oreign trade

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OREIGN TRADE (EXEMPTION FROM APPLICATION OF RULES IN CERTAIN CASES) ORDER, 1993

Minitry of Commerce

Notification S.O. No. 1056 (E), dated 31-12-1993

In exercise of the powers conferred by section 3, read with section 4, of the Foreign Trade

(Development and Regulation) Act, 1992 (22 of 1992) and in supersession of the Imports (Control)

Order, 1955 and the Exports (Control) Order, 1988, except as respects things done or omitted to be

done before such supersession, the Central Government hereby makes the following Order, namely

:-

1. Short title and commencement. (1) This Order may be called the Foreign Trade (Exemption

from application of Rules in certain cases) Order, 1993.

(2) It shall come into force on the date of its publication in the Official Gazette.

2. Definitions. In this Order, unless the context otherwise requires,

(a) "Act" means the Foreign Trade (Development and Regulation) Act, 1992 (22 of 1992);

(b) "Import Trade Regulations" means the Act and the rules and order made thereunder and theexport and import policy;

(c) "Rules" means the Foreign Trade (Regulation) Rules, 1993;

(d) Words and expressions used in this Order and not defined but defined in the Act shall have the

meanings respectively assigned to them in the Act.

3. Exemption from the application of rules. (1) Nothing contained in the Rules shall apply to the

import of any goods.

(a) by the Central Government or agencies, undertakings owned and controlled by the Central

Government for Defence purposes;



(b) by the Central Government or any State Government, statutory corporation, public body or

Government undertaking run as a Joint Stock Company through the agency of the Purchase

Organisations of the Ministry of Supply, that is India Supply Mission, London and India Supply

Mission, Washington;

(c) by the Central Government, any State Government or any statutory corporation or public body or

Government undertaking run as a Joint Stock Company, orders in respect of which are placed

through the Directorate General, Supplies and Disposals, New Delhi;

(d) by transhipment or imported and bonded on arrival for re-export as ships stores to any country

outside India except Nepal and Bhutan or imported and bonded on arrival for re-export as aforesaid

but subsequently released for use of Diplomatic personnel, Consular Officers in India and the

officials of the United Nations Organisation and its specialised agencies who are exempt from

payment of duty under the notification of the Government of India in the Ministry of Finance

(Department of Revenue) No. 3, dated 8th January, 1957 and the United Nations (Privileges and

Immunities) Act, 1947 (46 of 1947) respectively;

(e) imported and bonded on arrival for sale at approved duty-free shops, whether to outgoing or

incoming passengers, against payments in free foreign exchange;

(f) which are in transit through India by post or otherwise, or are redirected by post or otherwise to

a destination outside India, except Nepal and Bhutan provided that such goods while in India are

always in the custody of the postal or customs authorities;

(g) for transmission across India by air to Afghanistan or by land, to any other country outside India,

except Nepal and Bhutan under claim for exemption from duty or for refund of duty either in whole

or in part :

Provided that such goods are imported by or on behalf of the Govern-ment or a country bordering

on India or that the importer undertakes to produce within a specified period evidence that such

goods have crossed the borders of India or in default to pay such penalty as the proper officer of

customs may deem fit to impose on such goods :



Provided further that nothing contained in this item will exempt any goods from the Import Trade

Regulations;

(h) by the person as passenger baggage to the extent admissible under the Baggage Rules for the

time being in force except quinine exceeding five hundred tablets or 1/3 Ib powder or one hundredampoules :

Provided that in the case of imports by a tourist, articles of high value whose re-export is obligatory

under rule 7 of the Tourist Baggage Rules,1978 shall be re-exported on his leaving India, failing which

such goods shall be deemed to be goods of which the import has been prohibited under the

Customs Act, 1962 (52 of 1962):

Provided further that the import of gold in any form including ornaments (but excluding ornamentsstudded with stones or pearls) will be allowed as part of baggage by passengers of Indian origin or a

passenger holding a valid passport issued under the Passports Act, 1967 (15 of 1967) subject to the

following conditions, namely :-

(a) that the passenger importing the gold is coming to India after a period of not less than six months

of stay abroad;

(b) the quantity of gold imported shall not exceed 5 Kilograms per passenger;

(c) import duty on gold shall be paid in convertible foreign currency; and

(d) there will be no restriction on sale of such imported gold;

(i) by any person through the post or otherwise for his personal use, or by any institution or hospital

for its use except

(a) vegetable seeds exceeding one Ib. in weight;

(b) beer;

(c) tea;

(d) books, magazines, journals and literature which are not allowed to be imported under the Policy

for the time being in

force;

(e) goods, the import of which is canalised under the Policy;



(f) alcoholic beverages;

(g) fire arms and ammunition;

(h) consumer electronic items (except hearing aids and life-saving equipments, apparatus and

appliances and parts thereof):

Provided that the c.i.f. value of goods imported as aforesaid at any one time shall not exceed rupees

two thousand.

(j) by or on behalf of Diplomatic personnel, consular officers and Trade Commissioners in India who

are exempted from payment of Customs duty under Notification No. 3 dated the 8th January, 1957

of the Government of India in the Ministry of Finance (Department of Revenue);

(k) from any country, which are exempted from Customs duty on re-importation under section 20 of

the Customs Act, 1962 (52 of 1962) or under Customs Notification Nos. 113 dated 16th May 1957,

103 dated 25th March, 1958, 260 and 261 dated llth October, 1958, 269, 271, 273, 274, 275 and 276

dated 25th October, 1958 and 204 dated 2nd August, 1976, of the Government of India, Ministry of

Finance (Department of Revenue) or Notification No. 174, dated the 24th September, 1966 or

Notification No. 103, dated the 16th May, 1978, of the Government of India, Ministry of Finance

(Department of Revenue and Insurance) or Notification No. 80, dated 29th August, 1970;

(1) of Indian manufacture and foreign-made parts of such goods, exported and received back by the

manufacturer from the consignee for repair and re-export:

Provided that

(i) the customs authorities are satisfied that the goods received back by the said manufacturers are

the same which were so exported; and

(ii) in the case of goods other than those exempted from customs duty on reimportation under

Customs Notification No. 132, dated 9th December, 1961, a bond is executed by the importer with

the customs authority at the port concerned to the effect that the goods thus imported will be re-

exported after repair within six months;

(m) by officials of the United Nations Organisation and its specialised agencies who are exempted

from payment of Customs duty under the United Nations (Privileges and Immunities) Act, 1947 (46

of 1947);

(n) by the Ford Foundation who are exempt from payment of Customs duty under an Agreement

entered into between the Government of India and the Ford Foundation;



(o) being vehicles as defined in Article I of the Customs Convention on the Temporary Importation of

Private Road Vehicles or the component parts thereof referred to in Article 4 of the said Convention

and which are exempted from payment of customs duty under the notification of the Government

of India in the Ministry of Finance (Department of Revenue) No. 296, dated the 2nd August, 1976 :

Provided that

(i) such vehicles or component parts are re-exported within the period specified in the said

notification or within such further period as the customs authorities may allow;

(ii) the provisions of the said notification or of the "triptyque or Camel-De-Passage" permit are not

contravened in relation to such vehicle or component parts :

Provided further that nothing contained in this item shall prejudice the application to the said

vehicles or component parts of any other prohibition or regulation affecting the import of goods that

may be in force at the time of import of such goods;

(p) being goods imported temporarily for display or use in fairs, exhibitions or similar events

specified in Schedule I to the notification of the Government of India in the Ministry of Finance

(Department of Revenue) No. 157/90-CUSTOMS, dated the 28th March, 1990 against ATA Carnets

under the Customs Convention on the ATA Carnets for temporary admission of goods (ATA

Convention) done at Brussels on the 30th July, 1963:

Provided that

(i) such goods are exported within a period of six months from the date of clearance or such

extended period as the Central Government may allow in each case; and

(ii) the provisions of the said notification or of the ATA convention are not contravened:

Provided further that nothing contained in this item shall prejudice the application to the said goods

of any other prohibition or regulation affecting the import of goods that may be in force at the time

of import of such goods;



(q) covered by an import licence issued by His Majesty's Government of Nepal and the importer

furnishes a bond to the proper officer of customs in the form prescribed by such officer with a

Scheduled Bank as surety to the effect that he shall pay the duty and pay penalty imposed for

contravening Import Trade Regulations in respect of the whole or any portion of the goods which is

not proved to have entered the territory of Nepal;

(r) of Indian manufacture or by the Central Government or any State Government for repair and re-

export to Indian Embassies abroad or to any other office of the Central Government or State

Government in a foreign country;

(s) being foodgrains, by Food Corporation of India:

Provided that at the time of clearance, a declaration to the effect that the import in question hasbeen approved by the Central Government, is furnished by the importer to the Customs authorities;

(t) being articles of food and edible material, which are supplied as free gift by the agencies

approved by the United Nations Organisation and which are exempted from payment of customs

duty under the Notification of Government of India in the Ministry of Finance (Department of

Revenue) No. GSR 766, dated 21st June, 1975.

(2) Nothing contained in the Rules shall apply to

(a) any goods exported by or under the authority of the Central Government;

(b) any goods other than foodstuffs constituting the stores or equipment of any outgoing vessel or

conveyance;

(c) any goods constituting the bona fide personal baggage of any person, including a passenger or

member of a crew in any vessel or conveyance, going out of India:

Provided that the Wild Life (dead, alive or part thereof or produce therefrom) shall not be treated as

part of such personal baggage;



(d) any goods exported by post or by air under the conditions specified in postal notice issued by the

Postal Authorities;

(e) any goods transhipped at a port in India after having been manifested for such transhipment at

the time of despatch from a port outside India;

(f) any goods imported and bonded on arrival in India for re-export to any country outside India,

except Nepal and Bhutan;

(g) any goods in transit through India by post or any goods re-directed by post to a destination

outside India except Nepal and Bhutan:

Provided that such goods while in India are always in the custody of the postal authorities;

(h) any goods imported without a valid import licence and exported in accordance with an order for

the export of such goods made by the proper officer of Customs;

(i) products approved for manufacture in and export from the respective Free trade Zones/Export

Processing Zones and 100 per cent Export Oriented Units except textile item covered by bilateral

agreements, exports to Rupee Payment Countries under the Annual Trade Protocol and Exports

against payment in Indian Rupees to former Rupee Payment Countries:

Provided that conditions imposed by the Board of Approval on an Export Oriented Unit of Export

Processing Zone unit will be binding on such a unit;

(j) export of Blood group Oh (Bombay Phono type) meant for scientific research or emergency

medical treatment, as life saving measure on humanitarian grounds by the Director, National Blood

Group Reference Laboratory, Bombay on the basis of a certificate issued by him to this effect in each

case;

(k) export of samples of lubricating oil additives. Lube Oil, crude oil and other related petroleum

products and raw materials used to manufacture Lube Additives by Lubrizols India Limited,

Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited, and Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited, from their



installation in India to Lubrizol's Laboratories in the United States of America and the United

Kingdom for evaluation and testing purposes.

anana



From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Banana (disambiguation).

Banana

Banana 'tree' (Musa acuminata 'Lacatan'). Illustration from the 1880 book Flora de Filipinas by

Francisco Manuel Blanco

Hybrid parentage

Musa acuminata × Musa balbisiana

Colla 1820

Cultivar group

See Banana Cultivar Groups

Origin

Southeast Asia, South Asia

Banana is the common name for herbaceous plants of the genus Musa and for the fruit they

produce. Bananas come in a variety of sizes and colors when ripe, including yellow, purple, and red.

Almost all modern edible parthenocarpic bananas come from the two wild species Musa acuminata

and Musa balbisiana. The scientific names of bananas are Musa acuminata, Musa balbisiana orhybrids Musa acuminata × balbisiana, depending on their genomic constitution. The old scientific

names Musa sapientum and Musa paradisiaca are no longer used.

Banana is also used to describe Enset and Fe'i bananas, neither of which belong to the Musa genus.

Enset bananas belong to the genus Ensete while the taxonomy of Fe'i-type cultivars is uncertain.

In popular culture and commerce, "banana" usually refers to soft, sweet "dessert" bananas. By

contrast, Musa cultivars with firmer, starchier fruit are called plantains. The distinction is purely

arbitrary and the terms 'plantain' and 'banana' are sometimes interchangeable depending on their

usage.

They are native to tropical South and Southeast Asia, and are likely to have been first domesticatedin Papua New Guinea.[1] Today, they are cultivated throughout the tropics.[2] They are grown in at

least 107 countries,[3] primarily for their fruit, and to a lesser extent to make fiber, banana wine and

as ornamental plants.

Contents [hide]

1 Description



2 Taxonomy

3 Historical cultivation

4 Modern cultivation

5 Pests, diseases, and natural disasters

6 Uses

7 See also

8 Footnotes

9 References

10 Further reading

11 External links

Description

Banana inflorescence, partially opened.

Banana 'tree' showing fruit and inflorescence.

The banana plant is the largest herbaceous flowering plant.[4] The plants are normally tall and fairly

sturdy and are often mistaken for trees, but their main or upright stem is actually a pseudostem that

grows 6 to 7.6 metres (20 to 24.9 ft) tall, growing from a corm. Each pseudostem can produce a

single bunch of bananas. After fruiting, the pseudostem dies, but offshoots may develop from the

base of the plant. Many varieties of bananas are perennial.

Leaves are spirally arranged and may grow 2.7 metres (8.9 ft) long and 60 cm (2.0 ft) wide.[5] They

are easily torn by the wind, resulting in the familiar frond look.[6]

Each pseudostem normally produces a single inflorescence, also known as the banana heart. (More

are sometimes produced; an exceptional plant in the Philippines produced five.)[7] The inflorescence

contains many bracts (sometimes incorrectly called petals) between rows of flowers. The female

flowers (which can develop into fruit) appear in rows further up the stem from the rows of male

flowers. The ovary is inferior, meaning that the tiny petals and other flower parts appear at the tip of

the ovary.



The banana fruits develop from the banana heart, in a large hanging cluster, made up of tiers (called

hands), with up to 20 fruit to a tier. The hanging cluster is known as a bunch, comprising 320 tiers,

or commercially as a "banana stem", and can weigh from 3050 kilograms (66110 lb). In common

usage, bunch applies to part of a tier containing 3-10 adjacent fruits.

Individual banana fruits (commonly known as a banana or 'finger') average 125 grams (0.28 lb), of

which approximately 75% is water and 25% dry matter. There is a protective outer layer (a peel or

skin) with numerous long, thin strings (the phloem bundles), which run lengthwise between the skin

and the edible inner portion. The inner part of the common yellow dessert variety splits easily

lengthwise into three sections that correspond to the inner portions of the three carpels.

The fruit has been described as a "leathery berry".[8] In cultivated varieties, the seeds are

diminished nearly to non-existence; their remnants are tiny black specks in the interior of the fruit.

Bananas grow pointing up, not hanging down.

Bananas are naturally slightly radioactive,[9] more so than most other fruits, because of their high

potassium content, and the small amounts of the isotope potassium-40 found in naturally occurring

potassium.[10] Proponents of nuclear power sometimes refer to the banana equivalent dose of radiation to support their arguments.[11]

Taxonomy

The genus Musa is in the family Musaceae. The APG II system, of 2003 (unchanged from 1998),

assigns Musaceae to the order Zingiberales in the clade commelinids in the monocotyledonous

flowering plants. Some sources assert that the banana's genus, Musa, is named for Antonio Musa,

physician to the Emperor Augustus.[12] Others say that Linnaeus, who named the genus in 1750,

simply adapted an Arabic word for banana, mauz.[13] The word banana itself might have come from

the Arabic banan, which means "finger",[13] or perhaps from Wolof banaana.[14] The genus

contains many species; several produce edible fruit, while others are cultivated as ornamentals.[15]

Banana classification has long been a problematic issue for taxonomists due to the way Linnaeus

originally classified bananas as two species based only on their methods of consumption, Musa

sapientum for dessert bananas and Musa paradisiaca for plantains. However, this simplistic

classification has proved to be inadequate to address the sheer number of cultivars (a lot of them

synonymous) existing in its primary center of diversity, Southeast Asia.[16]

Ernest Cheesman first discovered that Musa sapientum and Musa paradisiaca, described by

Linnaeus, were actually cultivars and descendants of two wild and seedy species, Musa acuminata

and Musa balbisiana, both first described by Luigi Aloysius Colla.[17] He recommended their

abolition in favor of reclassifying bananas according to three morphologically distinct cultivars -

those primarily exhibiting the botanical characteristics of Musa balbisiana, those primarily exhibiting

the botanical characteristics of Musa acuminata, and those with characteristics that are the

combination of the two.[16]

Researchers Norman Simmonds and Ken Shepherd proposed the genome-based nomenclature

system in 1955. This system eliminated almost all the difficulties and inconsistencies of the



nomenclature system of bananas based on Musa sapientum and Musa paradisiaca. Despite this,

Musa paradisiaca is still recognized by some authorities today, leading to confusion.[17][18]

Generally, modern classifications of banana cultivars follow Simmonds' and Shepherd's system. The

accepted names for bananas are Musa acuminata, Musa balbisiana or Musa acuminata × balbisiana,

depending on their genetic ancestry.

Synonyms include:

Musa × sapientum L.

Musa paradisiaca L.

Musa × paradisiaca L.

Musa paradisiaca L. subsp. Musa sapientum J. G. Baker

Musa rosacea N. J. von Jacquin

Musa violacea J. G. Baker

Musa cliffortiana L.

Musa dacca P. F. Horaninow

Musa rosacea N. J. von Jacquin

Musa × paradisiaca L. subsp. sapientum(L.) C. E. O. Kuntze

Musa × paradisiaca var. dacca (P. F. Horaninow) J. G. Baker ex K. M. Schumann

For the banana cultivar previously referred to as Musa sapientum, see Latundan Banana.[19] Forbananas and plantains previously referred to as Musa paradisiaca, see Plantain.[17]

For a list of the cultivars classified under the new system see Banana Cultivar Groups.

Comparison between the two wild banana ancestors in the Simmonds and Shepherd table (1955)

Species Musa acuminata Musa balbisiana

Color of pseudostem Black or grey-brown spots Unmarked or slightly marked

Petiole canal Erect edge, with scarred inferior leaves, not against the pseudostem Closed

edge, without leaves, against the pseudostem

Stalk Covered with fine hair Smooth

Pedicels Short Long

Ovum Two regular rows in the locule Four irregular rows in the locule

Elbow of the bract Tall (< 0.28) Short (> 0.30)



Bend of the bract The bract wraps behind the opening The bract raises without bending

behind the opening

Form of the bract Lance- or egg-shaped, tapering markedly after the bend Broadly egg-shaped

Peak of the bract Acute Obtuse

Color of the bract Dark red or yellow on the outside, opaque purple or yellow on the inside

Brown-purple on the outside, crimson on the inside

Discoloration The inside of the bract is more bright toward the base The inside of the bract is

uniform

Scarification of the bract Prominent Not prominent

Free tepal of the male flower Corrugated under the point Rarely corrugated

Color of the male flower White or cream Pink

Color of the markings Orange or bright yellow Cream, yellow, or pale pink

Historical cultivation

Early cultivation

Southeast Asian farmers first domesticated bananas. Recent archaeological and

palaeoenvironmental evidence at Kuk Swamp in the Western Highlands Province of Papua New

Guinea suggests that banana cultivation there goes back to at least 5000 BCE, and possibly to 8000

BCE.[1] It is likely that other species were later and independently domesticated elsewhere in

southeast Asia. Southeast Asia is the region of primary diversity of the banana. Areas of secondary

diversity are found in Africa, indicating a long history of banana cultivation in the region.

Actual and probable diffusion of bananas during Islamic times (7001500 AD)[20]

Phytolith discoveries in Cameroon dating to the first millennium BCE[21] triggered an as yet

unresolved debate about the date of first cultivation in Africa. There is linguistic evidence that

bananas were known in Madagascar around that time.[22] The earliest prior evidence indicates that

cultivation dates to no earlier than late 6th century AD.[23] It is likely, however, that bananas were

brought at least to Madagascar if not to the East African coast during the phase of Malagasy

colonization of the island from South East Asia c400CE.[24]

The Buddhist story Vessantara Jataka briefly mention about banana, the king Vessantara has found a

banana tree (among some other fruit trees) in the jungle, that bear bananas of the size of an

elephants tusk.



The banana may have been present in isolated locations of the Middle East on the eve of Islam.

There is some textual evidence that the prophet Muhammad was familiar with bananas. The spread

of Islam was followed by far-reaching diffusion. There are numerous references to it in Islamic texts

(such as poems and hadiths) beginning in the 9th century. By the 10th century the banana appears in

texts from Palestine and Egypt. From there it diffused into north Africa and Muslim Iberia. During the

medieval ages, bananas from Granada were considered among the best in the Arab world.[20] In650, Islamic conquerors brought the banana to Palestine. Nowadays, banana consumption increases

significantly in Islamic countries during Ramadan, the month of daylight fasting.

Bananas were introduced to the Americas by Portuguese sailors who brought the fruits from West

Africa in the 16th century.[25] The word banana is of West African origin, from the Wolof language,

and passed into English via Spanish or Portuguese.[26]

Many wild banana species as well as cultivars exist in extraordinary diversity in New Guinea,

Malaysia, Indonesia, China, and the Philippines.

There are fuzzy bananas whose skins are bubblegum pink; green-and-white striped bananas with

pulp the color of orange sherbet; bananas that, when cooked, taste like strawberries. The DoubleMahoi plant can produce two bunches at once. The Chinese name of the aromatic Go San Heong

banana means 'You can smell it from the next mountain.' The fingers on one banana plant grow

fused; another produces bunches of a thousand fingers, each only an inch long.

Mike Peed, The New Yorker[27]

Plantation cultivation

Fruits of wild-type bananas have numerous large, hard seeds.

Ripened bananas (left, under sunlight) fluoresce in blue when exposed to UV light.

In the 15th and 16th century, Portuguese colonists started banana plantations in the Atlantic Islands,

Brazil, and western Africa.[28] As late as the Victorian Era, bananas were not widely known in

Europe, although they were available.[28] Jules Verne introduces bananas to his readers with

detailed descriptions in Around the World in Eighty Days (1872).

In the early 20th century, bananas formed the basis of large commercial empires, exemplified by the

United Fruit Company, which created immense plantations especially in Central and South America.

These were usually commercially exploitative, and the term "Banana republic" was coined for states

like Honduras and Guatemala, representing the fact that these companies and their political backers

created and abetted "servile dictatorships" whose primary motivation was to protect the

companies.[29]

Modern cultivation



All widely cultivated bananas today descend from the two wild bananas Musa acuminata and Musa

balbisiana. While the original wild bananas contained large seeds, diploid or polyploid cultivars

(some being hybrids) with tiny seeds are preferred for human raw fruit consumption.[30] These are

propagated asexually from offshoots. The plant is allowed to produce 2 shoots at a time; a larger

one for immediate fruiting and a smaller "sucker" or "follower" to produce fruit in 68 months. The

life of a banana plantation is 25 years or longer, during which time the individual stools or plantingsites may move slightly from their original positions as lateral rhizome formation dictates.

Cultivated bananas are parthenocarpic, which makes them sterile and unable to produce viable

seeds. Lacking seeds, propagation typically involves removing and transplanting part of the

underground stem (called a corm). Usually this is done by carefully removing a sucker (a vertical

shoot that develops from the base of the banana pseudostem) with some roots intact. However,

small sympodial corms, representing not yet elongated suckers, are easier to transplant and can be

left out of the ground for up to 2 weeks; they require minimal care and can be shipped in bulk.

It is not necessary to include the corm or root structure to propagate bananas; severed suckers

without root material can be propagated in damp sand, although this takes somewhat longer.

In some countries, commercial propagation occurs by means of tissue culture. This method is

preferred since it ensures disease-free planting material. When using vegetative parts such as

suckers for propagation, there is a risk of transmitting diseases (especially the devastating Panama

disease).

As a non-seasonal crop, bananas are available fresh year-round.

Cavendish

Cavendish bananas are the main commercial banana cultivars sold in the world market.

In global commerce, by far the most important cultivars belong to the triploid AAA group of Musa

acuminata, commonly referred to as Cavendish group bananas. They account for the majority of

banana exports.[30] The cultivars Dwarf Cavendish and Grand Nain (Chiquita Banana) gained

popularity in the 1950s after the previous mass-produced cultivar, Gros Michel (also an AAA group

cultivar), became commercially unviable due to Panama disease, a fungus which attacks the roots of

the banana plant.[30]

Ease of transport and shelf life rather than superior taste make the Dwarf Cavendish the main export

banana.

Even though it is no longer viable for large scale cultivation, Gros Michel is not extinct and is still

grown in areas where Panama disease is not found.[citation needed] Likewise, Dwarf Cavendish and

Grand Nain are in no danger of extinction, but they may leave supermarket shelves if disease makes

it impossible to supply the global market. It is unclear if any existing cultivar can replace Cavendish

bananas, so various hybridisation and genetic engineering programs are attempting tocreate a

disease-resistant, mass-market banana.[30]



Ripening

Export bananas are picked green, and ripen in special rooms upon arrival in the destination country.

These rooms are air-tight and filled with ethylene gas to induce ripening. The vivid yellow color

normally associated with supermarket bananas is in fact a side effect of the artificial ripening

process.[citation needed] Flavor and texture are also affected by ripening temperature. Bananas are

refrigerated to between 13.5 and 15 °C (56 and 59 °F) during transport. At lower temperatures,

ripening permanently stalls, and turns the bananas gray as cell walls break down. The skin of ripe

bananas quickly blackens in the 4 °C (39 °F) environment of a domestic refrigerator, although the

fruit inside remains unaffected.

"Tree-ripened" Cavendish bananas have a greenish-yellow appearance which changes to a brownish-

yellow as they ripen further. Although both flavor and texture of tree-ripened bananas is generally

regarded as superior to any type of green-picked fruit,[citation needed] this reduces shelf life to only

710 days.

Bananas can be ordered by the retailer "ungassed", and may show up at the supermarket fully

green. "Guineo Verde", or green bananas that have not been gassed will never fully ripen beforebecoming rotten. Instead of fresh eating, these bananas are best suited to cooking, as seen in

Mexican culinary dishes.

A 2008 study reported that ripe bananas fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet light. This property is

attributed to the degradation of chlorophyll leading to the accumulation of a fluorescent product in

the skin of the fruit. The chlorophyll breakdown product is stabilized by a propionate ester group.

Banana-plant leaves also fluoresce in the same way. Green bananas do not fluoresce. Thestudy

suggested that this allows animals which can see light in the ultraviolet spectrum (tetrachromats and

pentachromats) to more easily detect ripened bananas.[31]

Storage and transport

Bananas must be transported over long distances from the tropics to world markets. To obtain

maximum shelf life, harvest comes before the fruit is mature. The fruit requires careful handling,

rapid transport to ports, cooling, and refrigerated shipping. The goal is to prevent the bananas from

producing their natural ripening agent, ethylene. This technology allows storage and transport for 3

4 weeks at 13 °C (55 °F). On arrival, bananas are held at about 17 °C (63 °F) and treated with a low

concentration of ethylene. After a few days, the fruit begins to ripen and is distributed for final sale.

Unripe bananas can not be held in home refrigerators because they suffer from the cold.[citation

needed] Ripe bananas can be held for a few days at home. They can be stored indefinitely frozen,

then eaten like an ice pop or cooked as a banana mush.

Recent studies have suggested that carbon dioxide (which bananas produce) and ethylene

absorbents extend fruit life even at high temperatures.[32][33][34] This effect can be exploited by

packing the fruit in a polyethylene bag and including an ethylene absorbent, e.g., potassium

permanganate, on an inert carrier. The bag is then sealed with a band or string. This treatment has

been shown to more than double lifespans up to 34 weeks without the need for refrigeration.

Trade



Top 10 banana producing nations

(in million metric tons)

India* 26.2

Philippines 9.0

China 8.2

Ecuador 7.6

Brazil 7.2

Indonesia 6.3

Mexico* 2.2

Costa Rica 2.1

Colombia 2.0

Thailand 1.5

World Total 95.6

Source: 2009 data, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations[3]

* Countries use 2008 FAO data

Bananas and plantains constitute a major staple food crop for millions of people in developing

countries. In most tropical countries, green (unripe) bananas used for cooking represent the main

cultivars. Bananas are cooked in ways that are similar to potatoes. Both can be fried, boiled, baked,

or chipped and have similar taste and texture when served. One banana provides about the same

calories as one potato.

In 2009, India led the world in banana production, representing approximately 28% of the worldwide

crop, mostly for domestic consumption. The six leading exporting countries (Table, right) together

accounted for about two-thirds of exports, each contributing more than 6 million tons, according to

Food and Agriculture Organization statistics.

Most producers are small-scale farmers either for home consumption or local markets. Because

bananas and plantains produce fruit year-round, they provide an extremely valuable food source

during the hunger season (when the food from one annual/semi-annual harvest has beenconsumed, and the next is still to come). Bananas and plantains are therefore critical to global food

security.

Bananas are among the most widely consumed foods in the world. Most banana farmers receive a

low price for their produce as grocery companies pay discounted prices for buying in enormous

quantity. Price competition among grocers has reduced their margins, leading to lower prices for

growers. Chiquita, Del Monte, Dole, and Fyffes grow their own bananas in Ecuador, Colombia, Costa



Rica, Guatemala, and Honduras. Banana plantations are capital intensive and demand significant

expertise. The majority of independent growers are large and wealthy landowners in these

countries. Producers have attempted to raise prices via marketing them as "fair trade" or Rainforest

Alliance-certified in some countries.

The banana has an extensive trade history beginning with the founding of the United Fruit Company

(now Chiquita) at the end of the 19th century. For much of the 20th century, bananas and coffee

dominated the export economies of Central America. In the 1930s, bananas and coffee made up as

much as 75% of the region's exports. As late as 1960, the two crops accounted for 67% of the

exports from the region. Though the two were grown in similar regions, they tended not to be

distributed together. The United Fruit Company based its business almost entirely on the banana

trade, because the coffee trade proved too difficult to control. The term "banana republic" has been

applied to most countries in Central America, but from a strict economic perspective only Costa Rica,

Honduras, and Panama had economies dominated by the banana trade.

The European Union has traditionally imported many of their bananas from former European

Caribbean colonies, paying guaranteed prices above global market rates. As of 2005, these

arrangements were in the process of being withdrawn under pressure from other major trading

powers, principally the United States. The withdrawal of these indirect subsidies to Caribbean

producers is expected to favour the banana producers of Central America, in which American

companies have an economic interest.

The United States produces few bananas. A mere 14,000 tonnes (14,000 LT; 15,000 ST) were grown

in Hawaii in 2001.[35] Bananas were once grown in Florida and southern California.[36]

Pests, diseases, and natural disasters

Main article: List of banana and plantain diseases

Banana bunches are sometimes encased in plastic bags for protection. The bags may be coated with

pesticides.

While in no danger of outright extinction, the most common edible banana cultivar Cavendish

(extremely popular in Europe and the Americas) could become unviable for large-scale cultivation in

the next 1020 years. Its predecessor 'Gros Michel', discovered in the 1820s, suffered this fate. Like

almost all bananas, Cavendish lacks genetic diversity, which makes it vulnerable to diseases,

threatening both commercial cultivation and small-scale subsistence farming.[37][38] Some

commentators remarked that those variants which could replace what much of the world considers

a "typical banana" are so different that most people would not consider them the same fruit, and

blame the decline of the banana on monogenetic cultivation driven by short-term commercial

motives.[29]

Panama Disease



Panama disease is caused by a fusarium soil fungus (Race 1), which enters the plants through the

roots and travels with water into the trunk and leaves, producing gels and gums that cut off the flow

of water and nutrients, causing the plant to wilt, and exposing the rest of the plant to lethal amounts

of sunlight. Prior to 1960, almost all commercial banana production centered on 'Gros Michel', which

was highly susceptible.[39] Cavendish was chosen as the replacement for Gros Michel because,

among resistant cultivars, it produces the highest quality fruit. However, more care is required forshipping the Cavendish, and its quality compared to Gros Michel is debated.

According to current sources, a deadly form of Panama disease is infecting Cavendish. All plants are

genetically identical, which prevents evolution of disease resistance. Researchers are examining

hundreds of wild varieties for resistance.[39]

Tropical Race 4

TR4 is a reinvigorated strain of Panama disease first discovered in 1993. This virulent form of

fusarium wilt has wiped out Cavendish in several southeast Asian countries. It has yet to reach the

Americas; however, soil fungi can easily be carried on boots, clothing, or tools. This is how Tropical

Race 4 travels and is its most likely route into Latin America. Cavendish is highly susceptible to TR4,and over time, Cavendish is almost certain to disappear from commercial production by this disease.

Unfortunately, the only known defense to TR4 is genetic resistance.

Black Sigatoka

Black sigatoka is a fungal leaf spot disease first observed in Fiji in 1963 or 1964. Black Sigatoka (also

known as black leaf streak) has spread to banana plantations throughout the tropics from infected

banana leaves that were used as packing material. It affects all main cultivars of bananas and

plantains, impeding photosynthesis by blackening parts of the leaves, eventually killing the entire

leaf. Starved for energy, fruit production falls by 50% or more, and the bananas that do grow ripen

prematurely, making them unsuitable for export. The fungus has shown ever-increasing resistance totreatment, with the current expense for treating 1 hectare (2.5 acres) exceeding $1,000 per year. In

addition to the expense, there is the question of how long intensive spraying can be environmentally

justified. Several resistant cultivars of banana have been developed, but none has yet received

commercial acceptance due to taste and texture issues.

In East Africa

With the arrival of Black sigatoka, banana production in eastern Africa fell by over 40%. For example,

during the 1970s, Uganda produced 15 to 20 tonnes (15 to 20 LT; 17 to 22 ST) of bananas per

hectare. Today, production has fallen to only 6 tonnes (5.9 LT; 6.6 ST)per hectare.

The situation has started to improve as new disease-resistant cultivars have been developed by the

International Institute of Tropical Agriculture and the National Agricultural Research Organisation of

Uganda (NARO), such as FHIA-17 (known in Uganda as the Kabana 3). These new cultivars taste

different from the Cabana banana, which has slowed their acceptance by local farmers. However, by

adding mulch and manure to the soil around the base of the plant, these new cultivars have

substantially increased yields in the areas where they have been tried.



The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture and NARO, funded by the Rockefeller Foundation

and CGIAR have started trials for genetically modified bananas that are resistant to both Black

sigatoka and banana weevils. It is developing cultivars specifically for smallholder and subsistence

farmers.

Banana Bunchy Top Virus (BBTV)

This virus jumps from plant to plant using aphids. It stunts leaves, resulting in a "bunched"

appearance. Generally, an infected plant does not produce fruit, although mild strains exist which

allow some production. These mild strains are often mistaken for malnourishment, or a disease

other than BBTV. There is no cure; however, its effect can be minimized by planting only tissue-

cultured plants (in vitro propagation), controlling aphids, and immediately removing and destroying

infected plants.

Uses

Food and cooking

Fruit

Peeled, whole, and longitudinal section

Banana, raw, edible parts

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy 371 kJ (89 kcal)

Carbohydrates 22.84 g

Sugars 12.23 g

Dietary fiber 2.6 g

Fat 0.33 g

Protein 1.09 g

Vitamin A equiv. 3 g (0%)

Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0.031 mg (2%)

Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.073 mg (5%)

Niacin (Vit. B3) 0.665 mg (4%)

Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.334 mg (7%)



Vitamin B6 0.367 mg (28%)

Folate (Vit. B9) 20 g (5%)

Vitamin C 8.7 mg (15%)

Calcium 5 mg (1%)

Iron 0.26 mg (2%)

Magnesium 27 mg (7%)

Phosphorus 22 mg (3%)

Potassium 358 mg (8%)

Zinc 0.15 mg (1%)

One banana is 100150 g.

Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults.

Source: USDA Nutrient database

Bananas are the staple starch of many tropical populations. Depending upon cultivar and ripeness,

the flesh can vary in taste from starchy to sweet, and texture from firm to mushy. Both skin and

inner part can be eaten raw or cooked. Bananas' flavor is due, amongst other chemicals, to isoamyl

acetate which is one of the main constituents of banana oil.

During the ripening process, bananas produce a plant hormone called ethylene, which indirectly

affects the flavor. Among other things, ethylene stimulates the formation of amylase, an enzyme

that breaks down starch into sugar, influencing the taste of bananas. The greener, less ripe bananascontain higher levels of starch and, consequently, have a "starchier" taste. On the other hand, yellow

bananas taste sweeter due to higher sugar concentrations. Furthermore, ethylene signals the

production of pectinase, an enzyme which breaks down the pectin between the cells of the banana,

causing the banana to soften as it ripens.[40][41]

Bananas are eaten deep fried, baked in their skin in a split bamboo, or steamed in glutinous rice

wrapped in a banana leaf. Bananas can be made into jam. Banana pancakes are popular amongst

backpackers and other travelers in South Asia and Southeast Asia. This has elicited the expression

Banana Pancake Trail for those places in Asia that cater to this group of travelers. Banana chips are a

snack produced from sliced dehydrated or fried banana or plantain, which have a dark brown color

and an intense banana taste. Dried bananas are also ground to make banana flour. Extracting juice isdifficult, because when a banana is compressed, it simply turns to pulp. Bananas feature

prominently in Philippine cuisine, being part of traditional dishes and desserts like maruya, turrón,

and halo-halo. Most of these dishes use the Saba or Cardaba banana cultivar. Pisang goreng,

bananas fried with batter similar to the Filipino maruya, is a popular dessert in Malaysia, Singapore,

and Indonesia. A similar dish is known in the United States as banana fritters.



Plantains are used in various stews and curries or cooked, baked or mashed in much the same way

as potatoes.

Seeded bananas (Musa balbisiana), one of the forerunners of the common domesticated

banana,[42] are sold in markets in Indonesia.

Flower

Banana hearts are used as a vegetable[43] in South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine, either raw or

steamed with dips or cooked in soups and curries. The flavor resembles that of artichoke. As with

artichokes, both the fleshy part of the bracts and the heart are edible.

Leaves

Banana leaves are large, flexible, and waterproof. They are often used as ecologically friendly

disposable food containers or as "plates" in South Asia and several Southeast Asian countries.

Especially in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu in every occasion the food must be served in a

banana leaf and as a part of the food a banana is served. Steamed with dishes they impart a subtle

sweet flavor. They often serve as a wrapping for grilling food. The leaves contain the juices, protect

food from burning and add a subtle flavor.[44]

Trunk

The tender core of the banana plant's trunk is also used in South Asian and SoutheastAsian cuisine,

and notably in the Burmese dish mohinga.

Potential health effects

Along with other fruits and vegetables, consumption of bananas may be associated with a reduced

risk of colorectal cancer[45] and in women, breast cancer[46] and renal cell carcinoma.[47]

Individuals with a latex allergy may experience a reaction to bananas.[48]

Bananas contain moderate amounts of vitamin B6, vitamin C, manganese and potassium,[49]

possibly contributing to electrolyte balance.

Bananas also help increase dopamine production due to the amino acid tyrosine which is present in

the banana.[50][51]

In India, juice is extracted from the corm and used as a home remedy for jaundice, sometimes with

the addition of honey, and for kidney stones.[52]

Fiber

Textiles

The banana plant has long been a source of fiber for high quality textiles. In Japan, banana

cultivation for clothing and household use dates back to at least the 13th century. In the Japanese

system, leaves and shoots are cut from the plant periodically to ensure softness. Harvested shoots

are first boiled in lye to prepare fibers for yarn-making. These banana shoots produce fibers of



varying degrees of softness, yielding yarns and textiles with differing qualities for specific uses. For

example, the outermost fibers of the shoots are the coarsest, and are suitable for tablecloths, while

the softest innermost fibers are desirable for kimono and kamishimo. This traditional Japanese cloth-

making process requires many steps, all performed by hand.[53]

In a Nepalese system the trunk is harvested instead, and small pieces are subjected to a softening

process, mechanical fiber extraction, bleaching and drying. After that, the fibers are sent to the

Kathmandu Valley for use in rugs with a silk-like texture. These banana fiber rugs are woven by

traditional Nepalese hand-knotting methods, and are sold RugMark certified.

In South Indian state of Tamil Nadu after harvesting for fruit the trunk (outer layer of the shoot) is

made into fine thread used in making of flower garlands instead of thread.

Paper

Main article: Banana paper

Banana fiber is used in the production of banana paper. Banana paper is used in two different

senses: to refer to a paper made from the bark of the banana plant, mainly used for artistic

purposes, or paper made from banana fiber, obtained with an industrialized process from the stem

and the non-usable fruits. The paper itself can be either hand-made or in industrial processes.

Cultural roles

Banana flowers and leaves for sale in the Thanin market in Chiang Mai, Thailand.

Coconut, banana and banana leaves used while worshiping River Kaveri at Tiruchirappalli, India.

Arts

The song "Yes! We Have No Bananas" was written by Frank Silver and Irving Cohn and originally

released in 1923; for many decades, it was the best-selling sheet music in history. Since then the

song has been rerecorded several times and has been particularly popular during banana shortages.

A person slipping on a banana peel has been a staple of physical comedy for generations. A 1910

comedy recording features a popular character of the time, "Uncle Josh", claiming to describe his

own such incident:[54]

Now I don't think much of the man that throws a banana peelin' on the sidewalk, and I don't thinkmuch of the banana peel that throws a man on the sidewalk neither ... my foot hit the bananer

peelin' and I went up in the air, and I come down ker-plunk, jist as I was pickin' myself up a little boy

come runnin' across the street ... he says, "Oh mister, won't you please do that agin? My little

brother didn't see you do it."



The poet Bash is named after the Japanese word for a banana plant. The "bash" planted in his

garden by a grateful student became a source of inspiration to his poetry, as well as a symbol of his

life and home.[55]

The Japanese novelist Mihoko Yoshimoto changed her name to Banana Yoshimoto because she liked

banana flowers.

Symbols

Bananas are also humorously used as a phallic symbol due to similarities in size and shape. This is

typified by the artwork of the debut album of The Velvet Underground, which features a banana on

the front cover, yet on the original LP version, the design allowed the listener to 'peel' this banana to

find a pink phallus on the inside.

Religion

In Burma, bunches of green bananas surrounding a green coconut in a tray form an important part

of traditional offerings to the Buddha and the Nats.

In all the important festivals and occasions of Tamils the serving of bananas plays a prominent part.

The banana (Tamil: or ) is one of three fruits with this significance, the

others being mango and jack fruit.

East Africa

Most farms supply local consumption. Cooking bananas represent a major food source and a major

income source for smallhold farmers. In East African highlands bananas are of greatest importance

as a staple food crop. In countries such as Uganda, Burundi, and Rwanda per capita consumption has

been estimated at 45 kilograms (99 lb) per year, the highest in the world.

Other uses

Banana sap is extremely sticky and can be used as a practical adhesive.[citation needed] Sap can be

obtained from the pseudostem, from the peelings, or from the flesh.

In regions where bananas are grown, the large leaves are sometimes used as umbrellas. The

pseudostems, being floatable, can be tied together to form a floatation device.[44]

Banana sap leaves indelible dark stains on clothes.

A banana equivalent dose is used in the nuclear industry to compare radiation doses received from

radioactive materials to the dose received from the radioactivity in bananas.

See also

Banana Cultivar Groups

Ensete (false bananas)



Musa

Musella

Musaceae

Plantain

Footnotes

^ a b "Tracing antiquity of banana cultivation in Papua New Guinea". The Australia & Pacific Science

Foundation. Retrieved 2007-09-18.

^ www.traditionaltree.org, Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry, Musa species (banana and

plantain) agroforestry.net

^ a b "FAOSTAT: ProdSTAT: Crops". Food and Agriculture Organization. 2005. Retrieved 2006-12-09.

^ Yes, we have more bananas published in the Royal Horticultural Society Journals, May 2002

^ "Banana from ''Fruits of Warm Climates'' by Julia Morton". Hort.purdue.edu. Retrieved 2009-04-

16.

^ See Greenearth, Inc., Banana Plant Growing Info. Retrieved 2008.12.20.

^ Angolo, A (2008-05-15). "Banana plant with five hearts is instant hit in Negros Occ". ABS-CBN

Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 2008-05-17.

^ James P. Smith, Vascular Plant Families. Mad River Press, 1977.

^ CRC Handbook on Radiation Measurement and Protection, Vol 1 pg. 620Table A.3.7.12, CRC Press,

1978

^ [1] Stephen Cass, Corinna Wu (2007). Everything Emits RadiationEven You: The millirems pour in

from bananas, bomb tests, the air, bedmates... Discover: Science, Technology, and the Future,

published online June 4, 2007

^ http://enochthered.wordpress.com/category/banana-dose/

^ Liberty Hyde Bailey, The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. 1916. p. 2076

^ a b Dan Keppel, Banana, Hudson Street Press, 2008; p. 44.

^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 5 Aug 2010.

^ Bailey, pp. 20762079.

^ a b Banana cultivar names and synonyms in Southeast Asia by Ramón V. Valmayor at Google Books

^ a b c "Musa paradisiaca". http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/



^ Michel H. Porcher; Prof. Snow Barlow (19/07/2002). "Sorting Musa names". The University of

Melbourne, [2]. Retrieved 11 January 2011.

^ "Musa sapientum". http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/

^ a b Watson, p. 54

^ Evidence for banana cultivation and animal husbandry during the first millennium BC in the forest

of southern Cameroon. Mbida VM, Van Neer W, Doutrelepont H, Vrydaghs L. (2000) JOURNAL OF

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SCIENCE 27:151-162

^ Friedrich J. Zeller (2005). "Herkunft, Diversität und Züchtung der Banane und kultivierter

Zitrusarten (Origin, diversity and breeding of banana and plantain (Musa spp.))". Journal of

Agriculture and Rural Development in the Tropics and Subtropics.

^ "Africa's earliest bananas?". Journal of Archeological Science. 2005-06-28.[dead link]

^ Randrianja, Solofo abd Stephen Ellis: Madagascar: A Short History. University of Chicago Press,

2009.

^ "Bananas and plantains". Botgard.ucla.edu. Retrieved 2009-04-16.

^ "Online Etymology Dictionary: banana". Retrieved 02-11-2007.

^ Peed, Mike: "We Have No Bananas: Can Scientists Defeat a Devastating Blight?" The New Yorker,

January 10, 2011, pp. 28-34. Retrieved 2011-01-13.

^ a b "Phora Ltd. - History of Banana". Phora-sotoby.com. Retrieved 2009-04-16.

^ a b Big-business greed killing the banana - Independent, via The New Zealand Herald, Saturday 24

May 2008, Page A19

^ a b c d Castle, Matt (August 24, 2009). "The Unfortunate Sex Life of the Banana".

DamnInteresting.com

^ Moser, Simone; Thomas Müller, Marc-Olivier Ebert, Steffen Jockusch, Nicholas J. Turro, Bernhard

Kräutler (2008). "Blue luminescence of ripening bananas". Angewandte Chemie International Edition

47 (46): 89548957. doi:10.1002/anie.200803189. PMC 2912500. PMID 18850621. Retrieved 2008-

10-29.

^ Scott, KJ, McGlasson WB and Roberts EA (1970) Potassium Permanganate as an Ethylene

Absorbent in Polyethylene Bags to Delay the Ripening of Bananas During Storage. Australian Journal

of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 110, 237240.

^ Scott KJ, Blake, JR, Stracha n, G Tugwell, BL and McGlasson WB (1971) Transport of Bananas at

Ambient Temperatures using Polyethylene Bags. Tropical cha Agriculture (Trinidad ) 48, 163165.

^ Scott, KJ and Gandanegara, S (1974) Effect of Temperature on the Storage Life of bananas Held in

Polyethylene Bags with an Ethylene Absorbent. Tropical Agriculture (Trinidad ) 51,2326.

^ "Crop Profile for Bananas in Hawaii". Ipmcenters.org. Retrieved 2009-04-16.



^ California Rare Fruit Growers, Inc., Banana Fruit Facts. Retrieved 2008.12.30.

^ "A future with no bananas?". New Scientist. 2006-05-13. Retrieved 09-12-2006.

^ Montpellier, Emile Frison (2003-02-08). "Rescuing the banana". New Scientist. Retrieved 09-12-

2006.

^ a b Barker, C. L. Conservation: Peeling away. National Geographic Magazine, November 2008.

^ "Fruit Ripening". Retrieved February 17, 2010.

^ "Ethylene Process". Retrieved February 17, 2010.

^ Plant Breeding Abstracts, Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, 1949, p.162

^ Solomon, C (1998). Encyclopedia of Asian Food (Periplus ed.). Australia: New Holland Publishers.

ISBN 0855616881. Retrieved 2008-05-17.

^ a b "Banana". Hortpurdue.edu. Retrieved 2009-04-16.

^ Deneo-Pellegrini, H; De Stefani E; Ronco A (1996). "Vegetables, fruits, and risk of colorectal cancer:

a case-control study from Uruguay". Nutrition & Cancer 25 (3): 297304.

doi:10.1080/01635589609514453. PMID 8771572.

^ Zhang, CX; et al. (2009). "Greater vegetable and fruit intake is associated with a lower risk of breast

cancer among Chinese women". International Journal of Cancer 125 (1): 1818.

doi:10.1002/ijc.24358. PMID 19358284.

^ Rashidkhani, B; Lindblad P; Wolk A (2005). "Fruits, vegetables and risk of renal cell carcinoma: a

prospective study of Swedish women". International Journal of Cancer 113 (3): 4515.

doi:10.1002/ijc.20577. PMID 15455348.

^ Taylor, JS; Erkek E (2004). "Latex allergy: diagnosis and management". Dermatological Therapy 17

(4): 289301. doi:10.1111/j.1396-0296.2004.04024.x. PMID 15327474.

^ "Nutrition Facts for raw banana, one NLEA serving, 126 g".

^ Jerry Wong. "The Pursuit of Happiness (A.K.A. It Appears That The Writer Wrote About Bananas

After Eating A Few Too Many)". The Science Creative Quarterly, University of British Columbia,

http://www.scq.ubc.ca/. Retrieved February 20, 2011.

^ "Tyrosine". University of Maryland, Medical Center, http://www.umm.edu/. Retrieved February

20, 2011.

^ Healing Power of Foods: Nature's Prescription of Common Diseases, Pustak Mahal, 2004, ISBN 81-

223-0748-5, p.49

^ "Traditional Crafts of Japan - Kijoka Banana Fiber Cloth". Association for the Promotion of

Traditional Craft Industries. Retrieved 11-12-2006.



^ Stewart, Cal. "Collected Works of Cal Stewart part 2". Uncle Josh in a Department Store (1910). The

Internet Archive. Retrieved 2010-11-17.

^ Matsuo Basho: the Master Haiku Poet, Kodansha Europe, ISBN 0-87011-553-7

References

Denham, T., Haberle, S. G., Lentfer, C., Fullagar, R., Field, J., Porch, N., Therin, M., Winsborough B.,

and Golson, J. Multi-disciplinary Evidence for the Origins of Agriculture from 6950-6440 Cal BP

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