for manufacturing facilities in CBDs. As

    factories may often be polluting, they may not adhere to these regulations,

    and therefore must move. Noisy factories are also often a cause for

    concern.

    Transport routing - CBDs may be difficult to get to, due to the tight streets.

    In order to increase the flow of goods out of the manufacturing zone,

    factories may move to transport hubs in order to allow for a better efficient

    shipping procedure. For instance, the industrial estate in Tai Po is located

    next to one of Hong Kong's most important highways - Tolo Harbour

    Highway. This highway leads all the way to mainland China's gateway (Lo

    Wu), as well as the heart of Hong Kong.

    Built infrastructure - Factories may often reutilise brownfield sites. They are

    cheap to rent, and often require only small fixes in order to be suitable to

    Causes for movements to new locations

    Manufacturing activities

    Causes and effects of the movement of manufacturing activities

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    restart manufacturing processes.

    Flat land (with room for expansion) - As factories may expand, it may be a

    good idea to find a location where expansion is possible. CBDs are often

    tightly packed, and expansion is near impossible.

    Increased air pollution in suburban areas - Suburban areas would therefore

    be affected providing manufacturing processes move here. Air pollution as

    well as noise pollution will be the main culprits. However, factories may also

    prove to be an eye-saw.

    Destruction of green field sites - When factories relocate to the countryside,

    they typically take up massive plots of land. This will therefore require a

    mass deforestation activity. For instance, when Boeing built it's mega-

    factory at Paine Field, Washington, they had to remove 399,480 m of trees

    for the factory alone.

    Effects from movement to new locations

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    NIGERIA: Lagos, the mega-city of slums

    Lagos, 5 September 2006 (IRIN) - Canoes glide through the black, stinking water as children run along

    an overhead maze of precarious walkways through Makoko, a growing slum on stilts in Nigerias

    sprawling commercial capital, Lagos.

    Many of the original residents of Makoko are fishermen attracted from across the region to hopes of

    a better life in Nigeria, West Africas oil-rich economic powerhouse. But life is tougher than they had

    imagined.

    I moved here to fish, to set up a business, said Martins Oke, in his 70s, who left his village on the

    Benin border when he was a small boy. But some days I dont even catch a single fish.

    Many Makoko residents have been here for generations, losing touch with family back home. Pride

    stops others from returning to their communities empty handed.

    Despite the hardship, every year more and more people come to Lagos.

    It is already one of the worlds mega-cities a crime-ridden, seething mass of some 15 million

    people crammed into the steamy lagoons of southwest Nigeria. Two out of three Lagos residents live

    in a slum with no reliable access to clean drinking water, electricity, waste disposal - even roads.

    As the city population swells by up to eight percent every year, the slums and their associated

    problems are growing. The government estimates that Lagos will have expanded to 25 million

    residents by 2015.

    By 2015 Lagos will be the third largest city in the world but it has less infrastructure than any of the

    worlds other largest cities, said Francisco Bolaji Abosede, Lagos Commissioner for Town Planning

    and Urbanisation.

    Abosede is keen to emphasise that his is not a political appointment a euphemism for corruption.

    His desk is piled high with maps and proposals for new developments and regeneration projects for

    Lagos Island the citys central business district.

    A WORLD AWAY

    Sunday Merunu rarely ventures from his stilt-home in Makoko into downtown Lagos, although he

    can see it from where he sits amongst his fishing nets.

    Merunu shares a two-room shack with three other adults and eight children. The family buys water

    by the bucket for drinking, cooking and bathing. Like the estimated 15,000 other residents of

    Makoko, all the familys waste and raw sewage go directly into the inky water beneath their homes.

    Merunus house has a couple of light bulbs and even a television, but electricity supply by the state

    power company, NEPA, is at best erratic and most nights the family has only kerosene lamps for

    light.

    We spend 20 naira [15 cents] to buy water every couple of days and divide the electricity bill

    between a few families, said Merunu. There isnt enough money left over to send the kids to

    school.

    Source 1: Nigeria: Lagos, the mega-city of slums03 February 2013 14:15

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    The World Bank has identified nine of Lagos largest slums, Agege, Ajegunle, Amukoko, Badia, Bariga,

    Ijeshatedo/Itire, Ilaje, Iwaya and Makoko, for upgrading with a US $200 million loan to improve

    drainage and solid waste management.

    An estimated one million people will benefit from the loan, which is the largest single project backed

    by the World Bank in Nigeria.

    Since President Olusegun Obasanjos elected government came to power in 1999, ending 15 years of

    military rule, millions of dollars have been spent on urban regeneration and projects aimed atreducing crime, but results have been poor.

    Security forces rarely venture into Makoko, except perhaps for the occasional demolition of shanty

    houses. Instead, security is provided by Area Boys, self-styled vigilante groups made up of

    unemployed young men that defend their territory with threats and often violence.

    CORRUPTION AT THE ROOT

    Like the Area Boys, at every level of society in Lagos someone is looking to make their levy.

    Nigeria is one of the most corrupt countries in the world, according to international NGOTransparency International. Since independence in 1960, billions of dollars of Nigerias oil revenue

    have been siphoned from state and government coffers into Swiss bank accounts of the countrys

    rulers.

    Nigerias rampant corruption and lack of enforced regulations have enabled buildings to go up

    unchecked only 30 percent of houses in the city have an approved building plan.

    The Ebute-Metta area of Lagos is a short drive inland from Makoko. New buildings are falling down

    almost as fast as they are going up. Poor workmanship and corrupt inspectors means that buildings

    less than five years old are collapsing, sometimes crushing to death whole families inside.

    We had noticed the cracks in the walls, but we never thought it would collapse, said Debola

    Igbosanmi, who had a shop on the ground floor of 71 Bola Street before it caved in without warning

    in mid-July, killing about 20 people.

    According to Abosede at the Lagos Town Planning office, 199 buildings in Ebute-Metta alone have

    been identified for testing for poor workmanship. Many still have people living inside.

    Abosede says his office is cracking down on corruption. Its a crusade that President Obasanjo says

    he is spearheading since taking up office nearly eight years ago. Although Obasanjo has won praise

    overseas for his anti-corruption drive, his critics say that the president has used his Anti-Corruption

    Bill only against his opponents.

    In August, the woman at the forefront of his governments anti-graft campaign, Ngozi Okonjo-

    Iweala, quit as foreign minister after being relieved as finance minister in June. This was evidence,

    critics said, that she had been a little too good at her job.

    Okonjo-Iweala led negotiations that resulted in Africas biggest debt write-off of US $18 billion. She

    also initiated reforms which saved Nigeria US $500 million by forcing the renegotiation of contracts

    that had already been awarded.

    But Okonjo-Iwealas successes merely scratch the surface in a country where corruption is not just a

    government pursuit but has seeped into the very fabric of society.

    Abutting Makoko is Iwaya, one of the oldest slum areas of Lagos. There, Chief Murtiala Aremu Oloko

    sits in this three-storey home rising out of the haphazard sprawl.

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    When asked to list the needs faced by his subjects, Oloko laughs, It would take all day. The

    problems are too numerous, ranging from healthcare shortages to schools shortages and more, he

    says.

    When asked what he was doing as the traditional leader in Iwaya to help his people, Oloko didnt

    pause: That depends what they give me.

    From

    http://www.irinnews.org/Report/60811/NIGERIA-Lagos-the-mega-city-of-slumshttp://www.irinnews.org/Report/60811/NIGERIA-Lagos-the-mega-city-of-slumshttp://www.irinnews.org/Report/60811/NIGERIA-Lagos-the-mega-city-of-slums
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    The Collapse of To Kwa Wan

    After the tragic incident, is it now the time to redevelop old buildings in Hong Kong?talk of the town

    | Text :Alex Frew McMillan | Photo : www.stockxpert.com |

    Those idle daydreams of To Kwa Wans residents turned into a nightmare at the end ofJanuary when the five-floor structure at Block J, 45 Ma Tau Wai Road collapsed in minutes.It killed at least four people and threw dozens more out on the street.

    Construction workers renovating a shop on the ground floor came rushing out of the buildingmoments before it came down around 1:45pm on Friday, January 29. And since the policeinvestigation into the reasons for the collapse is still ongoing, the question is: did the workers

    remove a load-bearing wall, or walls, leaving little to keep the building standing on its feet?Thats the implication, although the forensic experts and investigators still have their say.

    The government instantly ordered emergency inspections for all buildings that were builtbefore 1960. The building in question was built in 1955.

    It seems preposterous that a 55-year-old building cant be expected to stay standing. In mostEuropean cities, many buildings are hundreds of years old. Even in the New World half acentury is a very short lifespan for a structure. Should the Chrysler Building, completed in1930, or the Empire State Building, which replaced the Chrysler as the worlds largestbuilding when it was finished in 1931, be torn down because theyre past their best-beforedate? Only somewhere like Hong Kong, where new buildings are sometimes destroyed

    without even being occupied to make way for more profitable projects, would a buildingthats in its sixth decade be considered ancient.

    Hong Kong has had buildings collapse before. A devastating landslide hit Mid-Levels onJune 18, 1972, carving a huge gash in the hillside. It sent a huge flow of mud and debrissluicing from a construction site down Po Shan Road and across Conduit Road, with someof the rubble reaching Kotewall Road some 270 meters down the slope. Two buildings weredestroyed and 67 people died.

    But there were natural causes behind that disaster exceptionally heavy rain, and one ofthe buildings had already been weakened by a typhoon. Slopes are now monitored carefully,and building standards have improved. The To Kwa Wan collapse appears to be entirely

    man-made.

    Thats very unusual. I havent seen a similar case at all, says Victor Lai, managing directorof Centaline Surveyors. If there was no illegal construction work being carried out, I think aconcrete building will last for over 50 years, at least.

    In the collapsed buildings, all the balconies had been filled, renovations that are illegal butvery common in Hong Kong. That loaded weight on the front. Many of the flats had beendivided and subdivided again, raising the likelihood that structural walls clearly marked onplans lodged with the Buildings Department were knocked down.

    One of the problems with old tenement buildings like the one that collapsed is that they

    hardly ever have owners committees to oversee communal building renovations or tomaintain the structure. Most of the poor tenants are renting and have no ownership stake inthe building.

    No doubt, the Urban Renewal Authority will trumpet the collapse and use it as motivation to

    Source 2: The Collapse of To Kwa Wan03 February 2013 14:12

    http://www.stockxpert.com/http://www.stockxpert.com/
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    step up its programme of knocking down old buildings in unfashionable parts of town andreplacing them with luxury housing. Sadly, many of the displaced tenants will be unlikely toafford those new digs.

    Banks, which had been getting better about loaning money on old buildings, may grow leeryagain. One thing is for sure: few structures stand the test of time in Hong Kong. Says Lai: InHong Kong, its a short cycle; most of the buildings will be redeveloped.

    From

    http://www.squarefoot.com.hk/section/magazine-94-the-collapse-of-to-kwa-wan/http://www.squarefoot.com.hk/section/magazine-94-the-collapse-of-to-kwa-wan/http://www.squarefoot.com.hk/section/magazine-94-the-collapse-of-to-kwa-wan/
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    Urban decay & deprivationDecay & deprivation is a relative concept depending on how deprived the area is in relation tomore prosperous areas.

    Poverty

    Pollution

    Crime

    Overcrowding

    Poor housing conditions

    Unemployment

    Racial tension

    Inner city areas suffer

    Causes of DeprivationInner city areas were once thriving communities with a mixture of land-use and rich living

    alongside poor. There were shops & houses, services, community spirit & little crime. Howeverthere were high levels of pollution land, air & water. Poor sanitation led to a high death rate.

    Cycle of deprivation

    Older residents

    Single parent familiesStudents

    Poorer families

    Ethnic minorities left behind formation of ghettos.

    After the industrial revolution people became increasingly affluent. This led to social segregation rich move out of inner city suburbs. People left in the inner city:

    Decentralisation increases the problem: -Movement of businesses out of inner city unemployment Dead Heart.Removal of businesses causes a loss of money from the area so there is little money available toinvest in improvements.Out-of-town shopping centres means less wealthy are deprived of better shops less mobile.

    Inner city Problems

    Properties have deteriorated

    High percentage of overcrowded households

    Higher death & infant mortality rates

    Lower life expectancy

    Social Problems

    Source 3: Urban decay & deprivation03 February 2013 14:23

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    Social segregation Racial discrimination e.g. Brixton. People are socially excluded.

    Persistent unemployment culture of poverty

    High levels of stress due to poverty family breakdowns.

    Loss of business & industry massive unemployment (51% above national average.

    Few people can afford to own their own houses or invest any money.

    Local authorities have little taxes so lack of investment in the local area.

    Environmental decay spiral of decline.

    Businesses put off by high land prices, lack of space, high crime & traffic congestion.

    Economic problems

    Decay & deprivation of factories seedbeds for crime e.g. drugs.

    Lack of open space

    Dereliction and poor state of repair causes depressing environment.

    Air pollution

    Local watercourses often badly polluted by factories.

    Environmental Problems

    Overall the problem was so bad that there was multiple deprivation due to huge number ofdifferent problems that the areas face. There were numerous initiatives to try to stopdeterioration.

    From

    http://www.thestudentroom.co.uk/wiki/Revision:Urban_Deprivation_in_MEDCs#Cycle_of_deprivationhttp://www.thestudentroom.co.uk/wiki/Revision:Urban_Deprivation_in_MEDCs#Cycle_of_deprivationhttp://www.thestudentroom.co.uk/wiki/Revision:Urban_Deprivation_in_MEDCs#Cycle_of_deprivation
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    What Are Newly Industrialized Countries?

    Newly industrialized countries are members of a socioeconomic classification given to locations that have

    recently experienced an economic shift towards stability and industry. These countries typically sit at a

    juncture between Third and First World governments. They have shifted towards a stable government

    and industrialized economy, but havent made permanent changes. Such countries have a higher

    standard of living and per capita income than other developing nations, but still lower than that of First

    World countries. Due to this discrepancy, other nations often outsource certain industries or

    manufacturing jobs to these locations.

    The term "newly industrialized countries" originally applied to four emerging Asian countries: Hong Kong,

    Taiwan, South Korea, and Singapore. These four countries developed significantly faster than many other

    nearby nations, and in order to describe the distinction made by these governments, economists found

    they needed to develop a new term. This term was used to describe nations that were pulling ahead oftheir contemporaries in terms of economic and industrial development, but were still behind other

    industrialized nations.

    There are many factors that need to come together to determine if a nation is a newly industrialized

    country. One of the most obvious is its level and pacing of industrialization. Countries achieving this

    status have outpaced their counterparts, but have also achieved a stable level of industrialization. This

    stability means that the country isnt tearing itself apart financially, socially, or environmentally in order

    to achieve its industrialization.

    Outside of their industrial achievements, such countries have certain political and social characteristics as

    well. They typically have stronger governments with less corruption then a Third World country. Non-violent transitions of power and elected officials are common. In addition, social rights for common

    people are more prevalent.

    With this level of social and political stability, coupled with an increasingly industrial workforce, the lives

    of common people is better than in most Third World countries. The per capita income is higher, which

    causes a corresponding increase in standard of living. The social and political reforms common in newly

    industrialized countries create a greater sense of national pride and culture. Countries in this status often

    have a resurgence of non-religious cultural interest, something that many Third World countries lack.

    All of these improvements often come with a price. Fully industrialized and First World countries often

    use newly industrialized countries as a cheap labor force. While increasing jobs in the host country and

    making cheaper goods in the guest country may seem positive at first, the benefits aren't always lasting.

    In these new countries, the infrastructure and laws are often behind. Environmental protection, labor,

    and commerce laws are sometimes unable to handle the massive influx of new work, and the countries

    often suffer for it.

    From

    Source 4: What Are Newly Industrialized Countries?03 February 2013 15:10

    http://www.wisegeek.org/what-does-per-capita-mean.htmhttp://www.wisegeek.org/what-are-newly-industrialized-countries.htmhttp://www.wisegeek.org/what-are-newly-industrialized-countries.htmhttp://www.wisegeek.org/what-are-newly-industrialized-countries.htmhttp://www.wisegeek.org/what-does-per-capita-mean.htm
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    Migrants In Guangzhou

    The southern metropolis of Guangzhou is one of the most prosperous cities in the country. Its fast-growing economy and great employment opportunities make the city a magnet for rural migrant

    workers. So far, the number of migrant workers in Guangzhou exceeds five million, accounting for 40

    percent of the city's total population. This has made administrating and serving the ever-growing

    migrant population a tough task for the local government. In today's program, our reporter Dan Dan

    will take us to Guangzhou to look at what the city has been doing to help the migrants better

    integrate into urban society.

    Reporter: These are children playing happily at the Dadongjie cultural center in downtown

    Guangzhou, capital of south China's Guangdong province. Their parents are all rural migrant

    workers living in the Dadongjie residential district. Zhang Xiang is the mother of a four-year old

    girl. A few years ago she followed her husband to Guangzhou from a village in east China's

    Zhejiang province. After finding jobs in the downtown area, they rented a small house and settleddown in Dadongjie community.

    Zhang Xiang says since a cultural center for the migrant people was established in the community

    two years ago, it's become the most favorite place for her daughter and herself.

    "I often come here with my daughter. In the center's children's room there are many books, toys

    and amusement facilities. My child likes playing with them very much. She has also made friends

    with many kids playing here. As for myself, I like the internet bar and the reading room the most.

    It's good that everything here is free of charge."

    The Dadongjie cultural center, which is also called Home of Golden Geese, is a two-story multi-

    functional building that was especially built for the migrant population in Dadongjie area with joint

    investment from the municipal and district governments.

    The first floor features a service office, a meeting room, an Internet cafe, a library as well as a

    number of classrooms used to organize vocational training courses for migrant workers.

    The second floor is installed with all kinds of cultural, recreational and fitness facilities, where both

    adults and children can find what they like and enjoy a good time.

    The Dadongjie cultural center is the first of its kind to be built in Guangzhou to serve the migrant

    population. Li Huiming is the deputy director of the Dadongjie district administration office.

    "There are over six thousand migrants living and working around the Dadongjie() district.This has posed a great problem for us on the proper and effective administration of the migrants.

    Two years ago, the municipal government launched a Golden Geese Project in a wish to help the

    migrant people become a proper part of the urban society. The project was so named because we

    often describe the floating population as migrant wild geese. The Dadongjie district was designated

    as the pilot spot to carry out the golden geese project. Since then we have done a lot of work to

    facilitate the work, life, education and healthcare of the migrant people."

    The official says the migrant workers are mainly from impoverished rural areas in central and

    western China, and most of them are poorly educated. Due to their rural roots and low level of

    education, the migrants usually have low social status and live on the edge of the urban society.

    To help them better enjoy their lives in their new homes, the local government has established a

    wide range of service facilities for the migrant people, such as the Dadongjie cultural center, the

    golden geese school, the employment service agency and the migrant people's fraternity.

    Source 5: Migrants In Guangzhou03 February 2013 15:11

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    At the same time, the Dadongjie community medical center has had all the migrants, especially

    children and women, covered under the basic community healthcare service.

    "The golden geese project features a series of programs, activities and services to make the

    migrants feel more at home in Guangzhou. The Dadongjie cultural center, for example, serves as a

    common home for all the local migrants. It's not just a place for entertainment. It offers regular

    vocational training classes to improve the migrants' professional skills and employment

    competence. These classes are very popular with the migrants because they are useful and free of

    charge. Besides, the center often holds cultural, sports and social activities to enrich the migrants'leisure lives."

    As the common home for the migrants, the cultural center also looks after all kinds of community

    affairs related to the migrant population. It helps solve their problems in life and work, provide

    information consultations, protect their legal rights and interests, and help newcomers adapt to

    the urban life and find employment. It's become common that when the migrant people encounter

    troubles and difficulties, they first turn to the cultural center, better known as the home of golden

    geese, for advice and help.

    Zhou Xia in her 20s is a migrant worker from southwest China's Guizhou province. She says at

    holiday times she always misses her family very much. Since the home of golden geese was set

    up, during the festive seasons the center workers often organize parties and entertainment

    activities for the migrant workers so that they feel less lonely and homesick.

    "I'm very thankful for the staff at the home of golden geese. They have done a lot of good things

    for us. During last year's Spring Festival, for example, they held a grand party for us migrants who

    didn't return to our hometowns. We enjoyed a great carnival and a banquet of dumplings. It was

    really a memorable spring festival to me. I feel warm in this new home."

    Following the pilot implementation in the Dadongjie community, the golden geese project has been

    expanded to all the residential districts in Guangzhou. Cultural centers for the migrants, which

    share the name of home of golden geese, have been established in all the major communities of

    the migrant people.

    Li Huiming from the Dadongjie district administration office says the goal of the golden geese

    project is to try whatever the local government and society can do to make life easier and more

    enjoyable for the migrant population in Guangzhou.

    "It will contribute to the building of a harmonious society by better integrating the migrant

    population into the local communities. The migrant workers have taken on many jobs that the

    local citizens are unwilling to do. They have made remarkable contribution to the city's

    development and deserve the respect and gratitude of the locals. So we should open our hearts

    and arms broader to welcome them as an integral part of the urban society. This way the locals

    and the migrants can both enjoy more beautiful and harmonious lives in this metropolis."

    From

    http://english.cri.cn/4026/2008/01/25/[email protected]://english.cri.cn/4026/2008/01/25/[email protected]://english.cri.cn/4026/2008/01/25/[email protected]
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    The Burgess Urban Land Use Model

    Zone I: Central Business District (called the "loop" in Chicago) where most of the tertiary

    employment is located and where the urban transport infrastructure is converging, making

    this zone the most accessible.

    Zone II: Immediately adjacent to the CBD a zone where many industrial activities locate to take

    advantage of nearby labor and markets. Further, most transport terminals, namely port sites

    and railyards, are located adjacent to the central area.

    Zone III: This zone is gradually been reconverted to other uses by expanding manufacturing /

    industrial activities. It contains the poorest segment of the urban population, notably first

    generation immigrants living, in the lowest housing conditions.

    Zone IV: Residential zone dominated by the working class and those who were able to move

    away from the previous zone (often second generation immigrants). This zone has the

    advantage of being located near the major zones of employment (I and II) and thus represents

    a low cost location for the working class.

    Zone V: Represents higher quality housing linked with longer commuting costs.

    Zone VI: Mainly high class and expensive housing in a rural, suburbanized, setting. The

    commuting costs are the highest. Prior to mass diffusion of the automobile (1930s), most of

    these settlements were located next to rail stations.

    In 1925, Burgess presented a descriptive urban land use model, which divided cities in a set

    ofconcentric circles expanding from the downtown to the suburbs. This representation was built

    from Burgess' observations of a number of American cities, notably Chicago, for which he providedempirical evidence. The model assumes a relationship between the socio-economic status (mainly

    income) of households and the distance from the Central Business District (CBD). The further from

    the CBD, the better the quality of housing, but the longer the commuting time. Thus, accessing

    better housing is done at the expense of longer commuting times (and costs). According to this

    monocentric model (see above figure), a large city is divided in six concentric zones:

    According to Burgess, urban growth is a process ofexpansion and reconversion of land uses, with a

    tendency of each inner zone to expand in the outer zone. On the above figure, zone II (Factory zone)

    is expanding towards zone IV (Working class zone), creating a transition zone with reconversion of

    land use. Although the Burgess model is simple and elegant, it has drawn numerous criticisms:

    Source 6: The Burgess Urban Land Use Model03 February 2013 17:52

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    The model is too simple and limited in historical and cultural applications up to the 1950s. It is

    a product of its time.

    The model was developed when American cities were growing very fast in demographic terms

    and when motorized transportation was still uncommon as most people used public transit.

    Expansion thus involved reconversion of existing land uses. This concept cannot be applied in a

    contemporary (from the second half to the 20th century) context where highways have

    enabled urban development to escape the reconversion process and to take place directly in

    the suburbs.

    The model was developed for American cities and has limited applicability elsewhere. It hasbeen demonstrated that pre-industrial cities, notably in Europe, did not at all followed the

    concentric circles model. For instance, in most pre-industrial European cities, the center was

    much more important than the periphery, notably in terms of social status. The Burgess

    concentric model is consequently partially inverted.

    There were a lot of spatial differences in terms of ethnic, social and occupational status, while

    there were low occurrence of the functional differences in land use patterns. The concentric

    model assumed a spatial separation of place of work and place of residence, which was not

    generalized until the twentieth century.

    However, the Burgess model remains useful as a concept explaining concentric urban development,

    as a way to introduce the complexity of urban land use and to explain urban growth in American

    cities in the early-mid 20th century.

    From

    http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch6en/conc6en/burgess.htmlhttp://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch6en/conc6en/burgess.htmlhttp://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch6en/conc6en/burgess.html
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    Urban microclimate Examine the effects of structures and human activity on urban

    microclimates, including the urban heat island effect and air pollution.

    Other types ofenvironmental and

    social stress

    Examine the other symptoms of urban stress including congestion,overcrowding and noise, depletion of green space, waste overburden, poor

    quality housing, social deprivation, crime and inequality.

    Urban microclimate

    The urban microclimate is the local climate conditions that show variations to the

    general climate conditions of the wider environment.

    Definition

    Image: urban heat island

    Where there is human civilisation, heat is produced. Many different human

    activities produce heat. For instance, driving a car would produce heated exhaust

    fumes; generating electricity would generate heat in the form of steam; turning on

    the air conditioning in doors would produce hot exhaust gases to be released in

    the outside environment. This would generate an excessive amount of heat. As a

    general rule, the more people, the more heat, due to the requirements for more

    energy.

    Under normal and natural circumstances, this heat is able to disperse through

    wind. However, in urban environments, this is not possible. Buildings have the

    effect of blocking wind from passing through. It also has the effect of causing the

    canyoning effect, where wind, or air movement is only available on large streets.This would mean that the surrounding streets would not have any air movement,

    causing the heat to be trapped.

    Image: Urban canyon in Chicago

    Urban heat island effect

    Urban microclimates

    Examine the effects of structures and human activity on urban microclimates, including the urban

    heat island effect and air pollution.

    3.Urban stress03 October 2012 09:19

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    Heat is further trapped and absorbed by the materials used to build the

    surrounding infrastructure. The reflectivity of a material, or the albedo, dictates

    how much of the solar radiation (heat energy) is absorbed. Materials such as

    concrete and tarmac would have a low albedo, reflecting minimal amounts of

    heat. This means that the material would heat up, trapping the heat, increasing

    the urban environment's temperature.

    If trees were in place of these materials, the albedo would be significantly higher,thus reflecting more heat, reducing the temperature.

    Image: albedos of different materials

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    The urban environment, with a smaller number of trees would also mean a

    reduction of relative humidity. In most cities, heat is reduced through the

    evaporation of water. The energy is removed through water vapour.

    However, urban materials don't hold water, as they aren't porous. Water cannot

    be removed from the materials, causing the heat to be trapped within the

    material. If these materials were replaced by trees, much of the heat would be

    removed through the respiration process. The water would be used as a mediumto carry the heat energy. Water vapour would be released, thus increasing the

    relative humidity.

    Urban heat waves can also form without warning, causing multiple fatalities.

    Respiratory problems for the old and the young

    Long term sicknesses

    Human discomfort due to intense heat

    Increase in the spread of diseases

    Air pollution can also be created by human activities. For instance, the exhaust

    fumes of a car contains carbon dioxide; the factories around the city produce

    smog (nitrogen dioxide); power plants produce carbon monoxide. These

    particulate matter produced by human activities creates a pollution dome in the

    city. Not only does this particulate matter trap heat, increasing the urban heat

    island effect, it also causes multiple problems regarding one's health.

    Pollution

    Other types of environmental and social stress

    A major symptom of urban stress is congestion and overcrowding. This is where the

    carrying capacity of a city is exceeded, causing unnecessary delays, and therefore socialstress. A good example of overcrowding and congestion can be seen in Hong Kong.

    Hong Kong is renowned for its high traffic environment. No matter if you're talking

    about on land, in the air, on the sea or underground, it's all congested.

    We can often see traffic jams in Hong Kong - it's a daily sight. This increases the tensions

    Congestion and overcrowding

    Examine the other symptoms of urban stress including congestion, overcrowding and noise, depletion

    of green space, waste overburden, poor quality housing, social deprivation, crime and inequality.

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    of people unnecessarily, causing social stress. It is also a type of urban stress, as the

    environment isn't capable of allowing the large number of people from living there.

    Overcrowding underground is also seen. People would herd into MTR stations atrush hour, causing unnecessary tension.

    Image: Congestion and overcrowding in Mong Kok

    Noise pollution is also a major factor of urban stress. As noise levels increase, it

    becomes a nuisance. Social stress levels are increased, and the environment is

    disturb