orange oil for drywood termites: magic or marketing madness?

Orange oil is an oily mixtureextracted from orange peels, andthe major components are chemi-cals called terpenes or terpenoids. Itis a volatile liquid and has a strongodor of oranges. A chemical relativeof orange oil is turpentine. Bothfood grade and technical gradeorange oil are available. Accordingto Jeff Chang of Florida Chemical, amajor supplier of orange oil, there

By Bill Mashek andWilliam Quarles

There is a thriving market forreduced-risk pesticides. Manypesticides containing conven-

tional active ingredients such aschlorpyrifos and diazinon have beenphased out of urban markets. Theirwidespread use in both agricultureand urban areas had led to increasedexposures and unacceptable risks(FQPA 1996; NRC 1993; Wright etal. 1994). They were also a threat towater quality in many areas(Johnson 2004).

A rich source of new pesticides isplant essential oils. Some of theseoccur in food and are even exempt-ed from pesticide registration by theEPA. Active ingredients in the newproducts include oils of clove, rose-mary, mint, and oranges. Large cor-porations such as EcoSmart,Woodstream, and Whitmire havemade these pesticides readily avail-able (Quarles 1999a; Isman 2006)(see Resources).

Orange oil has attracted a lot ofmedia interest because it is a natu-ral product and has low toxicity tomammals. It is a by-product oforange juice processing, and isextracted from orange peels. Orangeoil is currently available as aninsecticide (Orange Guard™;ProCitra®) and as an herbicide(Green Match™) (see Resources). Ithas been registered in Californiaunder the brandname XT-2000™for control of drywood termites. Ifall the claims are true, it is the holygrail of pest control—an effectivenatural product with low toxicityand no toxic residuals; a greenproduct obtained by utilization ofwaste. The purpose of this article is

to present what is currently knownabout orange oil for termite controlso that possible customers will havebetter information to evaluate thetreatment. For comparison, we willsummarize some of the other meth-ods used in California for drywoodtermite control.

What is Orange Oil?Orange oil should not be confused

with orange juice. Orange juice isbasically a water extract; orange oilis insoluble in water. Thoughorange oil has low toxicity, it is irri-tating to eyes and skin, and drink-ing it would cause vomiting.Repeated exposure could causeallergic sensitivity in some individu-als (MSDS 2006).

In This Issue

Orange Oil 1ESA 10Calendar 15Books 16Ask the Expert 17

Volume XXX, Number 1/2, January/February 2008

Termites like these are vulnerable to desiccation. Contact with orange oilkills termites by damaging their exoskeleton, causing loss of water andprotein.

Orange Oil for Drywood Termites:Magic or Marketing Madness?

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is very little chemical differencebetween the two. Food grade isobtained by cold pressing the peelsto remove the oil, technical grade ismostly obtained by steam distilla-tion.

There is a lot of misinformationon the internet about termites andorange oil. Some companies saythat termites are killed by the citricacid in the oil. According to Chang,this is unlikely, because the orangeoil they supply has less than 0.1%citric acid. Although their orange oilcontains 5% of other terpenes, alco-hols, ketones, and aldehydes thatmay have some activity, the majoractive ingredient is about 95% d-limonene. D-limonene (92%) is theregistered active ingredient of thetermiticide XT-2000, and d-limonene termiticidal activity isconsistent with its known insectici-dal properties against a variety offlies, mosquitoes, ants, weevils,fleas, wasps, crickets, mealybugs,scales, ticks, mites, and wood bee-tles (Taylor and Vickery 1974; Styerand Greany 1983; Sheppard 1984;Hink and Fee 1986; Coyne and Lott1976; Karr and Coats 1988; Karr etal. 1990; Vogt et al. 2002;

Hollingsworth 2005; Quarles 2006a).Chang believes that d-limonene

kills termites through its solventactivity. It actually “melts” or dis-solves their chitinaceous exoskele-ton. This is consistent with theknown exoskeleton damage pro-duced in the Formosan subter-ranean termite by a related chemi-cal, cis-nerol. Damage to theexoskeleton and cell membranescauses lethal loss of proteins andwater (Zhu et al. 2003).

Orange oil is sold as a cleaningagent, and it is a good solvent.Because it is a good solvent, it cancause paint damage if used onpainted surfaces. It is flammable,but relatively small amounts oforange oil are used in a termitetreatment (MSDS 2006).

Drywood TermiteTreatments

Drywood termites are found alongthe southern border of the U.S.,and they are major pests inCalifornia and Florida.With globalwarming,their range is likely toextend northward (Quarles 2007).Treatment costs may exceed $500million each year (Su and Scheff-

The IPM Practitioner is published six times per year by the Bio-Integral ResourceCenter (BIRC), a non-profit corporationundertaking research and education in inte-grated pest management.

Managing Editor William Quarles

Contributing Editors Sheila DaarTanya DrlikLaurie Swiadon

Editor-at-Large Joel Grossman

Business Manager Jennifer Bates

Artist Diane Kuhn

For media kits or other advertising informa-tion, contact Bill Quarles at 510/524-2567,[email protected].

Advisory Board George Bird, Michigan State Univ.; SterlingBunnell, M.D., Berkeley, CA ; Momei Chen,Jepson Herbarium, Univ. Calif., Berkeley;Sharon Collman, Coop Extn., Wash. StateUniv.; Sheila Daar, Daar & Associates,Berkeley, CA; Walter Ebeling, UCLA, Emer.;Steve Frantz, Global Environmental Options,Longmeadow, MA; Linda Gilkeson, CanadianMinistry of Envir., Victoria, BC; JosephHancock, Univ. Calif, Berkeley; HelgaOlkowski, William Olkowski, Birc Founders;George Poinar, Oregon State University,Corvallis, OR; Ramesh Chandra Saxena,ICIPE, Nairobi, Kenya; Ruth Troetschler, PTFPress, Los Altos, CA; J.C. van Lenteren,Agricultural University Wageningen, TheNetherlands.

ManuscriptsThe IPMP welcomes accounts of IPM for anypest situation. Write for details on format formanuscripts or email us, [email protected].

CitationsThe material here is protected by copyright,and may not be reproduced in any form,either written, electronic or otherwise withoutwritten permission from BIRC. ContactWilliam Quarles at 510/524-2567 for properpublication credits and acknowledgement.

Subscriptions/MembershipsA subscription to the IPMP is one of the bene-fits of membership in BIRC. We also answerpest management questions for our membersand help them search for information.Memberships are $60/yr (institutions/libraries/businesses); $35/yr (individuals).Canadian subscribers add $15 postage. Allother foreign subscribers add $25 airmailpostage. A Dual membership, which includesa combined subscription to both the IPMPand the Common Sense Pest ControlQuarterly, costs $85/yr (institutions); $55/yr(individuals). Government purchase ordersaccepted. Donations to BIRC are tax-deductible. FEI# 94-2554036.

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© 2008 BIRC, PO Box 7414, Berkeley, CA94707; (510) 524-2567; FAX (510) 524-1758.All rights reserved. ISSN #0738-968X

Orange oil is extracted from orange peels. It contains terpenes andterpenoids, and the major component is d-limonene.

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rahn 1990; Su and Scheffrahn2000). Drywood termites are eitherbuilt into new structures, or theyinvade by flying in from outside.Unlike subterranean termites thatlive in the ground, drywood termitesspend most of their life cycle insidea piece of wood. They live in hol-lowed out spaces called galleries(see Box A).

In California, drywood termitetreatments are either whole housetreatments or local treatments.Local treatments include non-chem-ical methods such as heat, electro-gun or microwaves or injections ofchemicals directly into termite gal-leries. Whole house treatments may

be either a heat treatment or achemical fumigation, usually withsulfuryl fluoride (Vikane®). Localtreatments are done with minimaldisruption. Whole house treatmentsrequire that occupants move out ofthe house for about 3 days in thecase of a fumigant, or leave for 4-8hours during a heat treatment(Quarles 2006b).

If there are a limited number ofaccessible colonies of known loca-tion, a local treatment is often used.In California, about 70% of thetime, customers choose chemicalinjections, about 10% of the time,they choose non-chemical methods,and about 20% of the time a struc-

tural fumigant is used (Lewis 2003;Potter 1997).

Key to success with local treat-ments is detection. Termite inspec-tion involves a trained and experi-enced inspector. Inspectors are lim-ited to accessible areas and relymostly on their eyes to find termitesigns such as damaged wood, flyingtermites (swarmers), discardedwings, and fecal pellets. Tools ofthe trade include a flashlight andwood probe such as an icepick,knife, or screwdriver (see Box A).

Over the years additional toolshave been developed. Since termitesare encouraged by moisture, findingmoist areas can help with the ter-

3IPM Practitioner, XXX(1/2) January/February 2008 Box 7414, Berkeley, CA 94707

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Pest termites can be roughly divided into two kinds,subterranean and drywood. Subterranean termites livein the ground and forage in wood beneath and above theground. The most economically important species arethe eastern and western subterranean termite,Reticulitermes flavipes and R. hesperus, and theFormosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes for-mosanus. Subterranean colonies usually maintainground contact and commute back and forth betweensoil and structure through mud tubes. When there is asource of water such as a leaking pipe inside a building,a complete colony may resideinside a structure. Subterraneancolonies are large, ranging in sizefrom 50,000 to a few million, anda Formosan colony can do signifi-cant damage within 6 months (Suand Schefferahn 1990; Potter1997).

Colonies of drywood termites,such as Incisitermes spp. orCryptotermes spp., tend to besmall, often containing fewer than1,000 individuals. They live theirentire life cycle inside of wood,except for time spent in reproduc-tive swarming. Swarming drywoodtermites generally leave the colonybetween August and November.Reproductive swarms mate, flyaround structures looking for cracks or holes, then losetheir wings. King and queen crawl into cracks and smallholes, excavate further, and start laying eggs that even-tually turn into workers, soldiers or reproductives.Termites continue eating, producing hollow spacescalled galleries. After 2-3 years annual swarming begins,and the termites infest other wood throughout the struc-ture. A typical colony of drywood termites takes about

four years to mature, and a colony of 1000 might take 7years to develop. To eradicate, colonies might have to bereduced to less than 20 termites (Lewis 2003; Lewis2002; Ebeling 1975; Smith 1995; Kofoid et al. 1946).

Signs of Drywood TermitesCurrent IPM programs for termites are based on regu-

lar inspections and early detection. If they can bedetected early enough, infested wood can be physicallyremoved, repaired, or treated without great cost. Wings,flying termites, kick-out holes in wood, and especially

piles of hexagonal shaped, small BBsized fecal pellets sometimesresembling piles of sawdust aresigns of drywood termites. Blisterson paint could hide a colony justunderneath. Inspection is a labori-ous process because all exposedwood on the inside and the out-side of the building should beinspected. Frames of doors andwindows, eaves, soffits, fasciaboards and dormers shouldreceive attention. An infestedboard has a hollow sound whentapped with a screwdriver or probe(Potter 1997).

Inside, horizontal surfacesshould be checked for pellets, win-dow and door frames, doors, base-

boards, moldings, paneling, flooring, shelves, bookcases,ceiling beams and even wooden furniture should beinspected. Drywood colonies have even been found inwoody plants. In attics, “infestations are commonlyfound around vents, in rafters, ridgepoles, plates, ceilingjoists, roof sheathing, and in general, around theperimeter” (Potter 1997).

Box A. Biology of Drywood Termites


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mite search. Moisture can besensed by moisture meters, andthese are readily available (seeResources). Another useful tool isthe borescope. By drilling holes andinserting a flexible, lighted probe,inspectors can see signs of termitesin wall voids without removing thedrywall (see Resources).

Other tools include termite-sniff-ing dogs, and “sniffers”—devicesthat detect characteristic gasesemitted by a termite colony (Brookset al. 2003; Quarles 2004; Lewis etal. 1997). Acoustic detectors havebeen developed that can “hear” ter-mites feeding (Quarles 2004;Lemaster et al. 1997; Scheffrahn etal. 1993; Thoms 2000; Dunegan2001; Lewis et al. 2004). In the lastfew years, there has been a surge innew detection methods. Detectorsusing microwave, infrared, lasers,and even X-rays have been com-mercially developed. Most termitecompanies do not invest in thistechnology because of excessivecosts and lack of proven efficacy.Most use conventional visualinspection, sometimes augmentedwith a borescope, an acousticdetector, or a dog (Quarles 2004).

Orange Oil TreatmentMethod

Orange oil is a local treatmentmethod. When a drywood colony isfound, holes are drilled into theinfested wood, and orange oil is

injected. According to one compa-ny’s website, “drill in a staggeredpattern from the point of the infes-tation out 30 inches (76 cm) in alldirections.” The schematic on thewebsite shows drill holes aboutevery 5 inches (12.7 cm). If theholes and injections coincide withan active gallery, laboratory efficacystudies suggest (see below) termitesin the gallery will be killed by con-tact. The problem with this methodis finding the galleries, one cannotdrill and inject into solid wood.Orange oil must be pumped intothe hollow spaces where termitesare feeding.

There are anecdotal claims thatorange oil “wicks through wood,”and it may do so. However, thereare no published studies that showtermites can be killed in this way.Orange oil vapor moves by diffusionout of the injected gallery, throughthe wood and off-gasses into theair. This movement accounts for theodor of oranges in the air thatlingers after a treatment. But thereis no published evidence that showsthis movement produces concentra-tions large enough to kill termitesby fumigant action in a gallery atan appreciable distance from aninjection site. From laboratory stud-ies with the Formosan subter-ranean termite, Coptotermes for-mosanus, orange oil fumigant con-centrations of about 5 ppm wouldhave to be maintained for about 5days (Raina et al. 2007). ProfessorRudolf Scheffrahn, who did some ofthe laboratory efficacy studiesbelieves, “any fumigant action isover a short distance” (Scheffrahn2008). Further research may beneeded to clarify this point. Orangeoil research is currently being con-ducted by Prof. Michael Rust at theUniversity of California (UC)Riverside.

Like a structural fumigation,orange oil does not leave a residual,so once the material has diffusedand evaporated, it is no longereffective. One study showed that itdissipates within a week, theorange oil companies say the smellof oranges lingers from three daysto two weeks (Raina et al. 2007).

Efficacy of Orange OilDespite widespread publicity and

promotion, very little has been pub-lished in peer reviewed journals onthe efficacy of orange oil for termitecontrol. Orange oil will kill termitesby contact in laboratory situations.Dr. Rudolph Scheffrahn was hiredby XT-2000 to test the efficacy oforange oil injections into infestedtrunks and branches of Brazilianpepper trees with active galleries ofthe drywood termite, Incisitermessynderi. Infested pieces were 82-144 cm long (32.8-57.6 in) andranged from about 1-5 liters(approx. 1-5 quarts) in volume.Injections were made about every 5inches (12.7 cm). Termite mortalityranged from about 48 to 100%.Lowest percent mortalities were inlarger pieces that had lower termitedensities. Injection volumes of XT-2000 were about 3% of the totalwood volume. Termites in piecesinjected with water showed no mor-tality (XT-2000).

Though published experimentswith drywood termites are sparse,USDA researchers have recentlypublished experiments with orangeoil and the Formosan subterraneantermite, Coptotermes formosanus.They found that 96% of termites

Dogs can be used to locatedrywood termites.

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Orange oil must be injectedinto active termite galleries. Ifthe injection misses a gallery,termites will not be killed.

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Updatesealed in a 1.9 liter (0.5 gal) plasticcontainer containing 5 parts-per-million (ppm) of orange oil diedwithin 5 days. Lower concentrationstested showed reduced mortality,but caused termites to reduce feed-ing. Orange oil vapors came from afilter paper saturated with orangeoil suspended from the top of thecontainer. Termites were not in con-tact with the source, and thus theywere killed by fumigant action(Raina et al. 2007).

However, when a wooden mockupof a wall void was used as a testplatform, twice as much, or 10 ppmof orange oil, caused only 15% mor-tality. The researchers believe thatthe wet wood used in this testabsorbed orange oil, making it lesseffective as a fumigant. Thus, abili-ty of wood to soak up orange oil,may actually work against its actionas a fumigant. For fumigant action,enough orange oil must be used toovercome wood absorption and dis-sipation into ambient air.

Finally, termites were added toglass tubes filled with treated sandcontaining 0.2% and 0.4% orangeoil by weight. All termites werekilled by contact with the orange oilwithin 72 hours. The orange oil wasnot persistent, and about half of theoil from the 0.4% treatment wasgone within a week, and most of ithad volatilized within 3 weeks(Raina et al. 2007).

So laboratory experiments showthat orange oil is a fumigant, killsby contact, and acts as anantifeedant. Other essential oilshave similar properties. Clove oilcan kill termites by fumigant action(Park and Shen 2005). Basil andcitronella oils kill by contact, act asantifeedants, and are repellent totermites (Sbeghan et al. 2002).Though no tests are available,orange oil may also be repellent.

Field Efficacy of DrywoodTermite Treatments

It is not easy to completely rid astructure of drywood termites. Mosttreatments properly applied lead toa significant reduction of colonynumbers, but complete eradicationin all cases just does not happen

(Lewis 2003). Even with structuralfumigation, some termites may beleft alive (Lewis and Haverty 1996),especially if termites are in areaswhere the wood has high moisturecontent, because water acts as abarrier to sulfuryl fluoride (Vikane)penetration (Su and Scheffrahn1986). It may not be necessary tokill all the termites to destroy a dry-wood colony. If the queen and mostof them are killed that may beenough. However, supplementaryreproductives can be produced froma queenless colony as small as 20termites (Smith 1995).

But how can we rate the field effi-cacy of any particular treatment?There are four possible methods:the termite company can visuallyreinspect some time after treat-ment, some kind of instrument canbe used to measure termite activitybefore and after treatment; thetreated wood can be removed anddestructively sampled; or the cus-tomer can act as a quality controlagent by calling the termite compa-ny back when fresh signs of ter-mites are seen.

The first method is rarely used.Companies usually treat on a one-time basis and do not return unlesscalled back. Acoustic detectors havebeen used to evaluate field efficacy.Termites make sounds when theyfeed, and the number of feedingsounds per minute is a measure ofactivity. Activity is measured beforeand after treatment to get a meas-ure of field efficacy (Thoms 2000).Because of cost and the technicalexpertise needed to operate thedetector, this method is rarely used(see below).

Destructive sampling is alsorarely used. Although infested woodis sometimes removed and replaced,seldom is the wood treated beforereplacement. So most of the time,field efficacy assessments rely onthe customer. Customers see freshevidence of termite excretions orswarming, and the company iscalled back for further work. These“callbacks” can be a practical meas-ure of treatment effectiveness, andare often the only measure. A sur-vey of pest control operators (PCOs)by the Bio-Integral Resource Center

(BIRC) found callbacks on structur-al fumigations to be 5-15% (Quarlesand Bucks 1995). Consistent withthis callback estimate of efficacy,Ebeling and Wagner (1964) foundthat 26 to 37% of all structuresfumigated for drywood termites inLos Angeles showed evidence ofactive infestations within 3 to 5years. Some of these were reinfesta-tions, but some of this activityundoubtedly reflected a fumigationfailure (Ebeling 1975).

Callback rates for treatmentsother than fumigation are moreheavily dependent on the skill ofthe operator. John Lemm of CalWestern Pest Control in Los Angelestreated over 1200 structures withheat in the 1990s, and had a call-back rate of less than 1%. Otherheat treatment operators have high-er callback rates. According to PhilHolt, former president of Etex, Ltd.,the manufacturer of the Electrogun,“the callback rate for Electroguntreatments done properly is proba-bly about 5%. However, companiesthat do not adhere to treatmentguidelines may have a failure rateof up to 25% (Quarles 1999b). Thisestimation is consistent with astudy by Ebeling (1983), who foundan Electrogun callback rate of 3 outof 35 or 9%.

Local treatments require thatgalleries be accessible. Eachactive gallery must be injectedwith orange oil to kill termites.

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UpdateEfficacy of Local

InjectionsThe local treatment method of

injecting chemicals to kill drywoodtermites was developed byUniversity of California researchersin the 1930s (Light et al. 1930;Ebeling 1975). Dusts containingarsenic salts or other chemicalswere injected into active galleries.Any termites that did not encounterthe material initially were exposedto toxic residues as they blunderedthrough the treatment area. Therewas also transfer of active residuesbetween termites (Randall andDoody 1946; Kofoid and Williams1946). Many current researchersbelieve that local treatments workbetter if termites are presented withlingering toxic residuals. In case anactive gallery is missed, survivingtermites may encounter lethalresidues later (Ferster et al. 2001;Scheffrhan et al. 1997; 1998).

As mentioned earlier, 70% of thetime customers choose chemicalinjections for treatment of drywoodtermites. Colonies must be accessi-ble, and field efficacy of local chem-ical treatments depend on the skillof the operator, skill of the termiteinspector, and to some degree onthe specific treatment chemical(Lewis 2003; Thoms 2000;Scheffrahn et al. 1997, 1998). Anumber of materials have been test-ed in the past (Lewis 2003), some ofthese were very toxic and only a feware currently registered. There arevery few published studies coveringthe field efficacy of chemical injec-tion for drywood termite controlthat directly compares currentlyregistered materials.

Scheffrahn et al. (1997) foundfield efficacy measured with anacoustic detector at 1 month aftertreatment ranged from 22-90% for anumber of materials they tested.Thoms (2000) and cooperatingPCOs used an acoustic detector tomonitor efficacy of spinosad injec-tions for drywood termite control.All colonies tested were totallyaccessible. Infestations were moni-tored, then treated. Then effectswere checked 1-2 months later withthe acoustic detector. Colonies were

completely eliminated at 61% of thetreated sites, and 90% or betterreduction of activity was seen at89% of the sites. At 11% of thesites, mortality was less than 90%,and these sites required furthertreatment. These results are proba-bly as good as it gets with localinjections.

Woodrow et al. (2006) did a fieldefficacy simulation by injecting vari-ous products into infested loadingpallets. Some of the active gallerieswere part of several interlockingboards. Each board received onlyone injection of either spinosad,chlorpyrifos, disodium octaboratetetrahydrate (DOT), or resmethrin.Spinosad showed the largest mor-tality with rates of 53-59%. Becauseof the limited number of injectionsites, some galleries were missed.Thoms (2000) probably obtainedbetter results with spinosadbecause a larger number of injec-tion sites were used near signs ofinfestation.

Another experiment by Woodrowand Grace (2005) with imidacloprid,DOT, and spinosad, showed bestresults with DOT, about 63% mor-tality. Again, only one injection siteper board was used, and some gal-leries missed treatment. Orange oilpractitioners saturate galleries near

signs of infestation with injectionholes every 5 inches (12.7 cm).

Sometimes laboratory efficacystudies show good results, but fieldefficacy is poor. Scheffrahn et al.(1997) found that injections of DOTdust in the laboratory killed morethan 80% of termites. Injections inthe field killed very few, because“dust applications, which are diffi-cult to inject into wood, yieldedsparse coverage in natural gallerysystems.” Conversely, surface appli-cations of DOT liquid did not killany termites in the laboratory,because galleries were deeper in thewood than the penetration distanceof the borate. Termites were killedin the field with surface applica-tions because colonies were nearthe surface. The great value of DOTcomes as a treatment to preventtermite infestations (Scheffrahn etal. 2001).

Field Efficacy of OrangeOil

Since there are no publishedstudies of orange oil field efficacy,we have to rely on callback esti-mates given by the practitioners.One of the major orange oil compa-nies is X-Termite, which is ownedby Mike Folkins. According to Mike,

Local treatment with chemicals involves drilling holes into wood andinjecting either dusts or liquid termiticides. Those that leave a resid-ual provide ongoing protection.

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X-Termite has treated 15,000 struc-tures with orange oil in the last 9years. He believes that a fair esti-mate of the callback rate on orangeoil treatments is 5-15%. He believesthat success with orange oildepends on intensive structuralinspections and extensive treatmentof areas adjacent to active infesta-tions. He agrees that there is a lotof misinformation about orange oil,including the claims that termitesare killed by citric acid. The regis-tered active ingredient in XT-2000,which is technical grade orange oil,is d-limonene.

According to Nathan Vogel ofOrange-X Termite, his company hasabout a 5% callback rate fromorange oil treatments. Most impor-tant on keeping callbacks low istreatment of a large enough area sothat all active galleries are saturat-ed with orange oil. Vogel believes

termites are killed by contact, byfumigation action from orange oilvapors, and by eating the treatedwood. Typically, about a gallon oforange oil is used in a local treat-ment. Orange oil does not leave aresidue, and according to Vogel, thesmell lingers from 3 to 10 days,depending on temperature. Whenthe smell has disappeared, it islikely that any insecticidal actionalso disappears. So termites that

are not killed immediately will likelypersist.

According to Joseph Grande ofPacific Coast Termite, his companyhas about a 15% callback rate fromorange oil treatments. Inspectionsrely on standard visual techniques.When a colony is found, orange oilis injected into the active gallery.Since orange oil is not persistent,Pacific Coast uses Boracare® foamas a supplemental treatment inareas near the active infestation.After treatment, any infestationsfound by the customer anywhere inthe structure within a two-yearperiod are treated without charge.

Marketing ClaimsControversies surrounding orange

oil treatments are centered on pos-sibly misleading marketing claims.Termite treatments in California areeither local treatments such aschemical injections into active ter-mite galleries, or whole structuretreatments such as heat or chemi-cal fumigation where all elements ofthe structure are actually in contactwith the lethal agent. According toone company’s website, orange oilis a “full structure treatment.”

Actually, an entire structure isnot treated with orange oil. Stan-dard inspection techniques and anoptical instrument called theborescope are used in an intensivevisual inspection of all areas thatare accessible by these techniques.Any accessible colonies detectedreceive a local treatment withorange oil. The borescope canincrease the efficacy of an inspec-tion by viewing some inaccessibleareas, such as wall voids, but wholehouse termite-free guarantees witha borescope seem optimistic.Accessing some areas, such asbehind tile walls or stucco mayinvolve substantial renovation andmight be expensive.

In fact, companies usually do notwarranty a whole house to be freeof termites from a local orange oiltreatment. Instead, they offer tocome back and locally treat anyaccessible infestation found uponinspection anywhere in the struc-ture within a one or two year guar-antee period (Vogel 2008).

ConclusionOrange oil is not magic, but it

may represent a reasonable localtreatment method that can competewith other chemical injection tech-niques. However, there is someuncertainty, because field, or evenlaboratory studies directly compar-ing orange oil efficacy with otherproducts for drywood termite con-trol have not been published. Theonly field efficacy estimations avail-able are the callback rates given bythe termite companies. Based onour limited sampling, orange oilcallbacks compare favorably withother options.

Advantages of orange oil are thatit has low toxicity and is perceivedas a green product. Disadvantagesof orange oil are that, like structur-al fumigation, electrogun, micro-wave, or heat treatments, it doesnot leave a residue, and provides noongoing protection. Other disadvan-tages are that some people mayreact to the strong smell of oranges;it is flammable; and care must beused not to damage paint jobs.

The good news is that Califor-nians now have a number ofoptions for treating drywood ter-mites. None of them are magic,none of them are perfect. Non-chemical options, botanicals, andconventional methods are all avail-able. The larger number of choicesmake it more likely customers canfind one that fits their special needsand personal preferences.

Bill Mashek is a licensedCalifornia Pest Control Operator(PCO), and is a graduate of theAdvanced Urban IPM Program atPurdue University. He is the ownerof Northwest Termite and PestControl in Santa Rosa, CA.

William Quarles, Ph.D., is an IPMSpecialist, Managing Editor of theIPM Practitioner and ExecutiveDirector of the Bio-Integral ResourceCenter (BIRC). He can be reached byemail at [email protected].


Update

Damage caused by drywoodtermites has a differentappearance than that causedby subterraneans.

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ReferencesAbe, T., D.E. Bignell and M. Higashi. 2000.

Termites: Evolution, Sociality, Symbiosesand Ecology. Kluwer Academic Publishers,Boston. 466 pp.

Brooks, S.E., F.M. Oi and P.G. Koehler. 2003.Ability of canine termite detectors to locatelive termites and discriminate them fromnon-termite material. J. Econ. Entomol.96(4):1259-1266.

Coyne, J.F. and L.H. Lott. 1976. Toxicity ofsubstances in pine oleoresin to southernpine beetles. J. Georgia Entomol. Soc.11(4):301-305.

Dunegan, H. 2001. Detection of movement oftermites in wood by acoustic emissiontechniques. www.deci.com

Ebeling, W. and R.E. Wagner. 1964. Built inpest control. Pest Control 32(2):20-32.

Ebeling, W. 1975. Urban Entomology.University of California, Berkeley and LosAngeles. 695 pp.

Ebeling, W. 1983. The Extermax system forcontrol of the western drywood termite,Incisitermes minor. Etex, Ltd. Las Vegas,NV. 11 pp.

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FQPA (Food Quality Protection Act). 1996. IPMPractitioner 18(10):10-13.

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Karr, L.L. and J.R. Coats. 1988. Insecticidalproperties of d-limonene. J. Pesticide Sci.13:287-290.

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Lewis, V.R. 1997. Alternative control strategiesfor termites. J. Agric. Entomol. 14(3):291-307.

Lewis, V.R., C.F. Fouche and R.L. Lemaster.1997. Evaluation of dog assisted searchesand electronic odor detection devices fordetecting western subterranean termite.For. Prod. J. 47:79-84.

Lewis, V.R. 2002. Drywood termites. In: rev.ed. 2008. Pest Notes. M.L. Flint and B.Ohlendorf, eds. University of California,ANR Pub. No. 7440. 6 pp.www.ipm.ucdavis.edu

Lewis, V.R. 2003. IPM for drywood termites(Isoptera: Kalotermitidae). J. Entomol. Sci.38(2):181-199.

Lewis, V.R., A.B. Power and M.I. Haverty.2004. Surface and subsurface sensor per-formance in acoustically detecting thewestern drywood termite in naturallyinfested boards. For. Prod. J. 54(6):57-62.

Light, S.F., M. Randall and F.G. White. 1930.Termites and Termite Damage, withPreliminary Recommendations forPrevention and Control. Univ. Calif. Agr.Exp. Sta. Circ. 318:1-64. [cited in Ebeling1975]

MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet). 2006.Technical Grade d-Limonene. FloridaChemical Company, 351 Winter HavenBlvd. NE, Winter Haven, FL 33881;www.floridachemical.com

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Park, I.-K. and S.-C. Shin. 2005. Fumigantactivity of plant essential oils and compo-nents from garlic (Allium sativum) andclove bud (Eugenia caryophyllata) oilsagainst the Japanese termite(Reticulitermes speratus). J. Agric. FoodChem. 53:4388-4392.

Potter, M. 1997. Termites. In: S.A. Hedges, ed.Handbook of Pest Control by A. Mallis, 8thed. Mallis Handbook and TechnicalTraining, Cleveland, OH. Pp. 233-332.

Quarles, W. and C. Bucks. 1995. Non-toxictermite treatments. Organic GardeningDecember:44-50.

Quarles, W. 1999a. Pesticides from herbs andspices. Common Sense Pest ControlQuarterly 15(4):3-19.

Quarles, W. 1999b. Non-toxic control of dry-wood termites. IPM Practitioner 21(8):1-10.

Quarles, W. 2004. Where are they? New meth-ods for finding termites in structures. IPMPractitioner 26(1/2):1-9.

Quarles, W. 2006a. New botanical pesticidesfrom Chenopodium. IPM Practitioner28(3/4):1-12.

Quarles, W. 2006b. Thermal pest eradicationin structures. IPM Practitioner 28(5/6):1-8.

Quarles, W. 2007. Global warming meansmore pests. IPM Practitioner 29(9/10):1-8.

Randall, M. and T.C. Doody. 1946. Treatmentswith poisonous dusts. In: Kofoid, et al. pp463-476.

Raina, A., J. Bland, M. Doolittle, A. Lax, R.

Boopathy and M. Folkins. 2007. Effect oforange oil extract on the Formosan subter-ranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae).J. Econ. Entomol. 100(3):880-885.

Sbeghen, A.C., V. Dalfovo, L.A. Serafini andN.M. de Barros. 2002. Repellency and toxi-city of basil, citronella, ho-sho, and rose-mary oils for the control of the termiteCryptotermes brevis (Isoptera:Kalotermitidae). Sociobiology 40(3):585-593.

Scheffrahn, R.H., W.P. Robbins, P. Busey, N.Y.Su and R.K. Mueller. 1993. Evaluation of anovel, hand-held, acoustic emissionsdetector to monitor termites (Isoptera:Kalotermitidae, Rhinotermitidae) in wood.J. Econ. Entomol. 86:1720-1729.

Scheffrahn, R.H., N.-Y. Su and P. Busey. 1997.Laboratory and field evaluations of select-ed chemical treatments for control of dry-wood termites (Isoptera: Kalotermitidae). J.Econ. Entomol. 90(2):492-502.

Scheffrahn, R.H., N.-Y. Su, J. Krecek, A. vanLiempt, B. Maharajh and G.S. Wheeler.1998. Prevention of colony foundation byCryptotermes brevis and remedial controlof drywood termites (Isoptera:Kalotermitidae) with selected chemicaltreatments. J. Econ. Entomol. 91(6):1387-1396.

Scheffrahn, R.H., P. Busey, J.K. Edwards, J.Krecek, B. Maharajh and N.-Y. Su. 2001.Chemical prevention of colony formationby Cryptotermes brevis (Isoptera:Kalotermitidae) in attic modules. J. Econ.Entomol. 94(4):915-919.

Scheffrahn, R.H. 2008. Pers. Comm.,University of Florida, Ft. LauderdaleRes.and Education Center, FortLauderdale, FL 33314.

Sheppard, D.C. 1984. Toxicity of citrus peelliquids to the house fly and red importedfire ant. J. Agric. Entomol. 1:95-100.

Smith, M. 1995. Drywood termites: expertsanswer some “toughies.” Pest ControlTechnol. 23(2):34, 36, 37,40,88.

Styer, S.C. and P.D. Greany. 1983. Increasedsusceptibility of laboratory reared vs. wildCaribbean fruit fly, Anastrepha suspensa,larvae to toxic citrus allelochemics.Environ. Entomol. 12:1606-08.

Su, N.-Y. and R.H. Scheffrahn. 1986. Fieldcomparison of sulfuryl fluoride susceptibil-ity among three termite species (Isoptera:Kalotermitidae, Rhinotermitidae) duringstructural fumigation. J. Econ. Entomol.79:903-908.

Su, N.-Y. and R.H. Scheffrahn. 1990.Economically important termites in theUnited States and their control.Sociobiology 17(1):77-94.

Su, N.-Y. and R.H. Scheffrahn. 2000. Termitesas pests of buildings. In: Abe et al., pp.437-453.

Taylor, W.E. and B. Vickery. 1974. Insecticidalproperties of limonene, a constituent of cit-rus oil. Ghana J. Agric. Sci. 7:61-62.

Thoms, E.M. 2000. Use of an acoustic emis-sions detector and intragallery injection ofspinosad by pest control operators forremedial control of drywood termites(Isoptera: Kalotermitidae). Fla. Entomol.83:64-74.

Vogel, N. 2008. Personal communication,

Update


UpdateNathan Vogel, Orange-X Termite, SanLeandro, CA.

Vogt, J.T., T.G. Shelton, M.E. Merchant, S.A.Russell, M.J. Tanley and A.G. Appel. 2002.Efficacy of three citrus oil formulationsagainst Solenopsis invicta (Hymenoptera:Formicidae), the red imported fire ant. J.Agric. Urban Entomol. 19(3):159-171.

Woodrow, R.J. and J.K. Grace. 2005. Efficacyof selected localized injectable chemicaltreatments against Cryptotermes brevis(Isoptera: Kalotermitidae) in naturallyinfested lumber. In: Proc. Fifth Intl. Conf.Urban Pests, C.-Y. Chang and W.H.Robinson, eds. www.icup.org.uk

Woodrow, R.J., J.K. Grace and R.J. Oshiro.2006. Comparison of localized injections ofspinosad and selected insecticides for the

control of Cryptotermes brevis (Isoptera:Kalotermitidae) in naturally infested struc-tural mesocosms. J. Econ. Entomol.99(4):1354-1362.

Wright, C.G., R.B. Leidy and H.E. Dupree, Jr.1994. Chlorpyrifos in the air and soil ofhouses eight years after its application fortermite control. Bull. Environ. Contam.Toxicol. 52(1):131-134.

XT-2000 (website). 2008. Efficacy of XT-2000.www.orangextermite.com

Zhu, B.C.R., G. Henderson, H. Fei, X. Ying andR.A. Laine. 2003. Terpene-induced mor-phological changes to exoskeleton ofFormosan subterranean termites (Isoptera:Rhinotermitidae): toxic effects of cis-nerol.J. Entomol. Sci. 38(2):225-233.

ResourcesAcoustic Detectors— Dunegan Engineering Consultants, PO Box

61808, Midland, TX 79711; 432/561-5901, Fax 432/563-0178;www.deci.com; Acoustic Emission Consulting, 5000 San JuanAvenue, Suite D, Fair Oaks, CA 95628; 916/965-4827, Fax916/965-4350; www.aeconsulting.com

Borescopes—Univar USA, 2256 Junction Ave., San Jose, CA 95131;800/888-4897, 408/953-1612, Fax 408/434-6489. ProfessionalEquipment (see below)

Electrogun—ETEX Ltd., 5200 West Oakley Blvd., Ste. D24, Las Vegas,NV 89146; 800/543-5651, 702/364-5911, Fax 702/364-8894;www.etex-Ltd.com

GreenMatch™ (herbicide)—Marrone Organic Innovations, 2121 SecondSt., Suite B-107, Davis, CA 95618; 530/750-2800; www.marroneor-ganicinnovations.com. Monterey Chemical, 3654 S Willow Avenue,PO Box 35000, Fresno, CA 93745; 559/499-2100, Fax 559/499-1015; www.montereychemical.com

Heat Treatment— Thermapure/TPE Associates, 180 Canada LargoRoad, Ventura, CA 03001; 800/873-2912, Fax 805/648-6999;www.thermapure.com

Moisture Meters—Professional Equipment, 30 Oser Avenue, Suite 500,Hauppauge, NY 11788; 800/334-9291; www.professionalequip-ment.com

Non-Chemical Treatment Methods—Northwest Termite, 112Commercial Court No. 4, Santa Rosa, CA 95407; 800/281-2710;www.northwesttermite.com

Orange Guard™ (insecticide)— Orange Guard, 20 Village Square, Suite7, Carmel Valley, CA 93924; 888/659-3217, Fax 831/659-5128;www.orangeguard.com

Orange Oil Treatment—Orange-X, San Leandro, CA,877/444-6726;www.orangextermite.com

Orange Oil Treatment—Pacific Coast Termite, 1175 Chess Drive, FosterCity, CA 94404; 800/672-6436, 650/212-0801; www.pacificcoast-termite.com

Orange Oil—Florida Chemical Company, 351 Winter Haven Blvd. NE,Winter Haven, FL 33881; 863/294-8483; Fax 863/294-7783;www.floridachemical.com

Orange Oil—XT-2000, 6328 Riverdale St. Suite A, San Diego, CA92120; 866/870-8485, 619/276-7640, Fax 619/542-8471;www.xt2000.com

ProCitra™ (insecticide) —Whitmire Microgen Inc., 3568 Tree CourtIndustrial Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63122; 800/777-8570, 636/225-5371, Fax 636/225-3739; www.wmmg.com


Conference Notes

By Joel Grossman

T hese Conference Highlightsare from the Dec. 9-12, 2007,Entomological Society of

America (ESA) annual meeting inSan Diego, California. ESA’s nextannual meeting is November 16-19,2008, in Reno, Nevada. For moreinformation contact the ESA (10001Derekwood Lane, Suite 100,Lanham, MD 20706; 301/731-4535;http://www.entsoc.org).

Pesticides and BeeColony Collapse

According to Elina Niño (NorthCarolina State Univ, 2315 GardnerHall, Campus Box 7613, Raleigh,NC 27695; [email protected]), pes-ticide exposure could be a con-tributing factor in honey bee declineand colony collapse disorder. “Ourdata suggest that oxalic acid andimidacloprid significantly reducequeen survival, weight, and lipidstorage. Since the queen is the onlyreproductive female, this could havenegative effects on colony produc-tivity and health.”

Imidacloprid, which affects theinsect nervous system and maycause disorientation, is accumulat-ed from treated plants when beesforage. Oxalic acid is effectiveagainst varroa mites and may beused to treat hives, though it hassome negative impacts on bees.“Our results show that oxalic acidand imidacloprid significantlyreduced the number of successfullyreared queen cells,” said Niño. Thisreduction could have a negativeeffect on the natural requeeningprocess that occurs in the hive,thus weakening the colony.

Shipping Hungry OriusIf the insidious flower bug, Orius

insidiosus, is fed for 72 hours onsucrose or water instead of motheggs before insectary shipment, pre-

dation on western flower thrips,Frankliniella occidentalis, is about400% greater, said Jeffrey Shapiro(USDA-ARS, 1700 SW 23rd Dr,Gainesville, FL 32608;[email protected]).Eliminating moth eggs as a foodsource for 72 hours also reducespredator production costs with noimpact on reproduction rate or sur-vival.

Fungal Biofumigant forPotatoes

“Recent reintroduction of potatotuber moth, Phthorimaea oper-culella, into the potato growingareas of the Pacific Northwestresulted in large economic losses tosome growers,” said Lawrence Lacey(USDA-ARS, 5230 Konnowac PassRd, Wapato, WA, 98951; [email protected]). The principaleconomic damage occurs towardsthe end of the growing season whentubers become exposed and areinfested prior to or during harvest.

A good IPM tool is biofumigationwith an endophytic fungus,Muscodor albus, which was isolatedfrom cinnamon tree bark. This fun-gus produces volatile compoundssuch as alcohols, ketones, esters,acids and lipids that are toxic toinsects, nematodes and plantpathogens, and it is being commer-cialized by AgraQuest.

Fungal biofumigation at 24°C(75°F) for 3 days is effective againstthe pest. But potato storage tem-peratures can be much lower,depending on whether the end usemarket is seed, fresh market or pro-cessing. At lower temperatures, M.albus is less effective against pestlarvae. Though “fumigation with M.albus during the initial few days ofstorage may be adequate to controlneonates and young larvae,” saidLacey. “Older larvae would producedetectable frass and these tubersshould be culled before storage.”

Chenopodium Extracts in2008

“Keynote™ (=QRD 400, QRD400416, Facin™) is a biopesticideproduct based on an essential oilextract of Chenopodium ambro-sioides var. ambrosioides, said PaulWalgenbach (AgraQuest, 1530 DrewAve, Davis, CA 95616; [email protected]). Cheno-podium extracts (1% spray solu-tions) are contact insecticides/miti-cides with limited residual that canbe sprayed right up to harvest (seeIPMP 28(3/4):1-12). Extracts areeffective against soft-bodied arthro-pods such as thrips, aphids, white-flies and web-spinning spider miteson greenhouse crops such asonions, peppers, cucurbits, toma-toes, leafy vegetables, beddingplants and potted flowers. Besidesbeing comparable to synthetic pesti-cides against pests, the Cheno-podium extract is “safe to adultforms of beneficial insects andmites.”

EPA registration for Facin, whichis compatible in tank mixes with awide range of pesticides, is expectedin the third quarter of 2008, saidWalgenbach, noting that “with con-tinued improvement in isolationand identification techniques, theopportunity for discovery of novelplant compounds has increased.” Inthe case of Facin, the extract is amixture of compounds with variedmodes of action, which is expectedto slow resistance.

Nematodes ConquerCurculio and Borers

Soil treatments of Steinernemaspp. nematodes, if properly formu-lated, can provide 78-100% biologi-cal control of plum curculio,Conotrachelus nenuphar, said DavidShapiro-Ilan (USDA-ARS, 21Dunbar Rd, Byron, GA 31008;[email protected]).Nematodes can also control

ESA 2007 Annual MeetingHighlights—Part 1


Conference Notespeachtree borer, Synanthedon exi-tiosa, and lesser peachtree borer,Synanthedon pictipes, in peachorchards.

In two years of plum thicket fieldtests, Steinernema riobrave strain355 provided 100% plum curculiocontrol. Strain 3-8b provided 99%plum curculio control in the firstyear and 88% control in the secondyear. S. riobrave is highly effectiveat controlling C. nenuphar larvae inthe soil, regardless of host plant.Since nematodes are less effectiveagainst adult plum curculio, man-agers may have to shift emphasisfrom adult insects to soil monitor-ing of larvae for timing nematodeapplications.

“High levels of peachtree borercontrol can be achieved usingSteinernema carpocapsae in a pre-ventive and curative approach,”said Shapiro-Ilan. These tactics alsoappear to be promising from aneconomic perspective because appli-cation rates needed are less than100 million IJs (infective juveniles)per ha (2.47 acres). Nematodes inthis case are not applied to the soil,but to tree wounds produced by theborer.

S. carpocapsae applicationsrequired a protective covering to beeffective against lesser peachtreeborer. “The bandage (diaper) treat-ment with nematodes caused 100%suppression whereas the gelwrapped in cheesecloth resulted inabout 70% reduction in larval sur-vival,” said Shapiro-Ilan. “Thus,suppression of lesser peachtreeborer appears promising as long asthe nematodes are provided protec-tion upon application.”

Yellow Sticky CirclesCylindrical and cup-shaped traps

capture more thrips than flatshapes such as yellow sticky cards.But trap shape and backgroundcolor are typically ignored in IPMprograms trapping western flowerthrips (WFT), Frankliniella occiden-talis, said Bishwo Mainali (AndongNational Univ, Gyungbook, Andong,South Korea; [email protected]).

In commercial South Koreanstrawberry greenhouses and growth

chambers, choice and no-choice tri-als were conducted using variedlaminated trap shapes (square, tri-angle, inversed triangle, diamond,semi-circle, circle) and backgroundcolors (yellow, green, blue, black).Only a circular yellow surface wascoated with sticky Tanglefoot™; thebackground color surrounding thecircle was not sticky.

“As in the laboratory tests, circu-lar yellow sticky cards with 5 cm (2in) diameters and a black back-ground (12 x 12 cm; 4.7 x 4.7 in)trapped 2.3 to 21 times more F.occidentalis than the commercialyellow sticky cards. “Vernon andGillespie (1995) reported that high

contrast background colors to theyellow such as blue and violettrapped more thrips than low con-trast background colors to yellow.We also found a similar result, thatyellow color with black backgroundattracted more thrips.”

The best ratio of yellow stickysurface to black background was1:7.5. The larger the ratio of the(black) background to the (yellow)sticky area, the higher the attrac-tiveness of the trap to WFT. Theattractiveness of the circle shape toWFT may be related to floral geome-try; but thrips shape discriminationis still not completely understood.

Pheromone Trap Color“Understanding factors that may

affect interpretation of data isimportant in efforts to design bettertraps and optimize efficiency ofmonitoring efforts,” said ClaytonMyers (USDA-ARS, 2217 Wiltshire

Rd, Kearneysville, WV 25430; [email protected]). Trapdesigns with low capture efficiencymay underestimate pest pressure.Conversely, designs that are tooattractive to insects can cause satu-ration by non-target insects or eventhe pest species being monitored.

Orange, red, green, blue, yellowand white delta-style pheromonetraps deployed in commercialorchards in Wayne County, NY, andAdams County, PA, were comparedfor capturing obliquebanded leafrol-ler, Choristoneura rosaceana;Oriental fruit moth, Grapholitamolesta; and non-target muscoidflies and honeybees, Apis mellifera.“In contrast to prior observationsconducted in the western U.S.(Knight & Miliczky, 2003) wherehigh early season capture of flies inun-baited red and orange deltastyle traps was noted, we observedthe highest seasonal fly captures(mid-June and mid-late July) inwhite, unpainted white, and bluetraps,” said Myers. White, unpaint-ed white, and blue were also mostattractive to honeybees.

“For monitoring of obliquebandedleafroller and Oriental fruit moth inthe eastern U.S., we recommendchoosing trap colors such as yellow,red or orange because they appearto be less attractive to non-targetinsects,” said Myers. “While greentraps were also less attractive tonon-target insects, our experienceindicated that this color can beproblematic for finding the trapwithin the green tree canopy.”

Pheromones andBeauveria

Increased regulation has left aneed for alternatives to protectstored products. Ian Baxter (Univ ofSouthampton, Southampton SO171BJ, Hampshire, United Kingdom;[email protected]), has examined anelectrostatic powder (Entostat™)that carries the fungus, Beauveriabassiana, as an alternative pestcontrol approach for the Indianmealmoth, Plodia interpunctella.”

Indianmeal moths (IMM) areattracted to a synthetic pheromonelure in a dispensing station where

Insidious flower bug, Oriousinsidiosus

mani, was intermediate, and onlyblue lobelia and non-native QueenAnne’s Lace, Daucus carota,increased survival more than watercontrols. The convergent lady bee-tle, Hippodamia convergens, was“relatively insensitive” to floweravailability, though it did betterwith bee balm and survived worstwith culver’s root.

Natural enemies caused a reduc-tion in aphid colony growth,“emphasizing the importance ofthese insects for suppressing blue-berry pest insects,” such as blue-berry aphid, Illinoia pepperi, saidWalton. “During 2008, we will testadditional native flowering plantspecies for their ability to increasesurvival of the natural enemyspecies tested here. Then, as theflowering plant strips become moreestablished next year, we will con-tinue to evaluate the response ofdifferent natural enemy groups tothese insect conservation strips.Finally, aphid exclusion methodswill be further explored for deter-mining the effect of flowering plantstrips on the level of natural aphidcontrol in crop fields.”

Cover Crops, Mulches, andViruses

Despite frequent insecticide appli-cations for aphid control, SouthCarolina muskmelon growers areplagued by aphid-transmittedwatermelon mosaic virus, said GeoffZehnder (Clemson Univ, Clemson,SC 29634 ; [email protected]).Over a two-year period, pesticidealternatives such rye cover cropsdrill-seeded between rows (inJanuary), black plastic mulches,and reflective aluminum mulcheswere tested to reduce the visualattraction of the aphid virus vectorsto muskmelons.

“Results indicated that the estab-lishment of a rye cover cropbetween plant beds and the use ofreflective mulch could effectivelyreduce the incidence of virus dis-ease,” said Zehnder. Interestingly,rye cover crops and reflective mulchworked better alone; combining thecover crop and reflective mulch didnot confer an advantage.

Ground Beetles and WeedsGround beetles (Carabidae) are

opportunistic feeders that feed onweed seeds in addition to slugs andother soft-bodied insects, saidJessica Green (Oregon State Univ,4017 ALS Bldg, Corvallis, OR97331; [email protected]).Annual weed seeds such as pig-weed, Retroflexus amaranthus;wild-proso millet, Panicum mili-aceum; and hairy nightshade,Solanum sarrachoides can reduceyields and quality in vegetablecrops such as snap bean. Butground beetles eating weed seedscan be part of “an integrated weedmanagement plan” to “reduce herbi-cide use.”

In row-planted Oregon snapbeans, the most abundant groundbeetle species collected werePterostichus melanarius andHarpalus pennsylvanicus with less-er numbers of Agonum, Amara andBradycellus species. Weed seed pre-dation averaged about 20%, despiteground beetle population reductionsby pesticides.

Neem for Stinkbug IPMThe southern green stink bug,

Nezara viridula, a worldwide pest ofmany crops, can be managed withneem extracts in India, where neemtrees are common. “The presentstudy indicated that the antifeedanteffect of neem can be utilized toreduce the damage inflicted by N.viridula and may be a promisingsolution for the management of thispentatomid pest,” said PaulaMitchell (Winthrop Univ, Rock Hill,SC 29733; [email protected]).

A 5% concentration of NeemAzal® “was significantly more effec-tive” (reducing stinkbug damage tonear zero) than crude aqueousextracts and neem oil in protectingbean pods. Neem “reduced the pre-liminary probing behavior that fur-ther resulted in reduced damage tothe seed,” said Mitchell. NeemAzal’s advantage was likely due toits higher azadirachtin content;azadirachtin concentrations of1.25% and higher significantlyreduced seed damage.

they become inoculated with B.bassiana conidia. In one trial, 45out of 50 male moths entered thedispensing station and were inocu-lated with conidia despite walkingonly briefly on the powder, whichwas repellent. During mating, malemoths transferred 3.3% of theEntostat powder to females. Someof the powder even gets transferredto the egg via maternal scale shed-ding.

Blueberry ConservationStrips

“Flowering plants are being usedincreasingly around the world as ameans to improve biological controlin agricultural landscapes,” saidNathaniel Walton (Michigan StateUniv, 202 CIPS, East Lansing, MI48824; [email protected]).“However, few studies have usedflowering plants that are native totheir particular region.”

As part of a longer term study ofconservation strips for biologicalinsect control in blueberries, thefollowing flowering plants native toMichigan were evaluated: penste-mon, Penstemon hirsutus; bee balm,Monarda fistulosa; culver’s root,Veronicastrum virginicum; earlygoldenrod, Solidago juncea; bluelobelia, Lobelia siphilitica; yellowgiant hyssop, Agastache nepetoides;smooth aster, Aster laevis; and littlebluestem, Schizachyrium scoparius.

Native Michigan flowering plantspecies varied in their attraction ofnatural enemies, and only one hadsignificantly greater abundancethan mown field borders or nativegrass plots. This was the late-sea-son blooming plant, Solidagojuncea, which produces large floraldisplays. Recent research hasshown that floral display area is astrong predictor of the abundanceof natural enemies on flowers(Fiedler and Landis, 2007). Flowersimproved survivorship of naturalenemies regardless of whether theflower was native or not. Benefitsvaried with the insect species.

The insidious flower bug, Oriusinsidiosus was most sensitive toprovision of flowers, living signifi-cantly longer in cages with flowers.The aphid parasitoid, Aphidius cole-


UpdateConference Notes


Updateage if properly cared for but newlyestablished turf is particularly sus-ceptible due to its limited root sys-tem and carbohydrate reserves.

Among the “naturally occurringchemicals that have shown biocidalproperties against field armywormin laboratory bioassays are caffeicacid derivatives, primarily chloro-genic acid, and flavonoids such asmaysin, luteolin, rutin and isoori-entin,” said Reinert. Adding chloro-genic acid and maysin to pest dietsreduced larval weights and boostedmortality.

Increased N fertilization of resist-ant turfgrass cultivars may reducerelative amounts of allelochemicalsand decrease resistance to leaf-feeding insects.

Chinch Bug IPMSt. Augustinegrass infested with

southern chinch bug, Blissus insu-laris, “suffers stunted growth anddies in patches,” said Eileen Buss(Univ of Florida, 970 Natural AreaDr, Gainesville, FL 32611;[email protected]). Turfgrass man-agers have relied on insecticides forcontrol of the pest for over 60 years,sometimes with over 6 applicationsa year in Florida. Non-chemicalmanagement options are needed toreduce insecticides and delayresistance development.

“If more eggs are laid by B. insu-laris in fertilized turfgrass, popula-tions may build faster, which mayresult in more damage and insecti-cide use,” said Buss. When nitrogen(N) is reduced, chinch bugs arefewer in number and the St.Augustinegrass is shorter andlighter green. Moderate to high Nfertilization resulted in more fecundchinch bugs. Extremely high N (4 lbper1,000 ft2; 1.8 kg per 93 m2) ledto grey leaf damage, lower turfquality and more fecund chinchbugs. Further research is neededcomparing soluble versus slow-release nitrogen sources.

In central Georgia, the St.Augustinegrass cultivar Raleigh isvery susceptible to southern chinchbug, Blissus insularis. But the culti-vars Floratam and Floralawn havehigh resistance, said S. KrisBraman (Univ of Georgia, 1109

Conference NotesJapanese Beetle Repellent

OilsNadeer Youssef (Tennessee State

Univ, 472 Cadillac Ln, McMinnville,TN 37110; [email protected])has studied Japanese beetle repel-lents. Repellents were tested to seeif they could drive Japanese beetlesaway from collection points. Of the49 essential oils, 5 essential oilcombinations, and 2 non-essentialoils tested for adult Japanese beetlerepellency in 2003-2007, 23 plantoil or oil combinations significantlyreduced collected numbers of adultJapanese beetles, Popillia japonica.

Plant oils significantly reducingadult Japanese beetle collectioninclude: “peppermint, wintergreen,ginger, juniper berry, Juniperuscommunis; cedar leaf, Thuja occi-dentalis; Dalmation sage, Salviaofficinalis; tarragon, bergamot mint,tea tree, Melaleuca alternifolia;Bulgarian lavender, Lavandulaangustifolia; cardamom, fennel,anise, ylang ylang, Cananga odora-ta; yarrow, geranium, Pelargoniumsp., thyme and lemon oils,” saidYoussef.

Two of the best ones were winter-green,Gaultheria procumbens, andpeppermint, Mentha piperita. AdultJapanese beetle capture was alsoreduced by combinations of winter-green oil with peppermint oil or gin-ger oil, ginger plus citronella oils,and cumin plus coffee oils.

Less Fertilizer, FewerArmyworms

Many grasses are resistant toinsects when they are modestly fer-tilized, but when they are fertilizedheavily with nitrogen (N), the natu-ral resistance may be reduced orlost. Loss of resistance can lead tooutbreaks of pests such as fallarmyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda,said James Reinert (Texas AgricExper Stn, 17360 Coit Rd, Dallas,TX 75252; [email protected]).

Fall armyworm is a major pest onmanaged turf such as golf courses,parks, and lawns, and “larvae feedon aboveground plant parts, movingin mass across the landscape,” saidReinert. Most established grasslandscapes will recover from dam-

Injections for LandscapeTrees

The emerald ash borer, Agrilusplanipennis, is a Chinese wood-bor-ing beetle that has killed millionsof native ash trees in Canada andthe U.S. It was discovered inWindsor, Ontario, Canada, in 2002.According to Blair Helson(Canadian Forest Service, 1219Queen St E, Sault Ste Marie, ONP6A 2E5 Canada; [email protected]), trunk injection ofTreeAzin™ (5% azadirachtin; neem)is an effective, highly targeted newtool. Low volumes of TreeAzin canbe injected quickly and completelyinto trees with a new, high output,commercial tree delivery method,the EcoJect System (BioForestTechnologies, Inc).

After injection of TreeAzin intolarge green ash trees, “azadirachtinis rapidly taken up and effectivelytranslocated.” Emerald ash borer(EAB) exit holes in branches weresignificantly reduced, over 80%compared to untreated trees. Trunkexit holes were reduced 96% at thehigh rate of TreeAzin, but not at thelow rate.

“Early summer injection withTreeAzin at 250 mg azadirach-tin/cm diameter at early stages ofinfestation should provide veryeffective control of EAB larvae andtree protection as prophylactictreatments,” said Helson. Trunkinjections with azadirachtin mayalso result in reductions in fertilityand fecundity of adults feeding onleaves.

Helson also found that trunkinjections of emamectin benzoatewere very effective. “We observed100% mortality of EAB in June,July and August bioassays.” Noother product has yielded similarresults in 5 years of studies. Amajor question underlying everyEAB insecticide trial is whether‘good’ performance –e.g. 80% larvalcontrol—ultimately prevents theeventual decline or death of a treat-ed tree. In this case, emamectinbenzoate provided 99.8% control.Additional studies are planned.


Conference NotesExperiment Street, Griffin, GA30223; [email protected]).

Floral Interplants andMole Crickets

“Mole crickets, Scapteriscus spp.are the most damaging pests ofsouthern pasture and turfgrasses,”said Cheri Abraham (MississippiState Univ, 103 Clay Lyle Ent, Box9775, MS 39762; [email protected]). From 1979 to 1989, the para-sitoid wasp, Larra bicolor(Sphecidae) was introduced intoFlorida for mole cricket biocontrol.By 2004 larra wasps were inMississippi, and by 2007 Alabama.

Female larra wasps search outmole cricket surface tunnels bywalking atop the soil and turf,probing with their antennae. “Whena surface tunnel is encountered thefemale will enter and exit the sametunnel many times after which, themole cricket rushes out of the tun-nel,” said Abraham. “Once the waspencounters the mole cricket, it isstung and the egg is laid.” A molecricket is killed by a single larrawasp larvae in about two weeks,and a wasp adult emerges from asilken cocoon buried in the sand in6-8 weeks.

Larra wasps are active on coastalMississippi golf courses from mid-May to November, but need flowernectar to thrive. “Results so farindicate that flowering Pentas maybe a suitable alternative for turfmanagers in the northern Gulfregion that would like to recruitand sustain populations of L. bicolorfor biological control of mole crick-ets,” said Abraham.

Spermacoce verticillata, anothermember of the Rubiacea with smallindividual flowers, is a good larrawasp nectar source. But Sperma-coce seeds spread outside plantingplots, and it is considered a weed.Further nectar source experimentsare underway, and “will hopefullyshow that nectar sources adjacentto infested turfgrass will increasewasp longevity and parasitism ofmole crickets, enhancing biologicalcontrol.”

Kentucky Turf Grub IPM“Root-feeding white grubs are the

most destructive insect pests of tur-fgrasses in Kentucky,” said CarlRedmond (Univ of Kentucky, S-225Agri Sci Bldg N, Lexington, KY40546; [email protected]).Grubs cause dead patches andencourage skunks to dig up turflooking for grubs. Kentucky beetlesproducing pest grubs include theJapanese beetle, Popillia japonica;northern masked chafer,Cyclocephala borealis; southernmasked chafer, C. lurida; May bee-tles, Phyllophaga spp. and blackturfgrass ataenius, Ataenius spretu-lus.

“Life cycles, timing of egg hatch,and susceptibility to insecticidesvary among grub species, so know-ing which species predominate isimportant,” said Redmond. Maskedchafers predominate in irrigatedroughs, “although Japanese beetleor mixed grub populations are com-mon.” Kentucky is in a warm- and

cool-season grass transition zone,so identifying and assessing theprevalence of natural enemies andpathogens is important for IPM andconservation biological control.

The most common pathogen ismilky disease, Paenibacillus popilli-ae, with different strains infectingJapanese beetles and maskedchafers. Other grub pathogensdetected include entomopathogenicnematodes (Heterorhabditdae) andthe fungus Metarhizium.

“Evaluation of pathogens is on-going, but so far milky disease bac-teria, Paenibacillus popilliae, pre-dominate,” said Redmond.“Mortality of masked chafers frommilky disease or parasitism byTiphia pygidialis was as high as40% and 16%, respectively, at somesites.”

Herbal Rust MiteRemedies

Pear rust mites, Epitrimerus pyri,are small, hard-to-detect, and moredifficult to control than other spidermites. Rust mites lower the qualityand yield of organic pears, and arefound more on younger leaves inthe upper part of trees, said SilviaRondon (Oregon State Univ, 2121 S1st St, Hermiston, OR 97838; [email protected]).Twenty leaves per organic pear treewere sampled; and a mite brushingmachine was used to count the rustmites.

When 10% of pear trees in organ-ic orchards were infested with pearrust mites, trees were sprayed witheither azadirachtin (Neemix®), rose-mary and peppermint oils (Eco-trol®) or a mixture of rosemary,sesame, thyme, peppermint & cin-namon oils (EF300®).

At the first spray application, only64 fl oz/acre (4.8 l/ha) of Ecotrolsignificantly reduced rust mites.After the second spray, 16 oz/acre(1.3 l/ha) Neemix was best, result-ing in only 2.4 rust mites per leaf;versus 11.3 rust mites/leaf in thecontrol, 16.3 mites/leaf withEcotrol and 44.8 rust mites/leafwith EF300.

Citricola Scale Biocontrol“Organophosphates are likely to

be restricted in the San JoaquinValley (SJV) where most (California)citrus is grown because they pro-duce volatile organic compoundsand contaminate ground water,”said Robert Luck (Univ ofCalifornia, Riverside, CA 92507;[email protected]). “To provide citrusgrowers with an alternative to theseinsecticides, we are developing anaugmentative release program forsuppressing citricola scale, Coccus

Plum curculio,Conotrachelus nenuphar


Conference Notespseudomagnoliarum, similar to theprogram developed by the FillmoreProtective District in southernCalifornia to suppress black scale.”

In southern California, the domi-nant early season parasitoids whencitricola scales are small areCoccophagus spp. and Metaphycushelvolus. “Augmentative biologicalcontrol of citricola scale depends onthe development of an economicallyefficient mass-rearing system for itsparasitoids,” said Luck. “We cur-rently mass rear several Meta-phycus species parasitoids onbrown soft scale, Coccus hes-peridum, grown hydroponically onexcised Yucca leaves.”

In orchard trials with augmenta-tive releases of Metaphycus flavusimported from Turkey, citricolascale infestations were significantlyreduced. “We know anecdotallyfrom SJV pest control advisors thatgroves with concurrent populationsof both brown soft and citricolascale render citricola scale popula-tions uneconomic because ofMetaphycus parasitism,” said Luck.“The multivoltine (multiple genera-tions per year) brown soft scalegenerates the parasitoids that sub-sequently utilize the univoltine (onegeneration per year) citricola scale.We propose to mimic the southernCalifornia situation by using para-sitized brown soft (scale) infestedYucca leaves and plants that can beplaced in citrus groves. This releasetechnique will be tested in a smallSJV organic grove of Valenciaorange.”

Cockroach IPM in Low-Income Housing

“Cockroaches remain the mostcommon indoor pests,” saidChanglu Wang (Purdue Univ, 901W. State St, West Lafayette, IN47907; [email protected]). Theycontaminate food and exacerbateasthma symptoms. Although IPM isadvocated for German cockroaches,Blattella germanica, voluntary adop-tion is rare. Understanding thecosts and benefits of IPM shouldhelp promote the adoption of IPM.

IPM costs and benefits weremeasured at 268-unit and 517-unit

low-income apartment complexes inGary, Indiana. Visual inspectionsincluded interviews with residentsto learn about insecticide use,repair needs and pest infestationhistory. If an infestation was sus-pected, six sticky traps were placedin the apartment for 24 hours togauge the infestation level.Cockroach allergens (Bla g 1) wereassayed in kitchen floor dust sam-ples at 0, 6 and 12 months.

Infested apartments were alsomonitored monthly with stickytraps until there were no cock-roaches for two consecutivemonths; then inspections were onceevery 3-4 months for previouslyinfested apartments and every 6months for never-infested apart-ments. One apartment complex wastreated by a commercial pest man-agement firm. The other apartmentcomplex was treated by Purdueresearchers. Thus, “contractor-delivered IPM” was compared with“researcher-delivered IPM.”

“The property management staffheld monthly housekeeping classesto train residents on cockroach pre-vention, proper housekeeping, cock-roach harborage reduction, andmethods for removing cockroachallergens,” said Wang. A combina-tion of boric acid dust and cock-roach gel baits were applied tocockroach infested apartments. Atleast six sticky traps were placed ineach apartment to help detect theexistence of cockroaches andreduce the cockroach numbers.Apartments with poor sanitationreceived mandatory housekeepingclasses.

Both “contractor-delivered IPM”and “researcher-delivered IPM” sig-nificantly reduced costs (77-89%reduction), insecticide use (85-93%reduction) and allergens (60-75%less). IPM delivered by Purdueresearchers, however, providedgreater allergen reduction.

IPM challenges included residentswho were not cooperative in clean-ing their apartments, the need forrepairs, inaccessible apartments(e.g. lack of housing authority staff;residents refusing service), and newinfestations brought in by new resi-dents.

CalendarMarch 14-16, 2008. Beyond Pesticides Conference.Berkeley, CA. Contact: Beyond Pesticides, 701 EStreet SE, Suite 200, Washington, DC 20003;www.beyondpesticides.org

March 17-19, 2008. Food Safety Conf., Washington,DC. Contact: www.foodsafetysummit.com

March 25-27, 2008. 20th Anniversary: SARE 2008National Conference, Kansas City, MO. Contact:www.sare.org/2008conference/

March 29, 2008. UC Master Gardeners GardeningWorkshop. Napa, CA. Contact: UC Coop Extn, 1710Soscol Ave. No. 4, Napa, CA 94559; 707/253-4221.

April 20-May 3, 2008. Permaculture Design Course,San Luis Obispo, CA. Contact: www.earthflow.com

May 20, 2008. 60th Intl. Symp. Crop Prot., Ghent,BelMay 29, 2008. Postharvest Methods, Farm toBuyer. Stratford, OK. Contact: Kerr Center,Sustainable Agric., www.kerrcenter.com

June 5-7, 2008. Understanding BiodynamicAgriculture, San Luis Obispo, CA. Contact:http://continuing-ed.calpoly.edu/

June 12-13, 2008. Environmental Horticulture IPMConf., San Luis Obispo, CA. Contact: R. Rice, Hortand Crop Sci, Cal Poly, 805/756-2830;http://hcrs.calpoly.edu

June 13, 2008. Grant Application Deadline. WesternSARE. Contact: Western SARE, Ag Science Bdlg,Rm 305, 4865 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT 84322;435/797-3344, http://wsare.usu.edu

July 26-31, 2008. Annual Meeting, AmericanPhytopathological Society. Minneapolis, MN.Contact: APS, 3340 Pilot Knob Rd., St. Paul, MN55121; www.apsnet.org.

August 5-6, 2008. Sustainable Farming Conference,Oklahoma City, OK. Contact: Kerr CenterSustainable Agric., www.kerrcenter.com

October 4-8, 2008. 12th Annual Conf. CommunityFood Security Coalition. Philadelphia, PA. Contact:www,foodsecurity.org

October 15, 2008. Application Deadline, UC SantaCruz Farm and Garden Apprenticeship Program.Contact: 831/459-3240; www.ucsc.edu/casfs

October 20-22, 2008. Farming with Grass, OklahomaCity, OK. Contact: Soil and Water ConservationSociety, 945 SW Ankeny Rd, Ankeny, IA 50023;www.swcs.org

November 7-8, 2008. Annual Meeting, Assoc. NaturalBiocontrol Producers. Stoneville, MS. Contact: M.Burt, ANBP, 714/544-8295; www.anbp.org

November 16-21, 2008. 10th Annual Meeting, Safetyof GMOs. Wellington, New Zealand. Contact: 64-9-269-1240; email, [email protected];www.isbgmo.info

December 7-11, 2008. Annual MeetingEntomological Society of America. Reno, NV.Contact: ESA, 9301 Annapolis Rd., Lanham, MD20706; Fax 301/731-4538; www.entsoc.org

December 8-11, 2008. Annual Meeting, North CentralWeed Science Soc. Indianapolis, IN. Contact:217/352-4212; www.ncwss.org


will find the 49 pages of “ActionChecklists” extremely useful. Keyto success with IPM is documen-tation, and these checklists willhelp.

The Bed Bug Handbook is anessential reference for structuralpest management professionals.General readers may also find itinteresting, and it is a valuablecompanion to the classic work byUsinger, Monograph of Cimicidae,that has recently been reissued.—Bill Quarles

California Master GardenerHandbook. 2002. D.R. Pittenger,ed. University of CaliforniaAgriculture and NaturalResources, ANR Pub. No. 3382.702 pp. Paperback. $35.http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu

California Master Gardenersare expert gardeners that aretrained and certified by theUniversity of California. More than1800 Master Gardeners are nowactive in 36 California counties.These experts help provide scien-tifically accurate informationabout home horticulture and pestmanagement to the general public.There are similar programs in 45other states, and so the bookshould also be useful to a nationalaudience.

The Master Gardener Handbookwas designed as a reference bookfor use during and after the train-ing program. It is an impressiveeffort involving 25 authors, 28 col-laborators, and 62 reviewers. It iswritten in non-technical language.Topics covered include an intro-duction to horticulture, soil andfertilizer management, water man-agement, plant propagation, diag-nosing plant problems, plantpathology, entomology, householdand structural pests, weed sci-ence, garden pests, house plants,lawns, landscape and gardendesign, woody landscape plants,poisonous plants, home vegetablegardening, nutrition, and specialcrops such as grapes, berries,fruit trees and nuts, citrus, andavocados.

Since the book is non-technicaland covers such a large number oftopics, we can expect that some ofthe material is covered sparsely,and it is. However, some topics,such as management of householdpests, are covered with a remark-able amount of detail. If moreinformation is needed, each chap-ter has a number of general refer-ences for further research.

The chapter on householdpests gives details of pest biologyand emphasizes habitat manage-ment and non-chemical controls.For example, for carpenter ants,caulk cracks and crevices, trimtree limbs and shrubs to preventant access to structures, use aninorganic perimeter mulch to dis-courage nesting, eliminate dampconditions, unclog gutters, storewood off the ground and awayfrom the house.

The chapter on lawn careemphasizes selection of resistantand hardy turfgrass species andcultural management. In the weedcontrol chapter, we find that “goodcultural control can account for60 to 70% of the weed control inturf.” Herbicides are recommend-ed only as a last resort. Thoughthe chapter on garden pests has alot of information on pesticides,non-chemical and biological con-trols are recommended, and theauthor says, “pesticides shouldonly be used when non-chemicalmethods fail to provide adequatecontrol of pests or when pest pop-ulations begin to cause unaccept-able losses.” If pesticides are used,Bacillus thuringiensis (BT), soap,oil, and other reduced risk pesti-cides are encouraged.

The California Master GardenerHandbook is recommended foranyone who enjoys gardening.There is enough horticultural,pest management, and generalinformation that many gardenproblems can be prevented, andothers managed without resort topesticides.—Bill Quarles

Bed Bug Handbook, theComplete Guide to Bed Bugsand their Control. 2007. L.J.Pinto, R. Cooper and S.K. Kraft.Pinto and Associates, Mechanics-ville, MD. 266 pp. $72, Paperback.www.techletter.com

According to one of theauthors, this book is “the onlypublished text on bed bugs thathas been written to meet theneeds of a variety of industries,including property management,hospitality and pest management.”It was written for specialized pur-poses, but some of it may beinteresting to a general reader.Thus, there are chapters on bedbug cultural history and biology.In addition, medical, social, andbusiness implications of bed buginfestations are discussed.

But the major strength of thisbook is its emphasis on practicalmethods of bed bug control. Doyou need to know if low tempera-tures will kill bed bugs? Then, youcan quickly find that two hours at1°F (-17°C) will kill all stages ofbed bugs. However, when disin-festing belongings, exposure timesmust be adjusted for their weight.So, it takes more than 10 hours atthis temperature to kill all bedbugs in 5.5 lb (2.5 kg) of laundry.

Bed bugs are so new to manypest management professionalsthat something as simple as moni-toring and inspection may have tobe learned. The Bed Bug Hand-book provides all this basic infor-mation. But novel techniques arealso reviewed, including theCryonite™ system that uses pres-surized CO2 to produce supercold“dry ice” that is released as“snow.” Steam and dry heat tech-niques such as the Thermapure™system are evaluated. Strengthsand limitations of bed bug sniffingdogs are revealed.

Best of all, bed bug controlmethods are illustrated with morethan 100 “how-to” photos.Pictures of bed bug habitat canhelp formulate inspection plans.From a practical point of view,pest management professionals

Book Reviews


BIRC (Bio-Integral Resource Center)answers pest management and pesti-cide toxicity questions submittedthrough the Ask the Expert link atwww.ourwaterourworld.org or throughthe Ask the Expert link onwww.birc.org. At the moment, anyonenationwide can use this service, andwe hope it will help mitigate some ofthe harmful effects of pesticides. Thewebsite and link were created througha grant from the California RegionalWater Resources Control Board, andthe link is currently supported by agrant from the Rose Foundation. Weencourage BIRC members to use theAsk the Expert link. Some of the ques-tions are of general interest, and arereproduced here.

Dear BIRC,My pea patch and lettuce seem to

be getting eaten excessively by slugs(amongst other things). I have beentrying to go chemical free, we like todistribute produce and flowers forlocal residences/neighbors. I amusing recycled wood in the raisedbeds and unfortunately can onlywater at night. Next door is a smallduck pond and the garden bordersan active public park and play area.Any suggestions?

Thank you.

BIRC replies,One way to reduce the numbers of

slugs and snails is to use SnailBarr™ copper strips on the raisedbeds. Slugs and snails are repelledby copper. This approach is used bythe citrus industry, and they put thestrips around the trunks of citrustrees.

Water as little as possible, aswater encourages slugs and snails.Since the molluscs are nocturnal,and you are watering at night, anoth-er option is handpicking. Use a flash-light and look carefully at thefoliage.They like to hide underneathleaves. Pick off any that you see, anddispose of as you see fit.

Slug and snail traps are a possi-bility. An overturned clay pot or claydish will act as a trap for slugs andsnails. You can also just put a smallone square foot board in the garden.Prop it up an inch or so on rocks, or

add a couple of thin wooden strips tolift it off the ground. Slugs and snailscrawl underneath. You can buy com-mercial traps such as the SlugSaloon™. This is a plastic dish youfill with beer. Slugs fall into it anddrown.

There are other traps you canmake, or you can use Sluggo™,which is iron phosphate. The baithas low toxicity to mammals, killsslugs and snails, and any left overbecomes fertilizer.

Hope this helps,BIRC

Dear BIRC,If we use black plastic for weed

control, will it kill the following bulbsthat are already planted there? Wehave narcissus, daffodils, snowdrops,crocus, and hyacinth.

Thank you.

BIRC replies,Black plastic mulch works pretty

well because many weeds are annu-als whose seeds need light to germi-nate. Those that do germinate willnot grow because no light is availableto produce food through photosyn-thesis.

Now, will black plastic mulch killbulbs? It certainly will not help themmuch. One problem will be that theemerging bulb might not be able tomake it through the plastic to thesunlight. If you know where thebulbs are, you might be able to cor-rect that problem by cutting the plas-tic, but weeds would also growthrough at that point.

The other problem is heat pro-duced underneath the black plastic. Ibelieve daffodil bulbs tolerate a rea-sonable amount of heat. But I do notknow about the others. Anotherproblem is water. Black plastic doesnot allow water to penetrate. So thebulbs could die from lack of water.

As an alternative, you might beable to mulch with an organic mulchfor weed control. This mulch wouldpreserve moisture in the area andshould not heat the ground. Thebulbs could be watered, and theyshould be able to emerge through themulch.


Dear BIRC,I am wondering what chemicals

are used to pressure treat woodtoday and if is safe to use in aninside project. Are there safe treat-ments? What is Thomsonized wood?

Thank you.

BIRC replies,There are several kinds of pres-

sure treated wood. The industrystandard for a long time was chro-mated copper arsenate (CCA). Thiswas banned for home use by theEPA. Arsenic had a tendency to leachout of it. There was concern thatwhen the old wood was discarded inlandfill, it would lead to contamina-tion of drinking water in wells.Carpenters were also exposed toarsenic when they sawed the wood.

Materials that are currently avail-able are based on copper or boratesor organic fungicides. By organic Imean the kind that can be bought atdrug stores to take care of athlete’sfoot.

Thompsonized wood has beenpressure treated with copper azoleand with Thompson’s Water Seal. Ifyou are using it inside, you probablydo not need the water sealant, unlessthe wood is likely to be exposed towater.

Copper azole contains copper ion,boric acid, and the fungicide tebu-conazole. It protects against insectsand decay. In field tests, it was equiv-alent to CCA. The materials have fair-ly low acute toxicity to mammals.Also, high concentrations are notused in the wood.

If you do not expect the wood toget much exposure to water, youcould use wood that has been pres-sure-treated with a mixture of boricacid and borax. Osmose sells this asAdvance Guard™. Arch TreatmentTechnologies calls it SillBor™ andChemical Specialties calls itTimberSaver™. It is resistant to woodrot, termites, and woodboring beetles.

You can also buy untreated woodand treat it with borates yourself.The borate material is called Timbor®and is sold by Nisus Corporation in

Ask the Expert


inside, the amount of active ingredi-ent is so low that they would not beacutely poisoned if they ingested it.

The stations are convenient. Putthem on ant trails. Remove them andput them in a plastic sack for lateruse when the ants are gone. You cantoss empty ones in the trash.


Dear BIRC,A landscape contractor is using

Roundup® to control difficult weedsaround our apartment complex.What are commercial grade alterna-tives that will be effective for control-ling weeds, but that won’t endangerhumans and animals?

Thank you.

BIRC replies,Alternatives to Roundup include

mulches, mechanical control,flamers, corn gluten meal, and alter-native herbicides based on orange oil,clove oil, soap, or vinegar. Mulchesare useful for areas such as plantingbeds. Flamers can control weeds pok-ing up through concrete or asphalt.Flamers can also be used on a lawn.They are best at killing small uprightherbaceous weeds. Flamers have verylittle effect on turfgrass.

Mechanical methods can be use-ful. If you have dandelions, there is atool called the Weed Hound thatallows for efficient extraction. Eventhe standard Weed Whacker can beuseful in landscape weed manage-ment. The idea behind mechanicalmethods is to remove the weed beforeit produces seed.

Corn gluten meal is basically cornmeal. It has low toxicity. When usedon lawns, it suppresses weed seedgermination and provides nitrogen forthe turfgrass. Hence, it is a pre-emer-gent and an organic weed and feedmaterial.

There are a number of least-toxicherbicides. They work best on annualweeds, though they can kill perenni-als with repeated use. Green Match™is based on orange oil, Burn Out™ isbased on clove oil, Matran™ containsa number of essential oils, and vine-gar will kill weeds if they are lessthan four inches high, and it isapplied on sunny days. It works by

desiccation. Safer Soap™ can alsokill weeds. It destroys the cell wallsand allows desiccation.


Dear BIRC,I just recently discovered that I

have a problem with house mice. Ilive on the third floor of a three storybuilding in the Boston area. I amplanning on sealing all my dry foodsin better containers and making surefood does not get left out, but apartfrom this, I am wondering what yoursuggestion would be for getting rid ofthe mice in a most humane, buteffective manner. They are relativelysmall mice that come out at nightand eat my grains and scurryaround.

I’d rather not kill them if it’s pos-sible. Is there anything that keepsthem away for good that worksimmediately?

Thank you so much.

BIRC replies,The best thing you can do is first

protect your food as you suggest.Leave no garbage or crumbs for themto eat. Find out how they are gettingin. Look for mouse holes in doors.Check your door sweeps to makesure they are intact and in goodworking order. Do not leave doorsand windows open without screens toprotect the opening.

Check areas where plumbingcomes into your apartment.Sometimes they squeeze in around apipe. Outside the structure, lookaround the perimeter for holes infoundation or attic vents, or holes inthe structure itself. When you findthe hole, seal it up. Use a combina-tion of copper mesh and caulk.

Once you have pest proofed yourhouse and food, use live traps tocatch the ones that you have. Youcan buy these at the hardware store.Or you can call the manufacturerWoodstream 800/800-1819 and askabout live traps for mice. Once youhave caught them, you can releasethem outside.


Rockford, TN, 800/264-0780.However, pressure treated material isprobably more effective as it pene-trates deeper into the wood.

You should have no problems withany of these treatments as long asyou do not ingest the chemicals.Borates cannot be absorbed throughthe skin, and they are non-volatile.You could be exposed only by eatingor inhaling the sawdust. Borateshave low acute toxicity to mammals.

You might have more of an expo-sure problem with copper azole. Inaddition to boric acid, you are deal-ing with copper and tebuconazole.Copper and boric acid are notvolatile. I do not know how volatiletebuconazole is, but it has fairly lowacute toxicity. Greatest potentialexposure would come as you aresawing the wood and actually doingthe construction.


Dear BIRC,I am house sitting for friends.

There are two cats here. We have anant problem. The attraction is thecatfood. I am not sure what to use toget rid of the ants that would notharm the cats.

Please help!

BIRC replies,If the ants are after the cat food,

one method is to exclude the antsfrom the cat food bowls. You can dothis in several ways. You can get ashallow pie pan and put soapy waterin the bottom. Then set the cat foodbowl in the pan. This establishes amoat that excludes the ants. Anotherpossible way is to cover the bottom ofthe pan with Vaseline. That mightalso work. The problem with thisapproach is that it is messy.

There is a product called TheAntser™. This is an enclosed plasticdevice that you fill with water.Anything you set on top of it cannotbe accessed by ants. You can find itat www.theantser.com or by calling925/686-4437.

You can also discourage ants byusing ant baits. Combat® orMaxforce® baits enclosed in plasticbait stations cannot be accessed bycats. Even if they were able to get

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