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Ore Geology Reviews 57 (2014) 498–517

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Geology, tectonic settings and iron ore metallogenesis associated with submarinevolcanism in China: An overview

Tong Hou a, Zhaochong Zhang a,⁎, Franco Pirajno b, M. Santosh a,c, John Encarnacion d, Junlai Liu a,Zhidan Zhao a, Lijian Zhang e

a State Key Laboratory of Geological Process and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, Chinab Centre for Exploration Targeting, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australiac Division of Interdisciplinary Science, Kochi University, Kochi 780-8520, Japand Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Saint Louis University, 3642 Lindell Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63108, USAe No. 4 Geological Party of Hebei Bureau of Geology for Mineral Resources Exploration, Chengde 067000, China

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 10 82322195; fax: +E-mail address: [email protected] (Z. Zhang).

0169-1368/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rihttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2013.08.007

a b s t r a c t
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:Received 21 April 2013Received in revised form 1 August 2013Accepted 8 August 2013Available online 19 August 2013

Keywords:MetallogenesisIron depositsSubmarine volcanic rocksChina

Submarine volcanogenic iron oxide (SVIO) deposits are one of themost important sources of high-grade iron oresin China. The spatial distribution of the deposits is controlled by the tectonic settings including arc, back-arc andrift environments, with the SVIO deposits mostly concentrated in the western part of China namely, thesouthwestern Yangtze Craton, Western and Eastern Tianshan, and Altay orogens and the Kaladawan iron oredistrict in the eastern part of the Altyn Tagh region. The Chinese SVIO deposits range in age from PaleoproterozoictoMesozoic, andwere formed during twomainmetallogenic epochs in the Proterozoic and Paleozoic. More than70% of the SVIO deposits formed in the Paleozoic, with three important SVIO-metallogenic provinces recognized,in the Altay, Eastern andWestern Tianshan orogens. These SVIO deposits are hosted in lithofacies that are relatedto submarinemagmatism, such as lavas and associated pyroclastic and volcaniclastic-sedimentary rocks. The ironorebodies are hosted in different volcanic lithofacies with different features. Moreover, the different volcaniclithofacies in which the Fe ores are hosted also provide information as to their spatial relationship, rangingfromdistal to proximal to the eruption center or vent.Many of these deposits are characterized bywell developedskarns, and could be interpreted either by a distal position of the ore system in question and/or exposed igneousrocks or active magma chamber, or a relationship to early metamorphism and continuous alteration at relativelyhigh temperature followed by retrograde alteration as temperatures decline. Geological and geochemicalevidence suggests that these deposits were formed as a result of submarine magmatic activity, includingsubaqueous volcanic eruptions, associated volcano-sedimentary lithofacies, and related post-magmatichydrothermal activity. Iron oxide ore probably formed the hydrothermal fluids which generated the skarnscould be a mixture of evolved magma-derived water and convecting sea water driven by the heat from theshallow active magma chamber, whereas volcano-sedimentary deposits could be formed by the fallout of theore-bearing materials to the sea floor emanating from submarine eruption columns, or fractional precipitationof iron which had been introduced locally into the bottom water by volcanic-origin hydrothermal solutionsand by leaching from the relatively iron-rich volcanic rocks. The formation of these various styles of Fe oredeposits is controlled by several key factors, such asmagma differentiation, lithofacies of host rocks, temperatureand chemical compositions of hydrothermal fluids, as well as the depth of sea water. In combination with theirgeological characteristics, geodynamic mechanisms and metallogenesis, we propose a genetic model in whichthe origin of these deposits can be related to the space–time evolution of the submarine volcanism, and their re-lationship to volcanic lithofacies variation, such as central, proximal and distal environments of ore formation.

© 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Three-quarters of the modern Earth's volcanic activity is submarine,located predominantly along the mid-ocean ridges, with the remainderalong intra-oceanic volcanic arcs and hotspots, at sea floor depths varying

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from greater than 4000 m to near the sea level (e.g., Carey andSigurdsson, 2007; Embley et al., 2007). Submarine volcanic eruption isdifficult to observe directly, and their products are difficult to recoverand study. Hence, evidence of submarine volcanism comes fromsightings of explosive sea level manifestations (Kokelaar and Busby,1992).

It is widely recognized that these volcanoes play a role in transfer-ring mass and energy from the oceanic crust and mantle to the oceans,

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499T. Hou et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 57 (2014) 498–517

which is a favorable environment to form metal-rich deposits(e.g. Tivey, 2007) as demonstrated by the abundant Fe and base metaldeposits present on land formed during geologic history, such asAlgoma-type BIF and VMS deposits (de Ronde et al., 2005; Mücke et al.,1996). The metallogenesis of these deposits, and the distribution andcomposition of submarine volcanic systems that create them had beenrelatively well studied. In contrast, many, and probably most, ironoxide deposits associated with submarine eruptions, especially thosegenerated in the Phanerozoic have not been investigated in detail yet.

In China, the discovery of many iron oxide deposits associated withsubmarine volcanic rocks is considered as one of the last century'smost exciting facets of geological research on iron oxide ore deposits(e.g. Jiang and Wang, 2005). Submarine volcanogenic iron oxide(SVIO) ore systems mainly include volcanic-associated and (volcanosedimentary)-hosted. The iron oxide ores typically occur as lenses,layers and veins that may form at or near the seafloor in submarinevolcanic environments. They have been regarded to be formed byiron-enriched melts/fluids associated with seafloor volcanic eruptions,linked to submarine hydrothermal systems (Kelley et al., 2002;Hannington et al., 2005; see Pirajno, 2009 for an overview). SVIOdeposits in China are possibly related to a wide range of geodynamicsettings and depositional environments, such as island-arcs, rifts andmid-ocean ridges and oceanic islands. It is noteworthy that most ofthe SVIO of China are composed predominantly of high-grade ironoxide ores, thereby contributing a considerable amount of iron for thelocal industry (Jiang and Wang, 2005; see also Hu et al., 2011).

However, although these SVIO deposits have attracted a substantialnumber of petrologic and geochemical studies (e.g., Jiang and Wang,2005), theirmetallogenesis and the genetic relationshipwith associatedsubmarine volcanism are still poorly understood, with various geneticmodels proposed, including sea floor volcanic systems, skarn andexhalative-sedimentary (e.g., Feng et al., 2009; Hua, 1985; Shan et al.,2009; Zhang et al., 1987).

Fig. 1. Distribution of Chinese submarinBase map modified from Zhao et al. (20

The previous studies of SVIO deposits of China have shown somesimilarities as well as differences from their subaerial counterparts(e.g. Jiang, 1983; Wang and Chen, 2001). For example, ores formed byeruption of iron oxidemelt can be compared with the Kiruna style min-eralization, such as the El Laco deposit in Chile (Henríquez et al., 2003).On the other hand, leaching of ore-bearing pyroclastics by deep seawater as one of themajor sources of iron for the SVIO deposits is seldomseen in terrestrial environments. In this paper we present an overviewof the geological characteristics, and geodynamic mechanisms of theChinese SVIO deposits, comparing them with the actively forming irondeposits along modern subduction zones, mid-ocean ridges, and back-arc basin in order to refine our understanding of the metallogenesis ofSVIO deposits. Furthermore we also provide a comprehensive overviewbased on published works on submarine volcanic processes and the re-lated iron oxide deposits. At the end of the paper, we propose a geneticmodel which links the origin of these deposits to the space–time evolu-tion of the submarine volcanoes, and integrated them on the basis ofprincipal volcanic lithofacies variation according to their closeness tovent, i.e. central, proximal and distal facies.

It isworthwhile to point out that, in spite of the ancient Algoma-typeBIFs being closely related to submarine volcanism (Mücke et al., 1996),in most cases they have been subjected to varying degrees of alteration,deformation, and metamorphism resulting in the destruction of theoriginal textures and structures. The origin of the Algoma BIF depositsis therefore beyond the scope of this paper and will not be addressed.

2. Distribution of SVIO deposits and geological setting

The tectonic framework of China is dominated by three major Pre-cambrian Cratons, the North China, South China (Yangtze + Cathysia)and Tarim Cratons (Fig. 1), surrounded by fold belts and accretionaryorogens including accreted island arcs, back-arcs and oceanic litho-sphere (Zhai and Santosh, 2011, 2013).

e volcanogenic iron oxide deposits.04).

500 T. Hou et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 57 (2014) 498–517

Submarine volcanogenic iron oxide (SVIO) deposits, one of themostimportant iron deposit types in China, have been recognized to bewidely distributed in volcanic provinces, mostly located in westernChina. These deposits cover a considerable age range, from Proterozoicto Mesozoic, but with more than 70% of SVIO deposits formed inthe Paleozoic, especially in Late Paleozoic. Several important SVIO-metallogenic provinces have been recognized in the Western Tianshan,Eastern Tianshan, Altay, Kaladawan area at eastern part of the AltynTagh Mountain and western margin of Yangtze Block (Fig. 1). The geo-logical settings of themain SVIO-metallogenic provinces are summarizedin the sections that follow.

2.1. Western Tianshan

The ChineseWestern TianshanMountain is located along the south-western margin of the Central Asia Orogenic Belt (CAOB), andrepresents a Neo-Proterozoic–Paleozoic orogenic belt extending fromthe Siberian Craton in the north to the Tarim Craton in the south(Kröner et al., 2007; Rojas-Agramonte et al., 2011; Windley et al.,2007; Wong et al., 2010; Xiao et al., 2004, 2013). The Chinese WesternTianshan Mountain is a Late Paleozoic accretionary orogenic belt(Fig. 2; Allen et al., 1992; Gao et al., 1998, 2009) where the passivemargin of the northern Tarim plate finally amalgamated with theactive margin along the southern Siberia plate. The Late Paleozoictectonic evolution of the Chinese Western Tianshan Mountain can bebroadly subdivided into two stages (Chen et al., 1999; Gao and Klemd,2003; Gao et al., 1998): 1) dominant subduction, expressed by thesouthward subduction of the North Tianshan Ocean (e.g. Wang et al.,2008) or northward subduction of the South Tianshan Ocean (Gaoet al., 1998; Long et al., 2008) beneath the Yili block, and north-directed A-type subduction of the Tarim Plate, followed by exhumation;

Fig. 2. Geological map of the Tianshan Orogen showing the Awulale Metallogenetic BModified after Zhang et al. (2012).

2) dominantly a transition from subduction to post-collisional exten-sion at ca. 320 Ma (Gao et al., 2009; Sun et al., 2008).

The exposed strata include Proterozoic, Silurian, Devonian, Carbonif-erous, Permian, Triassic, Jurassic and Quaternary (e.g. Sun et al., 2008).Among these, the Carboniferous and Silurian rocks are most widelydistributed. Magmatism, both intrusive and extrusive took placethroughout the Early Paleozoic and Late Paleozoic. Early Carboniferous(Mississippian) and Early Permian volcanic rocks are also welldeveloped. Most of the igneous rocks are intermediate–felsic, or inter-mediate–mafic. High grade SVIO deposits, most of which were discov-ered in the Awulale Metallogenic Belt, are spatially and temporallyassociated with the submarine volcanic rocks of MississippianDahalajunshan Formation. The tectonic setting for these volcanic rocksis still controversial with two contrasting models currently proposedfor the Dahalajunshan Formation, 1) extensional setting (e.g., Cheet al., 1996; Xia et al., 2004) and 2) Late Paleozoic continental arc settingrelated to the southward movement of the North Tianshan Ocean(Wang et al., 2008) or northward subduction of South Tianshan Ocean(Gao et al., 1998; Long et al., 2008) beneath the Yili block, respectively.Based on recently published age data, more researchers favor thesecond model, which relates the formation of the volcanic host rocksof the submarine iron ore deposits in the Western Tianshan to a LatePaleozoic subduction process (Zhang et al., 2012). More detaileddescriptions of the iron deposits associated with submarine volcanicrocks in the Chinese Western Tianshan Mountain can be found insome papers in this volume.

2.2. Eastern Tianshan

The SVIO in the Eastern Tianshan forms a belt, located between theJunggar block and Tarim block (Fig. 3). The Paleozoic tectonic evolutionhistory of the Eastern Tianshan remains controversial. Some researchers

elt, and showing the locality of the several submarine volcanic iron ore deposit.

image of Fig.�2

Fig. 3. The tectonic framework and distribution of iron ore deposits in the Eastern Tianshan Mountains.Modified from Wang et al. (2006a,b).


have suggested that the Eastern Tianshan results from the southwardsubduction of the Junggar Ocean along the Bogda–Haerlike zone (Qin,2000; Zhang et al., 2004), while others have proposed a northwardsubduction of the south Tianshan ocean instead (Wang et al., 2006a,b).

The Eastern Tianshan area is bound to the north by the Turpan–Hami(usually abbreviated to Tuha) basin,which is a part of the Junggar block,and to the south by the Aqikekuduke fault, which separates this north-ern belt of the Tianshan from the Central Tianshan.

Geological mapping and geochemical surveys, have identified threemain tectonic domains, in the Eastern Tianshan: 1)Dananhu–Tousuquanarc in the north (north belt), 2) Jueluotage ductile shear zone in themiddle, including the Kushui–Gandun back-arc basin border facies(middle belt) and 3) Yamansu back-arc basin (south belt), and CentralTianshan Microblock in the south (Fig. 3; Qin et al., 2002, 2003). TheJueluotage belt can be further subdivided, from north to south, intoWutongwozi–Xiaorequanzi intra-arc basin, Dananhu–Tousuquan islandarc, Kangguer–Huangshan ductile shear zone and Yamansu (Kumutag–Shaquanzi) back-arc basin (Qin et al., 2002). The Bogda–Haerlike belt ismade up of well developed Ordovician–Carboniferous volcanic rocksintruded by Late Paleozoic granites and mafic–ultramafic complexes(Gu et al., 2001; Li et al., 2006; Ma et al., 2013). The typical high gradeiron ore deposits associated with submarine volcanic rocks, such asYamansu, Kumutag, Bailingshan and Hongyuntan deposits are found inthe Yamansu back-arc basin (Fig. 3).

The Yamansu back-arc basin lies between the Aqishan–Yamansufault (or Kushui fault), which marks the southern boundary of theKanggurtag shear zone, and the Aqikekuduke fault. The exposed rockscomprise a 5 km thick succession of Lower Carboniferous Yamansu For-mation bimodal volcanic rocks, Middle Carboniferous flysch of theShaquanzi Formation, and Upper Carboniferous clastic rocks, andesitictuff, and intercalated carbonate rocks of the Tugutublak Formation.The Carboniferous rocks are overlain by the Permianmarine and terres-trial clastic rocks which are intercalated with bimodal volcanic rocks

and carbonate rocks. Carboniferous–Permian magmatism was exten-sive and resulted in the emplacement of high-Na, relatively oxidized,calc-alkaline to alkali magmas (Qin et al., 2002, 2003).

2.3. Altay

The ~500 km-long Altay orogenic belt in NW China (Xinjiang UygurAutonomous Region) is separated to the southwest from the Junggarterranes by the Erqis (also known as Ertix, Irtysh) strike-slip fault(Fig. 4; Yu et al., 1993; Qin and Dong, 1994). The geodynamic evolutionof the Altay orogeny remains controversial. Felsic magmatism andtranslithospheric strike-slip movements suggest that the collision ofthe Siberian Plate and Kazakhstan Block (Junggar Terrane) occurredbetween the Early and Late Carboniferous, resulting in the accretion ofisland arcs and other terranes, which constitute the Altay orogenicbelt (Li and Poliyangsiji, 2001; Li and Zhao, 2002; Xu et al., 2003; Yanget al., 2007). Paleontological and paleomagnetic studies argue for anEarly Permian collision (Cocks and Torsvik, 2007). Xiao et al. (2008)proposed that the formation of the complex orogenic collage betweenthe Siberian Plate and Kazakhstan Block occurred between Late Permianand Triassic times. Nevertheless, more recent studies suggest LateSilurian to Early Devonian magmatism at the southern margin of theChinese part of the CAOB occurred in an active continental marginsetting (c.f. Chai et al., 2009).

The Early Paleozoic–Late Paleozoic Altay orogeny in NW China isfurther subdivided into the North Altay, Central Altay and South Altay(Xiao et al., 1992; Yang et al., 2007; Ye et al., 1997). The South Altay ischaracterized by Middle-Ordovician low-grade metamorphosed rocks(Habahe Group), Late Silurian to Early Devonian Kangbutiebao Forma-tion containing submarine volcanic and sedimentary rocks of lowgrade metamorphism, and the Middle Devonian Altay Formation,consisting of sedimentary rocks intercalated with low-grade meta-volcanic rocks. In addition, Ordovician volcanic rocks and sedimentary

image of Fig.�3

Fig. 4. Regional geological map of the Altay orogeny in NW China (Xinjiang) and distribution of the iron, gold and base metal deposits ores.Modified from Xu et al. (2010).


clastic rocks, SilurianKulumuti Group crystalline schists andmigmatitesare also present but less commonly exposed in the area. VoluminousEarly and Late Paleozoic syn-orogenic and post-orogenic granitoids(Tong et al., 2005; Yuan et al., 2007) and Cambrian to Permian volcanicrocks are recognized in the Altay (Windley et al., 2002). The rocks of theKangbutiebao Formation are distributed in the Chonghu'er, Kelangand Maizi volcano-sedimentary basins, all have undergone regionalgreenschist to lower amphibolite facies metamorphism. The Fe ore de-posits in the Kangbutiebao Formation include theMengku and AbagongFe and Fe–P deposits, which consist of mafic to silicic volcanic rocks andmetasedimentary rocks. Specifically, the Mengku deposit is hosted inthe lower part of Kangbutiebao Formation, whereas the Abagongdeposit is hosted in the upper part.

2.4. Kaladawan area

The Kaladawan area in the eastern part of the Altyn Tagh Mountain,which is situated between the Tarim Basin and the Qaidam Basin innorthwestern China (Fig. 5; Guo et al., 1999), is located between theNE-trending Altyn Tagh strike-slip fault and the E–W-trendingNorthern Altyn Tagh fault. The tectonic evolution of Altyn Tagh Moun-tain is still debated (Sobel and Arnaud, 1999; Yin et al., 1999). TheAltyn Tagh has an Archean–Paleoproterozoic basement (Cui et al.,1999), overlain by Middle Proterozoic rocks, later affected byNeoproterozoic–Early Paleozoic within plate extension (Guo et al.,1999), followed by Early Paleozoic subduction (Sobel and Arnaud,1999; Xu et al., 1999), Late Paleozoic rift extension, orogeny and related.Triassic extension with emplacement of alkali intrusions (Yin et al.,1999), as well as sinistral strike-slip movement occurred due to thefar-field effect of the Indian–Eurasian collision during the Cretaceous

in Altyn Tagh fault belt, which exerted a regional compressive regimein the Kaladawan area (Chen et al., 2002; Cui et al., 2002; Guo et al.,1999).

In the Kaladawan area, the basement consists of Archaean high-grade metamorphic rocks such as the Dagelagebulake Formation,including granulite, gneisses, amphibolites and migmatites. Cambrianmeta-volcanic rocks constitute the major exposure in the area, and areoverlain by Upper Carboniferous clastic and carbonate sequences. Addi-tionally, the Upper Oligocene Ganchaigou Formation, Middle OligoceneYoushashan Formation and Quaternary sediments (Fig. 5) occur in thesouthern part. The Cambrian rocks comprise the Zhuabulake Formationand the overlying Simierbulake Formation The former covers most ofthe area, consisting of dark mudstone, carbonaceous phyllite, siltstone,light gray slate, mica schist, quartz schist, and marble, meta-daciticrocks, felsic tuff and basalt. The basalt is the major host rock of ironmineralization, is interbedded with sedimentary rocks, and exhibitsaphanitic texture and pillow structures. In the middle-northern part ofthe area, the major rock types are sericite-schist, sericite–quartz-schist,phyllite, slate and intermediate–felsic volcanic rocks interbedded withmarble and quartzite units. The Upper Carboniferous YingebulakeFormation is made up of sandstone, siltstone, limestone and shale, andis locally exposed. Siltstone, mudstone and conglomerate constitutethe Oligocene succession, which occurs only in the southeastern partof the area. The Cambrian and Carboniferous sequences are intrudedby gabbro, diorite, granodiorite and granitic porphyry (Chen et al.,2009). In recent years, a number of SVIO deposits and occurrenceshave been identified in this area thanks to high-resolution aeromagneticsurveys (Chen et al., 2009). These deposits are exclusively found in theEarly Paleozoic volcanic rocks, and it has been suggested that the volca-nic rocks formed in an Early Paleozoic arc setting (Cui et al., 2010).

image of Fig.�4

Fig. 5. Geological map and distribution of iron deposits in the Kaladawan area, eastern part of the Altyn Tagh Mountain.(Modified from Chen et al. (2009).


2.5. Southwest margin of Yangtze Block

South China comprises the Yangtze Block to the northwest andthe Cathaysia Block to the southeast, which were amalgamated alonga Neoproterozoic collisional belt (Fig. 6; Chen et al., 1991; Li andMcCulloch, 1996; Zhang and Zheng, 2013). To the north, the YangtzeBlock is separated from the North China Block by the Qinling–Dabie oro-genic belt, which was formed by the closure of the easternmost part ofPaleotethys in the Triassic (Mattauer et al., 1985; Wu and Zheng,2013). To the west, it is bound by the Tibetan Plateau. In the westernpart of the Yangtze Block, Mesoproterozoic granitic gneisses andmetasedimentary rocks are intruded by Neoproterozoic (~800 Ma)arc-related granites (Zhou et al., 2002b) and overlain by a series ofNeoproterozoic (~600 Ma) to Permian marine and terrestrial rocks.During the Cenozoic, the western part of the Yangtze Block wassubjected to strike-slip faulting and thrusting, while the eastern partwas dominated by block faulting and shallow-level shearing, e.g. Ceno-zoic Ailaoshan–Red River Shear Zone (Burchfiel et al., 2008).

The Neoproterozoic tectonic evolution of South China has long beena matter of debate. Some workers suggested that the Neoproterozoic(ca. 825 Ma) magmatism in South China was produced by a mantleplume that heralded the pre-breakup of Rodinia (Li et al., 1995, 1999).On the other hand, Zhou et al. (2002a,b) argued that theNeoproterozoicigneous assemblages along the western margin of the Yangtze Blockrepresent part of a magmatic arc, suggesting the presence of a majorsubduction zone during the Neoproterozoic. The dominant mineral de-posits associated with Proterozoic rocks in the southwestern margin ofYangtze Block are precious and base metal (Fig. 6).

The Early–Middle Proterozoic Dahongshan Group comprises lime-stone, sandstone, basalt and pyroclastic rocks, in which the volcanicunits represent an Early–Middle Proterozoic volcanic activity along thewestern margin of Yangtze Block. The age of this volcanism isabout 1700 Ma (Rb–Sr isochron) and 1900 Ma (single zircon U–Pb)(Greentree and Li, 2008; Hu et al., 1991). The Dahongshan Group con-formably overlies the basement, with the Archean Dibadu Formationdominated by basaltic–andesitic volcanics with a limestone–sandstonesequence. Because of the small outcrops, and the metamorphicoverprinting, it is difficult to identify the original depositionalstructures. Several studies have demonstrated that Paleoproterozoicsubduction occurred in the western margin of Yangtze Block, and thebasaltic–andesite volcanics were formed during paleo-Qinghai–Tibetoceanic plate subduction under the Yangtze plate (e.g. Zhang et al.,2001).

3. Geology of Chinese SVIO deposits

Eruptions on the seafloor and submarine magmatism constitute byfar the largest proportion of the Earth's volcanism. Submarine volcaniceruptions occur at divergent plate boundaries (e.g. Buck et al., 1998;Head et al., 1996; Macdonald, 1998; Perfit and Chadwick, 1998) and in-traplate regions, commonly building seamounts (e.g. Keating et al.,1987; Schmidt and Schmincke, 2000;Wessell and Lyons, 1997). Similarto their subaerial counterparts, central-type submarine volcanism canproduce not only multiple facies, such as lavas, pyroclastic rocks,volcano-sedimentary (volcaniclastics) rocks, but also show similar spa-tial distribution of the volcanic products around an eruptive centre.

image of Fig.�5

Fig. 6. Geological map showing the Precambrian rocks and distribution of iron ore andcopper deposits in the southwestern margin of Yangtze Craton.Modified from Qian and Shen (1990).


SVIO deposits have been identified to be associatedwith different facies,and as such they tend to have complex geological characteristics. There-fore, detailed investigations of the SVIO deposits of China are critical to

unravel the complexities of both individual and regional-scalemetallogenic processes. In this paper, we classify the SVIO deposits inChina into groups according to the types of host rocks, namely: lavas,pyroclastic rocks, volcano-sedimentary rocks, and ore systems of uncer-tain or polygenetic origin. Typical examples are briefly described in thefollowing sections.

3.1. Submarine lava-hosted type

Geologic relationships suggest that this type of SVIO deposits con-tributes most reserve of SVIO ores, and usually occurs as intercalatedlayers or lenseswithin submarine volcanic rocks,with orwithout signif-icant occurrence of skarn minerals. Particularly, the submarinelava-hosted iron ores have been identified at Dahongshan in Yunnan,which probably because of the role played by volcano-sedimentaryprocesses in the metallogenesis at Dahongshan, we will discuss it sepa-rately in the section on uncertain or polygenetic SVIO deposits. Othertypical lava hosted type SVIO deposits include Yamansu in EasternTianshan, as well as the several iron deposits in Kaladawan area andChagangnuoer and Zhibo in the Western Tainshan. Below, we summa-rize the salient features of the Yamansu deposit.

3.1.1. YamansuThe Yamansu Fe–Cu deposit in Eastern Tianshan contains a reserve

of 32 Mt with an average grade of 51 wt.% Fe, and 20,000 t with amean of 0.06 wt.% Cu (Mao et al., 2005). The Yamansu iron depositoccurs about 80 km south of Hami City. Regionally, the exposed strataconsist of Lower Carboniferous Yamansu Formation, Upper Carbonifer-ous Shaquanzi Formation, and Lower Permian Aqikebulake Formation.Around the Yamansu open pit, the Yamansu Formation comprises inter-mediate–basic lava and pyroclastic rocks, limestone and minor felsicrocks (Fig. 8). The Shaquanzi Formation mainly comprises flysch, andis overlain by the Lower Permian marine and terrestrial clastic rocks,which are intercalated with bimodal volcanic rocks and carbonaterocks. A number of faults have been recognized surrounding the depos-it, and they include five NNE to ENE-trending faults (Fig. 8a). The lavaflows are predominantly basaltic with minor andesite in the Yamansudeposit. The basaltic and andesitic lavas display a gradational contact,and the two rock types cannot be easily distinguished in hand specimen.These flows are generally several meters thick, rarely up to 100 m. Thelava flows are interbedded within pyroclastic rocks. No intrusions havebeen identified at the Yamansu deposit, except for the subvolcanicpyroxene-diorite porphyry exposed about 500 m southwest of theorebodies (Fig. 8a). However, a gravity survey suggests that some bur-ied intrusive rocks might be present at depth (Mao et al., 2005). Severalancient volcanic edifices were recognized adjacent to the deposit on thebasis of remote sensing and facies analysis of the volcano-sedimentaryrocks. The Yamansu volcanic lavas are considered to be located withinor adjacent to the volcanic center (Bureau of Geology and MineralResources of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, BGMRXUAR, 2010).

Eighteen orebodies have been recognized in the deposit and occur asEW-trending stratiform, banded podiform to lenticular bodies (Fig. 8).Nos. 1, 2, 4, 7 and 8 orebodies are the largest, and Nos. 1 and 2 orebodiesare the most economic. No. 1 orebody is N940 m long, and dips south-wards with the dip angle of 43° at surface (980 m above sea level) to72° at 420 m above sea level. The average width of the No. 1 orebodyis 8.6 m. The No. 2 orebody strikes ~1300 m discontinuously, dipssouthwards at 59° and is 7–17 m wide. Country rocks to orebodiesare mainly mafic lavas and pyroclastic rocks intercalated with lime-stone of Yamansu Formation (Fig. 8b). The orebodies are mostlyconformable with their country rocks (Fig. 8b). Based on mineral as-semblages, three types of ores have been identified: garnet–magnetite,garnet–magnetite–pyrite and magnetite–pyrite (Bureau of Geology andMineral Resources of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, BGMRXUAR,2010). Field evidence and petrographic observation indicate fourstages of mineralization: (1) prograde stage: garnet + albite + apatite,

image of Fig.�6

Fig. 7. SiO2–TFeO/MgO diagrams showing the magmatic differentiation of iron ore hosting rocks.Data source: Chagangnuoer (Wang and Jiang, 2011), Altay (Mengku + Abagong; Zhang et al., 1987), Kaladawan (Cui et al., 2010),Dahongshan (Qian and Shen, 1990).


(2) retrograde stage: magnetite + epidote + chlorite + quartz +amphibole + apatite, (3) sulfide stage: pyrite + chalcopyrite +pyrrhotite + chlorite + quartz + calcite +galena + sphalerite, and(4) supergene stage: hematite + malachite + siderite + quartz +calcite (Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of Xinjiang UygurAutonomous Region, BGMRXUAR, 2010). Magnetite is the predominantoremineral which occurs togetherwithminor hematite, pyrite and chal-copyrite. The gangue minerals consist of garnet, hornblende, biotite,chlorite, epidote, quartz, calcite and other calc-silicate minerals (Maoet al., 2005). Ore textures include massive, banded, disseminated andirregular. The sulfide stage is dominated by pyrite, chalcopyrite andpyrrhotite. Pyrite occurs as cubes in massive veins (~5 mm) or as isolat-ed grains with amphibole and plagioclase, which often display cavitiesand embayed margins. Calcite and minor quartz are the main gangueminerals in this stage. They usually cut the earlier formed minerals likegarnet and amphibole as veins or stockworks. Hematite, siderite andmalachite are restricted to the supergene stage.

Skarn is ubiquitous and intensively developed in the Yamansudeposit, with a strike length of ~1000 m, a depth in excess of 600 mand an average width of 120 m as demarcated from surface mappingand diamond drilling (Fig. 8b). The skarn shows a distinct boundarywith the country rocks. The dominant skarn minerals are garnet withsubordinate amphibole, epidote, chlorite, pyroxene, albite, as well asmagnetite, pyrite, chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite. The prograde stage ischaracterized by formation of a large amount of garnet. In contrast,pyroxene is very limited (~5%) and typically occurs as random pods

(Ding, 1990). The retrograde stage is characterized byhydrous alteration,and dominated by epidote, and minor amphibole and chlorite, whichreplace the prograde minerals to variable degrees. The epidote is closelyassociated with the magnetite (Bureau of Geology and MineralResources of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, BGMRXUAR, 2010).The amphibole veins commonly cut across garnets, indicating thatamphibole formed later than garnet. During the late retrograde stage, alarge quantity of magnetite, and epidote, amphibole, chlorite and garnetformed. Epidote is the most common mineral in the strongly retrogradealtered rocks. Field relations and petrographic studies on the mineralparagenesis reveal that the skarn at Yamansu is similar to otherconventional iron-bearing skarn deposits (Einaudi, 1981).

Whole rock K–Ar ages have a range of between 360 and 190 Ma,whereas a Rb–Sr isochron age of 286 Ma was obtained from mineral-ized quartz veins from a similar skarn deposit (Bailingshan), also inthe Aqishan–Yamansu rift belt (Mao et al., 2005). Recently, Hou et al.(2013) conducted laser ablation inductively coupled plasma massspectrometry (LAICP-MS) U–Pb zircon dating of the basalts and skarnsyield almost coeval ages of 324.4 ± 0.94 and 323.47 ± 0.95 Ma,respectively.

3.2. Volcano-sedimentary rocks hosted

The iron oxide mineralization of this type shows a strata-boundcharacteristic, locally occurring in specific beds. The ores displaydominantly fine grained texture and banded and laminar structures,

image of Fig.�7

Fig. 8. Geological map (a) and cross section (b) of Yamansu Fe–Cu deposit.Modified from Mao et al. (2005).


which are features common for sedimentary deposits. Based on theirproximity to the source (vent area), these deposits can be classifiedinto two sub-types. In the first type, the mineralization is located nearthe eruptive centers of submarine volcanics and is defined by volcanicdomes or coarse-grained pyroclastic breccias, tuff and lava. Quartz,sericite, and chlorite alteration is common adjacent to or beneath thedeposits, indicating a possible paragenetic relationship with iron oxide(Lowman and Bloxam, 1981). This type had been described in the lastsection. The second category of orebodies is distributed in the peripher-al zone of the volcanic center, and exhibits layered or stratiform shape.They are exclusively hosted by pyroclastic rocks (e.g. tuffaceous rocks)or sedimentary rocks, such as sandstone, dolomite and limestone, andchert. The Abagong deposit in Altay and Songhu deposit in WesternTianshan are typical examples for this type.

3.2.1. Abagong ironThe Abagong high grade iron deposit (44.18 wt.%–67.21 wt.%), with

accompanying P2O5 (3.8 wt.%–10.8 wt.%) mineralization, is located inLate Silurian–Early Devonian felsic volcanics along the southernmarginof Altay, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. Themineralization occursas structurally-controlled lenses, veins and stratiform bodies (Li andChen, 2004; Fig. 9). The iron ores are predominantly hosted in theKangbutiebao Formation which, as mentioned previously, comprisesvolcanic and pyroclastic rocks intercalated with sedimentary rocks,metamorphosed to greenschist and up to amphibolite facies afteremplacement. The mafic volcanic rocks of Kangbutiebao Formationhave a tholeiitic composition (Fig. 7b), but the main host rocks aremetarhyolites, typically with a polygonal granoblastic texture (felsitic,high-temperature static recrystallisation), but locally overprinted by

image of Fig.�8

Fig. 9. Geological map (a) and cross-section (b) of Abagong iron (apatite) deposit in Altay, Xinjiang.After Yang et al. (2011).


regional planar fabrics, probably associated with multistage strike-slipmovements of the Abagong Fault (c.f. Pirajno et al., 2011).

The length of orebodies ranges from 200 to 1800 m, with thicknessin the range of 1.4–16.5 m (Pirajno et al., 2011). Magnetite dominatesthe proportion of ore minerals, coexisting with considerable amountsof apatite, fluorite and lesser pyrite. Wall rock alteration minerals in-clude tremolite, actinolite, chlorite, albite, kaolinite, quartz, phlogopite,epidote and calcite. All of these minerals are also present in the Fe–Pores of the Kiruna district, where they were considered part of a skarnassociation (e.g. Nyström and Henríquez, 1994). However, at Abagongno skarn was noted. The nature of the Abagongmineralisation is poorlyknown, with only conference abstracts, specifically addressing this de-posit (e. g. Liu et al., 2009a,b) or simply reporting the associated

lithologies (e.g., Li and Chen, 2004; Chai et al., 2009; see Pirajno et al.,2011 for an overview on Abagong Fe–P deposit). From these authors itcan be surmised that the Abagong mineralisation occurs primarily asstructurally-controlled lenses and veins. Liu et al. (2009a), on the basisof REE composition (LREE-enriched, marked negative Eu anomalies) ofthe apatites as well as the magnetite–apatite ore association, classifiedAbagong as a Kiruna-style mineral system. The host rocks of theKangbutiebao Formation have been studied in some detail by Chaiet al. (2009), who performed SHRIMP U–Pb analyses of zircons fromthe metarhyolites, yielding ages ranging from 412.6 ± 3.5 Ma to406.7 ± 4.3 Ma. One important conclusion reached by Chai et al.(2009) is that the magnetite–apatite ores postdate the rocks of theKangbutiebao Formation, which they suggested may have formed in a

image of Fig.�9


subduction-related setting. The Early Devonian silicic magmatism, nowrepresented bymetarhyolites, would have been formed by partial melt-ing of continental crust,whereasmafic rocks resulted fromaheat sourcerelated to mafic underplating, which then caused partial melting of theoverlying continental crust. However, till now, no explanation was of-fered for the magnetite–apatite ores, except that these resembleKiruna-style mineral systems. We admit that the Kiruna-type label isprobably correct, but it must be borne in mind that the origin ofKiruna-type Fe–P ores is controversial, although a magmatic origin isperhaps undisputed, but details have remained conjectural since theirfirst discovery in Sweden, some 300 years ago (Pirajno et al., 2011).Thus, the door to the Abagong Fe–P mineralization remains openand further work is needed to unravel its origin and ore systemclassification.

3.2.2. SonghuThe Songhu iron deposit is located at the eastern part of the Awulale

Metallogenic Belt. More specifically the deposit is within the Yili micro-block of Kazakhstan plate, and belongs to the Awulale–Yisjilick LatePaleozoic rift system. Rocks exposed in the mining area includeMiddle–Upper Devonian Kansu Formation, Carboniferous AwulaleFormation and Tuergong River Formation, Middle–Lower Jurassic

Fig. 10. Geological map and the insert maps are plane (a) and cross section (b) of No.1 oreboModified from Shan et al. (2009).

Kashi River Formation, and Quaternary sediments (Fig. 10). The KansuFormation consists predominantly of tuff, tuffaceous siltstone interca-lated with few limestone, and dacite. The Awulale Formation can be di-vided into three members. The first member comprises felsic volcanicand pyroclastic rocks, such as volcaniclastic and rhyolitic rocks; themember is composed of limestone, silty mudstone, and sodic rhyoliteand associated volcaniclastics. The lower part of the third member islimestone and the upper part consists of andesitic pyroclastic rocks.Iron oxide ores have been recognized in these rocks (Fig. 10) and exhibitsharp contacts with the wall rocks. The Tuergong River Formation islocally exposed, and consists of tuffaceous conglomerate, intermedi-ate–felsic tuff. The Kashi River Formation unconformably overliesthe Awulale Formation and consists mainly of conglomerate, sandyconglomerate and sandstone.

The structurally-controlled Songhu iron ore deposit, is hosted by thepyroclastic rocks intercalated with carbonate, and is located in thenorthern limb of the Gongnaisi syncline. The orebodies are layered orlensoid in shape, conformable with the host rocks. Ore types mainlyconsist of massive and disseminated. Mineral assemblages comprisemagnetite and hematite with subordinate amounts of pyrite and chal-copyrite, and gangue minerals are predominantly composed of tremo-lite, actinolite, epidotite, chlorite, garnet, quartz and calcite. Wall rock

dy in Songhu iron deposit in Awulale Metallogenic Belt in Western Tianshan Mountains.

image of Fig.�10


alteration minerals include epidote, chlorite, carbonate and lesser mag-netite and pyrite (Shan et al., 2009).

3.3. Uncertain or polygenetic iron ore systems

This type of iron ores shows more variable characteristics comparedto those discussed above. Particularly, apart from the submarine volca-nic activities, other processes including volcano-sedimentary, post-magmatic hydrothermal activity etc. probably played important rolesduring the iron mineralization. Notably, the large scale mineralizationin these complex deposits dominantly occurs in close proximity to sub-marine volcanic center or directly above the volcanic vent. The Mengkuiron ore deposit in Altay, Dahongshan iron–copper deposit in South-western margin, and Kaladawan iron ore district are probably typicalexamples for this type. At least two distinct submarine volcanic process-es were involved in the formation of iron ores. A brief description of thesalient features of some of these deposits is given in the followingsections.

3.3.1. MengkuThe Mengku Fe deposit had resources estimated at about 110 Mt of

ore with grades ranging from 24 to 57.6 wt.% (Wang et al., 2003), butmore recent data indicate a total resource of 200 Mt (Yang et al.,2010), with one orebody (No. 1) containing 35 Mt, grading 41 wt.% Fe(Xu et al., 2010). Wang et al. (2003), Yang et al. (2010) and Xu et al.(2010) reported on this deposit and reviewed in Pirajno et al. (2011).

TheMengkudeposit is on the northwestern limbof anticline ofUpperSilurian rocks of the Kulumuti Group and Lower Devonian rocks of theKangbutiebao Formation (Fig. 11). The Kulumuti Group is 6000 m thickand comprises metasandstone, phyllite, slate, biotite schist, two-micaschist, gneiss and migmatite; the Kangbutiebao Formation totals1300 m in thickness and comprises brown marble, banded inpure mar-ble (Lower Member), hornblende granulite, leptite, hornblende gneiss,amhibolite (Middle Member) and the main host of the Fe ore (UpperMember), which consists of hornblende–biotite–quartz schist, marble,hornblende–albite granulite and hornblende gneiss. Also in the hostsequence is a Na-rich metarhyolite (Xu et al., 2010). The upper units ofthe Kangbutiebao Formation consist of a 700 m-thick sequence ofmetasandstone, biotite–quartz schist, hornblende–garnet schist, marbleand felsic metavolcanic rocks. Granitic rocks of assumed Late Paleozoicage are exposed in the deposit area, comprising gneissic granite, alkali-feldspar granite, biotite granite, two-mica granite and quartz diorite.One of the local granites is the Mengku pluton, with U–Pb zircon agesof ca. 404 to 400 Ma (Yang et al., 2010).

The Mengku deposit comprises twenty nine orebodies, ranging inshape from podiform to lenticular to irregular and striking 120°–110°.The Fe ore is arranged in a synclinal structure within the northeasternlimb of the above-mentioned regional anticline (Fig. 11), where itforms at least 20 stratiform lenticular orebodies. The Fe mineralisationis characterized by banded, massive, disseminated, brecciated andveins styles, with seven recognized ore types that include: diopside–magnetite, garnet–magnetite, diopside–amphibole magnetite, quartz–albite–magnetite–hematite, apatite–magnetite and quartz–pyrite–magnetite. The main ore minerals are magnetite, pyrite, chalcopyriteand pyrrhotite. The wallrocks exhibit skarn assemblages, such as garnet,diopside, actinolite, tremolite, scapolite, epidote and chlorite. At leastfour stages of skarn have been recognized (Xu et al., 2010), namely:1) prograde stage with clinopyroxene–garnetealbite–scapolite–apatite;2) retrograde stage with magnetite–clinopyroxene–garnet–amphibole–scapolite–apatiteepidote–chlorite–quartz; 3) sulfide stage with pyrite–chalcopyrite–pyrrhotite–garnet–chlorite–quartz–calcite; and 4) super-gene stage with hematite–goethite–malachite–quartz–calcite. Thesefour paragenetic stages conform to other Fe skarn deposits (Pirajno,2009). The Mengku iron skarn, and probably other skarns in thesame metallogenic belt (Fig. 4), were formed in a continental marginsetting, during Early–Middle Palaeozoic subduction under the Altay

microcontinent (Yang et al., 2010). The intrusion of the Mengku granite(400 Ma), north of orebody No. 1 (404 Ma) and the Qiongkuer granite(399 Ma) in the Mengku area into the Kangbutiebao Formation (Yanget al., 2010), resulted in the development of skarns near and along thecontacts of the plutons, apophysis and dykes with the KangbutiebaoFormation volcanic rocks and limestone. Following the development ofthese skarns, iron oxides (mostly magnetite) precipitated from thehydrothermal fluids to form the Mengku skarn-type iron deposit.

3.3.2. Dahongshan iron–copper ore depositsThe Dahongshan deposit is located 300 km from the city of

Kunming, Yunnan Province, and is estimated to contain ca. 350 Mt ofores with an average Fe grade of 60 wt.% after beneficiation (Qian andShen, 1990). The Dahongshan Group hosts the mineralization and itconsists of the Paleoproterozoic metamorphic submarine volcanicrocks and sedimentary rocks (Fig. 12; Qian and Shen, 1990).

The Dahongshan Group consists of volcanic and sedimentary rocksthat were metamorphosed to between upper greenschist and loweramphibolite facies. Metamorphic grade and intensity of deformationvary regionally, but most outcrops show strong schistosity and somerocks are tightly folded. The Dahongshan Group metasedimentaryrocks include coarse to fine-grained siliciclastic rocks, carbonate andvolcaniclastic rocks. Siliciclastic rocks include quartzite, mica schistsand polymictic meta-conglomerates. Unimodal cross-bedding is clearlyvisible in quartzite, suggestingfluvial sediment transport froma presentday north-westerly direction. Volcaniclastic rocks such as volcanic brec-cia, conglomerate, tuff and volcanic sandstone are found within theManganghe and Hongshan Formations (Greentree and Li, 2008). Allcarbonate units were metamorphosed to marble, with compositionsvarying from pure dolomitic marble to those containing garnet oramphibole. The presence of hornblende and garnet suggests that theprotoliths contained some detrital materials. Petrogenic studies of themetavolcanic rocks have used both major element (e.g., Hu et al.,1991; Qian and Shen, 1990) and trace element (Xu, 1999) geochemis-try. Major element geochemistry (e.g., SiO2, K2O and Na2O) is knownto be an unreliable indicator of lithology and tectonic setting inareas with complex hydrothermal alteration and metamorphism(e.g., Pearce and Cann, 1971, 1973; Winchester and Floyd, 1977). Xu(1999) argued that the more immobile trace elements (e.g., HFSE andLREE) still preserve the original composition of the metavolcanic rocksin the Dahongshan Group. Using themore immobile trace element geo-chemistry, Xu (1999) suggested that the volcanic rocks had a tholeiiticcomposition, similar to modern mid-ocean ridge basalts (Fig. 7d).

The iron oxide and iron–copper orebodies occur in the vicinity of thevolcanic center, and host at least 43 individual iron oxide and copper(gold) mineral occurrences. Most high grade orebodies occur in theNa-rich metamorphic volcanic rocks and in the transitional belt fromvolcanic rocks to sedimentary rocks. Furthermore, petrochemical inves-tigations have shown that the iron–copper deposit is closely related toNa-rich volcanic rocks (Qian and Shen, 1990). Additionally, sideritedeposits have also been recognized in the metamorphic Na-rich volca-nic rocks. 40Ar/39Ar dating of rocks from these deposits suggests thatthe mineralization occurred during ca. 780–800 Ma, during a period ofplume-related magmatism on the South China Block (Greentree et al.,2006).

3.3.3. Kaladawan iron ore districtA number of iron ore deposits have been discovered in the Cambrian

Zhuabulake and Simierbulake Formations (Fig. 5), such as theBaijianshan, 88, and 7918 iron deposits (Fig. 13). These deposits definean ore belt which extends 12 km. Basalt is the major host rock of thesedeposits, interbedded with sedimentary rocks, and exhibits aphanitictexture and massive, layered, amygdaloidal and pillow structure.The volcanic rocks exhibit a tholeiitic differentiation trend in the SiO2–

TFeO/MgO diagram (Fig. 7c). All the deposits in this district share manysimilarities in their geological characteristics, such as their conformable

Fig. 11. Geological map (a) and cross section (b) of Mengku iron deposit in Altay, Xinjiang.Modified from Xu et al. (2010).


occurrence within basalt and marble, although some granitic intrusionsare also exposed in some deposits. Wall rock alteration assemblage pre-dominantly includes garnet + epidote. In the 7918 deposit for example,the iron ores occur as stratified or stratoid beds, and are in conformablecontact with the wall rocks including basalt and marble. The length ofthe main orebody (Fe at 41 wt.%) is ~580 m with an average thicknessof 12.5 m. The ore types include banded, massive and disseminated,and ore minerals mainly composed of magnetite.

4. Discussion

4.1. Origin of skarn in the Chinese SVIO deposits

As described in Section 3, skarn minerals, e.g. diopside and garnet,are extensively developed in some of the Chinese SVIO deposits, and

are very closely associated with iron oxide minerals. The commonfeature of these deposits is that the host rocks contain carbonate. Thisfeature has led to a debate on the genesis of some of these deposits,especially those with considerable amount of skarn minerals(e.g. Yang et al., 2010).

As has been recognized in earlier studies (e.g. Knopf, 1918), theformation of a skarn deposit is a dynamic process. In most large skarndeposits there is a transition from early/distal metamorphism resultingin hornfels, reaction skarn, and skarnoid, to later/proximal metasoma-tism resulting in relatively coarse-grained ore-bearing skarn. Due tothe strong temperature gradients and large fluid circulation cells causedby magma intrusion (Norton, 1982; Salemink and Schuiling, 1987), theformation of skarn can be considerably more complex than the simplemodel of isochemical recrystallization typically invoked for regionalmetamorphism. For example, early metamorphism and continued

image of Fig.�11

Fig. 12. Geological map of Dahongshan Fe–Cu deposit, Southwestern margin of Yangtze Craton. The numbers with circle indicate the numbers of the faults.Modified from Qian and Shen (1990).


metasomatism at relatively high temperature (Wallmach et al., 1989,describe temperatures N 1200 °C) are followed by retrograde alterationas temperatures decline. The shallowest (and youngest) known skarnsare presently forming in active geothermal systems (Cavarretta et al.,1982; McDowell and Elders, 1980) and hot spring vents on the seafloor(Zierenberg and Shanks, 1983). These skarns represent the distalexpression of magmatic activity, and locally, those skarns have somefeatures of igneous rocks, and have been interpreted to be of magmaticorigin in some Chinese literature (e.g., Wu et al., 1996). However, thelink between space and time is a common theme in these iron oredeposits and requires careful interpretation of features which mayappear to occur only in particular localities (e.g. Barton et al., 1991).

For example, the Yamansu iron deposit contains considerableamount of stratiform skarn. Some authors suggest that the skarnscould be genetically related to a buried intrusion (e.g. Mao et al.,2005), whereas others consider them to be related to coeval submarinevolcanism (Jiang, 1983). Recently, we conducted the laser ablation in-ductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LAICP-MS) U–Pb zircondating of the basalts and skarns and yielded almost coeval ages of324.4 ± 0.94 and 323.47 ± 0.95 Ma, respectively (Hou et al., 2013).This suggests that the hydrothermal fluids that generated the skarnscould be a mixture of evolved magma-derived fluids and convectingsea water driven by the heat from the shallow active magma chamber.

4.2. Metallogenesis of Chinese SVIO deposits

Like its subaerial counterpart such as the Kiruna style iron deposit,the origin of Chinese SVIO deposits is uncertain and remains controver-sial (e.g., Jiang, 1983; Jiang andWang, 2005). Except for those of skarn-related origin asmentioned above, the Chinese SVIO deposits have beeninterpreted variously including magmatic origin (liquid immiscibility)

(e.g. Zhang et al., 1987), exhalative-synsedimentary (Yuan, 2003), orepigenetic-hydrothermal associated with igneous intrusion (e.g., Yanget al., 2007) or active deep-seated magma chamber (Hou et al., 2013).

Some of the SVIO deposits are clearly of magmatic origin or formedinitially through magmatism, as evidenced from their geological andgeochemical features, such as high proportion of apatite in the magne-tite ores (e.g., Abagong in Altay). Although this deposit displayssignature of magmatic origin (Jiang, 1983), the mechanism bywhich the ore-bearing melt formed is still unclear (Pirajno, 2009).Moreover, the model involving ore-bearing extrusive activities is main-ly inferred from the studies of the SVIO deposits occurring near the vol-canic center, such as the Chagangnuoer and Zhibo iron deposits inWestern Tianshan (Wang and Jiang, 2011). Hence, a magmatic modelalone cannot entirely account for all the geological–geochemical signa-tures recognized in these deposits. Specifically, many of the ChineseSVIO deposits show signatures of hydrothermal activities, as reflectedby the low temperature mineral assemblage, mainly involving enrich-ment of iron in the existing iron ores, and significant presence of subma-rine tuff or tuffaceous rocks in the close proximity of the orebodies.Since it has been widely accepted that the hydrothermalminerals formed later than the magmatic ones (e.g. Hedenquist andLowenstern, 1994), we infer that the SVIO deposits which occur nearthe volcanic center probably formed initially as a result of multi-stageandmultiple processes, such as ore-bearingmagma eruption, sedimen-tation of volcanic pyroclastic rocks, and even exhalation–sedimentation.Most of the SVIO deposits discussed here occurring away from thevolcanic center show significant features of exhalation–sedimentationinstead of the involvement of ore-bearing magma eruption. For exam-ple, the presence of sulfide, chert and jasper in the ores belongs toSi–Fe–Mn formation which is commonly regarded as the evidence fora seafloor-exhalation–sedimentation origin (Slack et al., 2009).

image of Fig.�12

Fig. 13. Geological map (a) and cross section (b) of 7918 iron deposit in Kaladawan area, eastern part of the Altyn Tagh Mountain.Modified from Chen et al. (2009).


Thus, even though all the iron oxide deposits described in this paperare classified as SVIO deposits, they probably formed by different pro-cesses related to submarine volcanism and subsequent hydrothermalevents. Therefore, the origin of the SVIO deposits occurring near the vol-canic center or vent is dominated by magmatic-hydrothermal process,whereas for those away from the center, themainmechanismwas con-trolled by exhalation–sedimentation, probably aided by sea water. Inaddition, most of these SVIO deposits were subsequently overprintedby metamorphism, deformation, post-magmatic hydrothermal eventand supergenesis (Jiang and Wang, 2005). For example, the Mengkuiron deposit in the Altay was influenced by post-magmatic hydrother-mal event possibly caused by the emplacement of twomajor intrusionsof biotite granite and tonalite (Yang et al., 2010).

4.3. Relationship between nature of magmas and enrichment of iron

In general, the formation of ore-bearingmagma can be attributed tomagmatic differentiation, either following a Fenner trend of differentia-tion (Fenner, 1929) or immiscility of iron oxide melt (Veksler et al.,2006). As many authors have pointed out, the magma differentiationtrends (Bowen or Fenner trend) are controlled by the onset of magne-tite fractionation, which in turn is controlled by oxygen fugacity(Osborn, 1959). Increasing oxygen fugacity (fo2) can cause marked Si

enrichment and Fe depletion in residual liquids in response to the frac-tionation of magnetite in the early stage (Toplis and Carroll, 1995). Incontrast, low fo2 delays the onset of magnetite crystallization leadingto prolonged Fe-enrichment in magma, exhibiting a Fenner trend(Jang et al., 2001). Such a trend is evident in most of the SiO2–TFeO/MgO plots of these rocks, with tholeiitic affinity for the less evolvedmagmas (Fig. 7), and clinopyroxene + plagioclase fractionation iswidely recognized for the basic and intermediate volcanic rocks. Theseiron-rich magmas could lead to the generation of an iron oxide fraction(ore-bearingmagma) through liquid immiscibility (Veksler et al., 2006)or produce magnetite ores by fractional crystallization (Jang et al.,2001).

Although the ironmineralization is genetically related to themagmadifferentiation, specific mineralization patterns are seen in different de-posits. For example, in the Abagong deposit, the presence of consider-able amount of apatite in the massive iron ores is similar to the Kirunadeposit (Frietsch, 1978; Nyström and Henriquez, 1994) and the‘porphyry iron deposit’ in the Middle-Lower Yangtze Valley in easternChina (Hou et al., 2009). Hence, the iron ores in Abagong might haveformed as a result of liquid immiscibility which was probably triggeredby the enrichment of phosphorous in the extremely evolved magmasystem (Suk, 1998). However, due to the lack of isotope compositionof the apatite, it is not clear whether the enrichment of phosphorous

image of Fig.�13


is caused by crustal contamination (Hou et al., 2010) or the fractionationof anhydrous silicate phases increasing the phosphorous contents in theresidual magma (Green andWatson, 1982; Spengler and Garcia, 1988).

In addition to the evidences for the involvement of magmatic pro-cesses, these deposits also show robust signatures for a hydrothermalorigin, such as the extensive occurrence of low-temperature hydrother-mal minerals, e.g. albite and chlorite. This type of deposits is predomi-nantly spatially and temporally associated with intermediate to basicsubmarine volcanic rocks. Because basic and intermediate rocks containmuch higher Fe contents than felsic rocks, they could provide sufficientiron sources for the iron mineralization. Hence, we consider large hy-drothermal circulation systems, particularly in the vicinity of volcaniccenter where seawater infiltrates down through fractures and returnsat high temperatures, possibly driven by the active magma chamber,could form iron-rich fluids by leaching the relatively iron-rich volcanicrocks. For example, the extensive albite alteration in Dahongshandeposit probably resulted from sodium alteration and Fe loss of basaltsby leaching of hydrothermal fluids (seawater-dominant) (Qian andShen, 1990).

4.4. Significance of volcanic sedimentation

The major involvement of subaqueous sedimentation of iron-richmaterial during the mineralization could be one of the mostdistinguishing signatures from its terrestrial counterpart (Carey andSigurdsson, 2007). The submarine eruption of ore-bearing magma oriron-richmagma and hydrothermal vent gas/fluids give rise to eruptioncolumns that are a dispersion of gas and solid particles containingore-bearing brine, pumice, volcanic debris and pyroclastic. A commonassumption about submarine volcanic eruption is that the pressure ofthe overlyingwater column is sufficient to suppress juvenile gas exsolu-tion so thatmagmatic disruption and pyroclastic activities do not occur,except at sufficiently shallow depths (e.g. Batiza andWhite, 2000). Thisdepth is generally recognized to be about 200–1000 m and less,depending on magma composition and volatile content (c.f. Head andWilson, 2003) and is referred to as volatile fragmentation depth(Fisher and Schmincke, 1984). Most pyroclasts will begin to fall in theimmediate vicinity of the vent (within a few meters radius) due to thenegative buoyancy (Head and Wilson, 2003). Hence, SVIO depositsprobably form by the fallout of these ore-bearing or iron-rich materialsto the sea floor downcurrent from the umbrella region of submarineeruption columns (Cashmanand Fiske, 1991), or fractional precipitationof iron which had been introduced locally into the bottom water byhydrothermal solutions of volcanic origin, and by leaching from the rel-atively iron-rich volcanic rocks, such as deep-sea basaltic lavas (Bonattiand Joensuu, 1966).

However, if the ore-bearing magma is insufficiently differentiatedand lithologically monotonous with lower alkalis content, it is consid-ered to be unfavorable to form iron-rich magma, as evident by the ab-sence of large-scale and high-grade iron ore deposits near volcaniccenter (Jiang and Wang, 2005). Instead, in this case, high-grade ironore deposits are always recognized to be associated with pyroclastic-sediments away from the volcanic center, such as Songhu andShikebutai deposits. In fact, at the high temperature stage, regardlessof its composition, the magma contains many volatile components(Pearce and Peate, 1995). With effusive activity, lavas rich in volatilessuch as F, Cl and CO2, are discharged. Volcaniclastic formation dependson several factors, including magma composition, volatile concentra-tion, eruption depth and rate and magma–water interaction mecha-nisms (e.g. Carey, 2000; Fisher and Schmincke, 1984; Gamberi, 2001;Orton, 1996). The processes that might be responsible for this fragmen-tation aremagmatic explosivity, contact-surface steam explosivity, bulkinteraction steam explosivity, cooling-contraction granulation, or anycombination of these (c.f. Fouquet et al., 1998). Nevertheless, theseactivities lead to the breakdown of primary volcanic rocks.

It has been found that suspended matter is typically enriched in Fe(e.g. Ferguson and Lambert, 1972). It is believed that most of the Fe,SiO2 and Mn entering sea water in hydrothermal solutions precipitatesas colloidal SiO2 and hydrated Fe (Mn) oxides which are advected bybottom currents and deposited as crusts and sediments (Toth, 1980).Therefore, the deposition of Fe in ore concentrations could occur at con-siderable distances from the volcanic vent or center (Lisitzin, 1996).Since the concentration occurs in calm and depressed areas, it can beinferred that euxinic to oxidizing basin environments is favorable forthe formation of these deposits which are in association with clasticand pelagic sediment, tuff, volcanic rocks and a variety of clay minerals(de Ronde et al., 2005; Mottl, 1983; Yang and Scott, 1996). However,such mechanism is still inadequate to explain the formation of highgrade iron ores because the suspended matter generally containsother particles or minerals such as carbonates and silicates. Hence, thehigh grade iron ores require more efficient mechanism for the enrich-ment of iron content. For example, leaching of the pyroclastics and de-bris relatively enriched in iron by deep sea water or hydrothermalcirculation could be a major source of iron for these high grade ores(e.g. Brusnitsyn and Zhukov, 2012). This process also involved the alter-ation of pyroclastic rocks under the influence of hotwater and steamona large scale (Fontboté, 1990). The principal factors determining theextent are temperature and the sanity of leaching fluids (Dekov et al.,2010).

4.5. Volcanic facies and metallogenic model

As previously studied (e.g., Chai et al., 2009; Chen et al., 2011; Cuiet al., 2010; Greentree et al., 2006), the Chinese SVIO deposits mighthave formed along divergent plate boundaries and in intraplate areas,such as island arc, back-arc basin and rift etc. Under the submarine en-vironment in thedifferent tectonic settings, in addition to effusiveflows,submarine eruptions can produce pyroclastic deposits (e.g. composed of‘solid fragments ejected from volcanoes’; Cashman et al., 2000) andhyaloclastic deposits (e.g. consisting of ‘fragments of volcanic glassformed by non-explosive shattering’; Batiza and White, 2000). Duringeruptions, large volumes of lava, pyroclastic and hydroclastic sedimentare released far more rapidly than any process of production ofepiclastic particles (Houghton and Landis, 1989). The episodic natureof eruptions may profoundly disrupt flow and sedimentary environ-ments and processes resulting in rapid changes in the depositional sys-tems through time. Therefore, the host rocks comprise compositionallyand texturally diverse lavas and pyroclastic rocks, most of which wereemplaced in submarine environments and distributed around the vol-cano core or volcanic center at different distances (Williams andMcBirney, 1979). Thus, the volcanic facies architecture reflects the con-trasting character and geometry of primary volcanic and pyroclastic fa-cies which are strongly controlled by eruption style and emplacementprocesses (Fisher and Schmincke, 1984) and the related mineralization.

As shown in Fig. 14, the volcanic facies vary according to their close-ness to the source, i.e. central, proximal and distal facies (Williams andMcBirney, 1979). For example, the rocks of central facies are always rec-ognized by lava domes and thick, banded lavas, lag-fall breccias of pyro-clastic flows, abundant dykes and sills, circular to elongate stocks,breccia pipes and hydrothermally altered rocks. The shapes of orebodiesare controlled by the submarine volcanic edifice (Fig. 14). The proximalfacies rocks around a volcanic center deposited from pyroclastic flows,lavaflows, debrisflows/avalanches, fallout processes and their erosionalproducts. As distance from the source increases within this facies, thereis an increase in the amount of re-sedimented epiclastic and pyroclasticdebris. Particularly, the pyroclastic flow units (main body) in this zoneare commonly underlain by surge deposits (lens-like) and overlain byfine-bedded ash deposits, and block and ash flows from dome collapseformed monolithic, massive, poorly sorted clastic debris which isreworked by seawater, and contain debris avalanche deposits–mounds(block facies) and more normal laharic material. The distal zone is the

Fig. 14. Proposed geneticmodel for the iron ore deposits based on facies variations in submarine volcanic rocks from a large central vent composite volcano. Central zone is also known asthe vent facies. Products of each zone/facies are listed in the illustration.Modified fromWilliams and McBirney (1979).


base of volcano and beyond. Therefore, rocks here are characterized by amuch greater lateral continuity than those of the proximal and centralfacies. Finely bedded tephra composed dominantly of fine-coarse ash,outward increasing ratio of glass to crystals are recognized in thiszone where the pyroclastic flows will be thinner here than in proximalareas, and no surge deposits, ash fall commonly occurs above flows.

Moreover, considering the involvement of sea water during themineralization process, with increasing distance from the center of thevolcano, the dominant mechanism by which iron oxide enrichment oc-curs in the deposit changed frommagmatic, hydrothermal to sedimen-tary. Consequently, the characteristics of iron ore deposit have alsoperceptibly changed. For example, the iron ore deposit occurringwithinlava has been mainly discovered in the central zone (e.g. Abagong andYamansu), and seldom recognized in the distal zone (Jiang, 1983). Themain reasons for this are: themassive orebodieswere formed by immis-cible oxide melt separated from the silicate melt within crust-levelmagma chamber beneath volcano center, and the brecciated orescould be attributed to the eruption of ore magma and an explosion ofthe magmas at the volcano center near seafloor responsible for fluidexsolution developed by decompression and rapid condensation. Thevolcanic central zone is defined as the area overlain by lava andcoarse-grained pyroclastic rocks rather than the location of the volcanicvent (Williams and McBirney, 1979). The active magma chamber,which occurs as subvolcanic edifice presently, is difficult to identify asthe original feature had been more or less changed by the subsequenttectonic activity. Presently, the central facies rocks could serve as a po-tential surface indication of potentially economic SVIO mineralization.For example, the deep-seated subvolcanic rocks are possibly hostrocks for contact metasomatism (i.e. Fe-skarn)mineralization, especial-ly where the intrusions were emplaced into the carbonate strata(e.g. Einaudi, 1981). In contrast, the proximal and distal zones are dom-inated by fine-grained pyroclastics and volcanic sediments. The ironores in these zones mainly are hosted in volcanic sediments and

volcanic sedimentary–volcanic hydrothermal (Fig. 14),where the band-ed ores hosted in the well sorted volcanic sedimentary rocks, such astuffaceous rocks are commonly seen. However, the origin of thesedeposits is complex due to the episodic nature of eruptions(c.f. Hildenbrand et al., 2008) which could also lead to the developmentof ephemeral subvolcanicmagma reservoirs (Zellmer et al., 2005). Thus,these volcanic processes, combined with the related hydrothermal ac-tivities and transformation led to a complex metallogenesis for theSVIOdeposits. For the SVIO deposits located near plate boundary, subse-quent tectonic processes such as regional metamorphism (medium tohigh grade), and contact metamorphism probably played importantroles. In the proximal and distal zones, the involvement of sea waterplays a more important role associatedwith the deformation andmeta-morphism, resulting in changes in the shape, nature of metal distribu-tion and types. Therefore, our genetic model which correlates theorigin of these deposits with the space–time evolution of the submarinevolcanoes and principal volcanic facies variation offers a better under-standing of the metallogenesis of SVIO deposits, aiding in their furtherexploration in China and around the world.

5. Conclusions

The submarine volcanic iron oxide deposits are one of the mostimportant base–metal ore deposits in China, and typically occur withinor near the paleo-seafloor in submarine volcanic environments. Thesedeposits are hosted in subvolcanic intrusion, lava, volcanic pyroclasticand volcaniclastic-sedimentary rocks, or a combination of these. Theiron orebodies hosted in different volcanic facies exhibit different signa-tures and reflect their closeness to the volcanic center. Thus, the ironores formed by ore magma eruption are predominantly discovered inthe vicinity of volcanic center. Most of these deposits are characterizedby widely developed skarns, which could be interpreted as adistal expression of magmatic activity and exposed igneous rocks.

image of Fig.�14


Metamorphism and continuous alteration at relatively high tempera-ture were followed by retrograde alteration as temperatures declined.

Geological and geochemical evidence suggest that these depositswere formed as a result of continuous submarine magmatic activitiesincluding the subaqueous volcanic explosions, lava eruption, volcano-sedimentary processes, and related post-magmatic hydrothermal activ-ities. In combination with their geological characteristics, geodynamicmechanisms and metallogenesis, we propose a genetic model inwhich the origin of these deposits is related to the space–time evolutionof the submarine volcanoes. We integrate the deposits by principalvolcanic facies variation into central, proximal and distal facies provid-ing further insights into their metallogenic history and explorationpotential.

Acknowledgments

Financial support for this work was supported by Projects2012CB416806 of the State Key Fundamental Program (973), SpecialFund for Scientific Research in the Public Interest (200911007-25),Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities National Nat-ural Science Foundation of China (No. 40925006), and 111 Project(B07011).

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