GENERAL INTRODUCTION

TO THE AGRIYOUTH COURSE

MODULE 3

ORGANIC CROPS AND

BIODIVERSITY PROTECTION

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REMARK

This module consists of two parts:

•The first part, including 20 slides, covers general themes related to organic

crops and biodiversity protection.

• At the end of the first part it will be a set of ten questions. For each question

there are three answers, just one of them correct. If all your answers are right

you pass the test, otherwise you will repeat the sequence till the test is

completed without mistakes.

•The second part, including 30 slides, contains details on organic crops and

biodiversity protection.

•As for the first part, at its end there will be ten multiple choice questions. If all

your answers will be correct, the system will allow to print a Certificate

corresponding to the 3rd Level.

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INTRODUCTION

Introduction Organic farming is a method of crop and livestock production that involves much more than choosing not to use

pesticides, fertilizers, genetically modified organisms, antibiotics and growth hormones. Organic production is a

holistic system designed to create a harmonious relationship between people and environment, farming and agro-

ecosystem, including protection of soil organisms, plants, livestock. The principal goal of organic production is to

develop enterprises that are sustainable and consistent with a natural perpetuation of species and environment.

This course, as a part of the AgriYouth project on innovative trends in agriculture, aims at creating a brief but

complete curriculum in organic farming and food, enabling the learner/user to better understand context,

regulations, know-how and techniques to start an organic farming business.

MODULE 3.1. Basic knowledge in organic farming

The purpose of this module is the following:

Learning outcome 1 To understand the basis of organic farming and main differences from conventional

agriculture

Learning outcome 2 To recognize the procedures for organic farming and related transition

MODULE 3.2. General rules for organic farming

The purpose of this module is the following:

Learning outcome 1 To get at a glance meaning and consequences of the regulations and policies on

organic farming and related certification

Learning outcome 2 To know economic relevance and consistence of organic farming In the EU

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INTRODUCTION

MODULE 3.3. Organic crops

The purpose of this module is the following:

Learning outcome 1To satisfy the background needs for sustainable agriculture and organic farming

Learning outcome 2 To understand and manage relationships soil/crops and related organic farming

procedures

Learning outcome 3 To understand and manage relationships nutrition/plant and related organic

farming techniques

MODULE 3.4. Organic food processing

The purpose of this module is the following:

Theoretical and practical organic food processing

Learning outcome 1 To understand and manage organic food processing

Learning outcome 2 To understand and manage organic food processing prescriptions

Learning outcome 3 To understand and manage organic food packaging and labeling

MODULE 3.5. Marketing and commercialization of organic food

The purpose of this module is the following:

Learning outcome 1 To understand and manage organic food marketing and commercialization

Learning outcome 2 To understand and manage organic food certification and controls

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MODULE 3.1 Basic knowledge in organic farming.3.1.1 THE ORIGINS OF ORGANIC FARMING.

The beginnings of modern organic farming can be traced back to end of the 19th century, when groups of thinkers,

mainly in Germany, began to analyse the widening gap between man and nature, and to speculate as to how this

tendency might be reversed. In the framework of this research, Rudolf Steiner, the Austrian philosopher, teacher,

and founder of anthroposophy, created, in 1924, a new concept of farming in which the farm was seen as a self-

sufficient living organism. His disciple Ehrenfried Pfeiffer developed this theory and called it "biodynamic farming".

The main principles of this approach were:

- the rejection of the use of soluble mineral-based plant foods;

- the independence and self-sufficiency of the farm, thanks to a policy of breeding livestock and growing a variety

of crops;

- a belief in the importance of a natural and healthy diet;

-a belief in the importance of lunar and astral influences on the crops.

In England, the "organic farming" school of thought was born immediately after the Second World War. Based

mainly on the ideas of Sir Albert Howard and his assistant Lady Eve Balfour, it emphasised the importance of the

fertility and the biological balance of the soil. In pursuit of these goals, the use of organic compost was considered

of great importance, especially since this was believed to develop the plants’ resistance to parasites and diseases.

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From the 70's to the 90’sOrganic farming really came to the fore at the end of the 1970’s, when the increasingly influential environmentalist

movement meant that farmers and consumers were more concerned about environmental issues. This

phenomenon initially developed in North European countries such as Denmark, Germany and Holland, and then

spread to the countries of the Mediterranean Basin (France, Italy and Greece) and the United States. It gave rise

to the creation of new associations of organic farmers.

In 1972, in France, five organic farming associations founded IFOAM (International Federation of

Organic Associations and Movements); and by 1987, these five had become over one hundred, in 25 countries.

The truly explosive growth in the popularity of organic farming over the last few years has led to an increase by a

factor of five in the number of associations belonging to IFOAM: there are now about 500 of them operating in 100

countries.

In 1977, IFOAM started to define and harmonise the techniques associated with organic farming. They

set out to create a code of practice that was flexible enough to embrace the various schools of thought on which

organic farming was based, but that was also scientifically rigorous and true to the basic aims of the movement.

This process was made necessary by the following aims:

- to provide clear information to producers and consumers;

- to create conditions that would facilitate regulation and self-regulation;

- to take steps against fraud and misleading advertising.

In 1980 IFOAM published the first standard for organic production and processing, a basic guide for all

members and certification bodies. It was only in 1991, with the passing of EC Regulation 2092, that the organic

farming method became an officially recognised set of rules, guidelines, and procedures that clearly defined a

specific method of production. In June 1992 the Codex Alimentarius Commission decided to discuss and develop

the “Guidelines for the Production, Processing, Marketing and Labelling of Organically Produced Foods”,

established in Codex Alimentarius 1999.

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3.1.2 ORGANIC FARMING TODAY Basic principles and techniques

Organic agriculture is defined as a production system that is managed to respond to site specific conditions by

integrating cultural, biological and mechanical practices that foster cycling of resources, promote ecological

balance and conserve biodiversity.

The fundamental principles of organic farming are as follows:

- to view the farm as a single system or "organism" that exists within the context of a local ecosystem;

- to protect the balance of relationships within the farm’s own system, as well as those existing between the

farm’s system and the surrounding ecosystem;

- to maintain a marked degree of biodiversity within the system, so as to promote the control of parasites and

destructive organisms;

- to encourage the biological cyclicity of the natural system, paying particular attention to the cycle of organic

substances, so as to promote humification;

- to make maximum use of solar energy and to reduce the use of all types of external input to an absolute

minimum.

More specifically, organic farming entails:

- use of cover crops, green manures, animal manures and crop rotations to fertilize the soil, maximize biological

activity and maintain long-term soil health;

- use of biological control, crop rotation and other techniques to manage weeds, insects and diseases;

- an emphasis on biodiversity of the agricultural system and the surrounding environment;

- using rotational grazing and mixed forage pastures for livestock operations and alternative healthcare for animal

wellbeing;

- reduction of external and off-farm inputs and elimination of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers and/or other

materials, such as hormones, antibiotics and GMO;

-a focus on renewable resources, soil and water conservation and management practice that restore maintenance

and enhance ecological balance.

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Various research confirmed that the organic system can be more efficient at storing nitrogen and have positive

effects on soil quality, including higher biological activity and a doubling of organic matter in 10 years (USDA

Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education). It is also confirmed that an organic cropping system consumes

3 to 4 times less energy than a conventional system, while also producing 6 times more biomass per unit of

energy consumed (South Dakota State University comparative trial at the Northeast Research Station,

Watertown). Having stated these general principles, we can go on to look at specific farming techniques in order to

promote a clearer idea of how the organic system works and how it differs from the conventional system of

farming.

Firstly, in order to preserve its relationship with the surrounding ecosystem, the farm should grow crops and local

ecotypes that are most suited to the local environment. Furthermore, hedgerows and wooded areas should be

maintained and improved, both in order to increase the biodiversity of the system, and also to act as windbreaks

and to prevent erosion. In this way the farm not only has a minimum impact on the rural landscape, but can even

enhance it.

Ploughing should be kept to a minimum, so as to discourage compacting and erosion, and favour humus

generation. Ploughing that breaks up the clods of earth should always be very superficial, whilst medium- and full-

depth ploughing should only be done with equipment that does not turn the earth.

Grass-planting and mulching can be carried out in order to improve the structure, strength and porosity of the

soil. But organic fertilising should always be done after composting in order to enhance humus spontaneous

production.

Weed-control should be done mainly with the following methods: crop-rotation, mechanical or physical means,

and occasionally by burning.

Crop-rotation must be frequent, alternating leguminous crops with deep-rooted crops, so as to protect the soil

from structural damage, limit the washing away of nutrients, and guarantee fresh supplies of nitrogen through the

regular presence of nitrogen-fixing plants. Suitable crop-rotation also acts to control parasites living in the soil.

Parasite control should be carried out via the appropriate manipulation of the antagonisms that exist in nature.

In some cases (vegetable-growing) it is appropriate to use plants that act as repellents. And sometimes the

methods used can be biological, physical and/or agronomical, biotechnical (attracters and repellents), or low-

toxicity mineral and natural plant-treatments.

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Some schools of thought

Within the world of organic farming, there are various schools of thought that are distinguished from each other by

differences in outlook or technique.

Biodynamic agriculture

This type of farming is characterised by its own particular scientific and spiritual credo. Principally, it represents a

world-view in which man, agriculture, the environment and the productive cycle are all part of a whole that must

develop harmoniously. In 1924, Dr. Rudolf Steiner, the founder of anthroposophy, gave a series of eight talks on

the fertility of the soil: he put forward a world-view in which all the constituent elements inter-reacted and in which

man had only a limited capacity to influence the factors that determine the world’s development. Steiner’s

philosophy never envisages leaving nature entirely to herself, but on the other hand talks in terms of man

participating wisely in the whole range of events that lead towards the production of food for consumption. Yields

will depend on the context and the range of atmospheric conditions such as rain, wind, temperature, sunshine, the

length of the day, and numerous other variables that taken together could be said to make up the macroclimate.

These theories spread mainly in Germany and the north of Europe. The farmer should make sure that all organic

substances resulting from the various processes that take place on the farm, are put back into the system; and he

should try to create harmony between all aspects of the farm - livestock, fields, grassland, woodland - in order to

encourage self-sufficiency. The basic objective of a biodynamic farm is self-sufficiency in fertilisers, seeds, animal-

rearing and the production of biochemical preparations. The use of external inputs is to be reduced to the

minimum; and the only fertilisers that can be bought in are organic manure and possibly rock powder, limestone,

and untreated phosphates. Home-produced manure is to be converted into compost on the spot, and can be

supplemented by very small quantities of plant-based preparations (alpine yarrow, camomile, nettles, oak-bark,

dandelion, and valerian) made to Dr. Steiner’s own recipes. The aim of this is to encourage the correct

development of the processes involved in the decomposition and metamorphosis of the compost. Two home-

produced preparations are applied directly to the fields.

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One of these contains small quantities of humus and cow dung to stimulate the soil’s life-giving processes; and

the other contains finely-ground quartz to strengthen the plants, increase their assimilative powers and ability to

photosynthesise, and also to increase their resistance to disease. Where sowing and planting are concerned,

cosmic forces should be studied, in particular the position of the moon and the planets, since these are considered

to influence the earth and the crops. Therefore a seeding calendar should be drawn up every year, so that the

farmer can make the best use of favourable planetary and astrological influences and avoid unfavourable ones.

PermacultureThe term "permaculture" was coined in 1975 by Bill Mollison, an Australian. It derives from combining

two words - permanent and agriculture - in order to suggest a global and holistic approach to farming. The various

constituent elements of any given area are consciously arranged so as to promote mutually beneficial

relationships. The aim is to work towards a natural ecosystem in which need for man to intervene with energy and

labour is progressively reduced as the system becomes more stable, lasting, and - eventually - permanent.

The permaculture method envisages year-round crop-growing, together with farming methods and

activities that consume small amounts of energy in the most efficient way possible. The method is intended to

appeal to small groups or communities that care about the planet’s future, and it is concerned more with self-

sufficiency in food than with producing food for commercial purposes.

The underlying principles of this philosophy are:

small-scale exploitation of the land;

•growing a broad variety of crops rather than just large quantities of one crop;

•growing perennial rather than annual crops;

•the virtue of a broad variety of animal and vegetable species, crops, microclimates and habitats;

•thinking long-term, with future generations in mind;

•growing local species, since these are well adapted to the soil and the climate; (not hybrids, which are weak,

expensive, and unable to adapt);

•the inclusion of all the constituent elements of the system in a mutually beneficial network of working

relationships: people, plants, animals, sun, wind, water, buildings, land;

•showing particular concern for so-called marginal or unproductive areas: land that is steep, rocky, arid, or marshy.

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The permaculture method aims to anticipate the effects of the important climactic changes that are taking place,

and maintains that plants have a moderating influence on the climate and are able to reduce its harshness. Variety

and ecodiversity are seen as an insurance policy against fire, drought, wind, or heavy rainfall. The structural and

functional variety of plants increases the number of microclimates, which in their turn create favourable conditions

for a larger variety of useful plants; thus plants create better conditions for both man and animals - a typical

example of positive interaction as envisaged by the permaculture approach.

The zero-tillage system

This system is based on the principle of minimum interference with the workings of nature. It was developed in

Japan by Masanobu Fukuoka, and is influenced by the philosophical and religious precepts of Zen Buddhism and

Taoism.

There are four basic principles that should govern man’s relationship with the earth:

Not to break up the earth in any way, since roots, insects, and microorganism break it up in any case;

Not to use fertilisers, since they damage the quality of the soil. Conventional agricultural practices undermine

the qualitative and quantitative relationships that exist in the ground, thereby making it vulnerable and at the same

time creating a need for fertilisers. The zero breakup method enables the soil to maintain itself and provide itself

with fertilisers through its own natural cycles and those of the animal and vegetable life that it hosts.

Not to use chemical products, since they weaken plants. Once a plant is prone to disease, insects become a

threat. The danger of disease is always present, but it strikes only when the environment has lost its natural

equilibrium. Nature is capable of maintaining a perfect equilibrium by herself, and a healthy environment wards off

disease.

Not to remove weeds, since they have always been part of a living ecological structure. Weeds that grow

naturally are extremely strong and encourage all forms of life; so it is a basic principle of natural agriculture that

they should be left alone.

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When a farmer first adopts natural methods of agriculture, the land will need a few years to recover its

lost vitality; the crop from land that has been over-exposed to fertilisers will initially be between 10 and 15%

smaller than before. In order to practise this method, a farmer must have a thorough knowledge and

understanding of nature, plants, water, the land and the surrounding area.

The zero breakup method does not envisage leaving these things entirely to themselves. It envisages

presiding over them with the wisdom that derives from an understanding of the way the universe is ordered,

making a minimum use of artificial human labour, and allowing the plants to live unaided and unmolested.

Organic farming, apart from specific kinds, is based on multiple choices: vision, motivation, knowledge,

entrepreneurship attitudes, feeling with organic farming, technical competences and means. Therefore to become

an organic farmer means also to share a vision in harmony with principles of sustainability and land protection

(see Figure 1).

Figure 1 – Factors that affect the adoption of organic farming.

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MODULE 3.2 General rules and overview for organic farming and food.

3.2.1 EU REGULATIONS AND POLICIES ON ORGANIC FARMING.

The approval by the European Council of Regulation 2092/91 marked a vital step towards the official

recognition of organic farming methods throughout Europe. This Regulation had set out the basic principles of the

method, as well as rules governing the processing, sale, and importation of organically produced goods. The

Regulation CE 834/2007 updated the previous one, also focusing on biodiversity, animal welfare and

environmental issues: “Organic production is an overall system of farm management and food production that

combines best environmental practices, a high level of biodiversity, the preservation of natural resources, the

application of high animal welfare standards and a production method in line with the preference of certain

consumers for products produced using natural substances and processes. The organic production method thus

plays a dual societal role, where it on the one hand provides for a specific market responding to a consumer

demand for organic products, and on the other hand delivers public goods contributing to the protection of the

environment and animal welfare, as well as to rural development.”

The “Council Regulation (EC) No 834/2007 of 28 June 2007 on organic production and labelling of

organic products and repealing Regulation (EEC) No 2092/91” is intended to mark the formal recognition of the

sector and to lay down norms to be respected by all those wishing to be considered as part of it. The intention is

also to enable consumers to clearly identify organically produced food without any risk of error; thus putting an

end to a series of fraudulent claims made by producers. The new label, clearly distinguished by the previous one,

similar to those identifying the protected European quality products, PGI, PDO and TSG, aims also to avoid any

confusion with other non organic products.

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Throughout the European Union, the term "organic" on food labels and advertisements for foodstuffs

and agricultural produce can only be used for items produced in accordance with the Regulation’s rules

concerning production and processing methods. The special legally defined status thus attached to the term

"organic" in English, applies correspondingly to the term "biological" in Italian, French, Greek, Dutch and

Portuguese, and to "ecological" in Spanish, Danish and German.

It is worth pointing out the Regulation EC 834/2007, as already before the Regulation EEC 2092/91

expressly forbids the use of the term "organic" (or "biological" / "ecological") for products, since the term can only

be used to refer to the method. This is not an idle distinction, since whilst all agricultural produce is necessarily

organic (or biological / ecological), the method can only be referred to as "organic" (or "biological" / "ecological")

when it rigorously respects certain defined criteria of production, for example: the non-use of chemical products;

the use of animal manures as fertilisers; and parasite control through the use of predator insects.

The Regulation therefore defines a method or process, and not a product.

Regulation 2092/91 was applicable only to unprocessed vegetable produce (fruit, vegetables, cereals,

etc.) and to products for human consumption that contain mainly ingredients of vegetable origin, whilst Regulation

1807/99 was referred to livestock production.

On July 20, 2007, the new Council Regulation (EC) No 834/2007 of 28 June 2007 on organic

production and labelling of organic products and repealing Regulation (EEC) No 2092/91. The Commission

subsequently adopted implementing regulations: Commission Regulation (EC) No 889/2008 completed the

standards with detailed production rules, labelling rules and control requirements and Commission Regulation

(EC) No 1235/2008 implemented the new import regime. All the new regulations came into force on January 1,

2009. The regulations guarantees that terms such as organic, bio and eco are only used on food products that are

produced according to the standards laid down in the regulation. One of the key developments of the European

organic sector in 2010 was the launch of the new EU logo for organic products. Since July 1, 2010, the organic

logo of the EU (see Figure 2) has been obligatory on all pre-packaged organic products that have been produced

in all EU member states and meet the necessary standards.

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Figure 2 - Logo of the EU for organic agriculture and food since July 1 , 2010

Another important reference for organic producers is the 2005 version of the

“IFOAM Norms for Organic Production and Processing” including basic standards and

accreditation criteria according to the International Federation of Organic Agriculture

Movements. The EC regulations are more careful to satisfaction and guarantee of

consumers, whilst the IFOAM norms have a more complete and adequate cognitive

approach to satisfy knowledge and competences needed by producers.

Production methods

The fertility and the biological processes of the soil must be ensured by the following methods:

growing leguminous plants and plants with deep roots, and ploughing-in leguminous plants, whilst at the same

time adopting crop-rotation over a cycle lasting several years; and enriching the soil with organic matter

(composted or not) produced by farms that comply with the regulations governing the organic method. Certain by-

products from livestock breeding (animal manure) can be used, provided that they come from livestock bred

according to an organic method that complies with the national regulations in force.

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If the above steps are not sufficient to ensure adequate nutrition for the crops being grown in rotation,

or if they do not result in the soil having a suitable balance of minerals, so that supplements are deemed to be

necessary, then it is allowed to use a limited number of organic manures or natural minerals with low solubility.

Approved substances for plants and plant production are listed in Annex2 of the Regulation 2092/91, also

including fertilizers and soil conditioners in Annex II A. Some differences between EU Member States depend on

specific permitted substances. IFOAM proposes periodic inputs evaluation for amendments to Annex II of the

regulation 2092/91. A new frontier is constituted of the so called bio-based products, from agriculture and forestry

raw fibres to produce intermediate and chemical products with low degree of toxicity, high environmental

sustainability and biodegradability, improved Life Cycle Assessment index and low carbon footprint (see REACH,

Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals, regulation EC 1907/2006, entered into force

on 1st June 2007).

Parasite control, protection from disease, as well as the elimination of weeds, should be effected by a

range of methods aimed at avoiding the need to use insecticides. This involves: choosing species and varieties of

plant that are naturally resistant; appropriate crop-rotation; weed-removal by burning; and protecting the natural

enemies of parasites. Only if the crops are in immediate danger is the farmer allowed to use a limited number of

plant treatment products. These are listed in Appendix IIB of Regulation 2092/91.The Regulation allows for a so

called conversion or transition period, this being the time necessary to make the change from conventional

agricultural methods to organic ones.

This involves a minimum period of two years (before the seeding) for annual crops, and three years

(before the first harvest) for (perennial) trees. Depending on the use that was previously made of the land, the

conversion period can be shortened or extended. The conversion period and the restrictions relating to the sale of

crops grown in it, do not apply to farmers who have used organic methods for at least two years. Organic food-

treatment and processing must obviously comply with current EU rules, or, where these do not exist, with the

relevant national laws. It should be emphasised that the new Council Regulation (EC) No 834/2007, as well as

before the Regulation 2092/91, forbids ionizing radiation treatment at any stage of the organic method of food

production. Genetically modified organisms (GMO) that could be legitimately used, if authorized by the European

Food Safety Authority, on the basis of the “precaution principle”, as part of conventional food-production

processes, cannot currently be used at any stage of the organic method of food-production.

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Many farmers want to see quick results and often ask how long it takes for organic crops to grow. Organic farming

does not aim to make crops grow faster. Crops will grow faster and larger when they have better growing

conditions than before. Although conventionally grown crops can be made to grow faster by intensive use of

synthetic fertilizers and sprays, organic crops are nurtured to grow at their normal, natural rate in order to be less

susceptible to pests and diseases and build up good physical and nutritional structure. However, organic farmers

do a lot to make their crops grow healthy and to produce good yields.

Avoiding contamination

It is in the responsibility of organic farmers to protect the organic fields from being sprayed with synthetic

pesticides. Even if the neighbour is not farming organically, an organic farmer can grow organic foods and fibres.

To avoid pesticide drift from neighbouring fields onto the crops, organic farmers should safeguard the organic

fields by using any of the following measures:

Planting of natural hedges on the boundary to neighbouring fields can avoid the risk of pesticide spray drift

through wind or run-off water. The wider the border area around the fields, the better.

To avoid runoff from upstream fields, organic farmers should divert the water away or talk to the farmers

upstream about how to work together to minimize the risk of contamination through water.

Organic farmers who are interested in saving nature, should share their knowledge

and experiences with neighbours with the aim of helping them to either adopt organic

farming practices or to minimize the risk of contaminating nature.

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Avoiding contamination

A specific focus has to be put on contamination risks from Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO).

Genetically modified seeds and planting materials are produced by transferring isolated genes from plants,

animals or microorganisms into the crop genome, circumventing pollination and crossing natural barriers. This is

seen as a violation of the integrity of the cell as the smallest living entity and is not accepted in organic farming.

Genetically modified products should, therefore, not be used in organic farming, and organic farmers should

protect their production against any GMO contamination. However, with the increased use of GM crops in the

conventional farming systems, the risk of GMO contamination is expected to increase. Species which cross-

pollinate, such as rapeseed or maize, or insect pollinated crops, such as soybean or cotton, are at a higher risk of

being contaminated by a nearby genetically modified crop. Species that are mainly vegetative pollinated such as

potatoes, cassava or banana are at lower risk of GMO contamination. Besides the genetic contamination, there is

also a risk of physical contamination caused by GMO residues along the production and market chain, if GMO and

organic products are not properly separated.

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Crops to grow during conversion

Looking at the organic farm as being ‘one organism’, the focus does not lie on cultivating specific crops only.

Rather, the focus is on choosing crops that can easily be integrated into the existing farming system and will

contribute to its improvement. But the choice also depends on the farmer’s knowledge on the right management of

the crops, their contribution to a diverse family diet or their demand in the market. Besides growing crops for food,

farmers may need to grow leguminous cover crops to provide high-protein feed for livestock and to be used as

green manures to feed the soil. Planting trees for shade, as windbreak, for firewood, feed, mulching material or for

other uses, can be recommended in most situations. Criteria for crop selection during conversion:

In a first place organic farmers should grow enough food for their family. But they may also want to grow crops

for the market to get money for other family needs. The farmers should also grow crops that contribute to

improvement of soil fertility. Farmers who keep livestock need to grow pasture grass and legumes.

Basically, farmers should select crops with low risk of failure. Cereals and legumes such as maize, sorghum,

millet, beans and peas are especially suitable for conversion, since they cost little to produce, generally have

moderate nutrient demands and are robust against pests and diseases. In addition, many of the traditional crops

can be stored and sold in domestic markets. High-value short term crops, such as most vegetables, are more

delicate to grow and highly susceptible to pest and disease attack. Therefore, they should not be grown on a

larger scale, unless the farmer can endure some losses in harvest.

The crops to grow for sale should include crops that can be sold at the farm gate, at the roadside market or can

be transported directly to nearby markets in urban centres. Choosing the right crop to sell on the market may

require some market information. Decision making for crops for local or export markets requires detailed

information from traders or exporters on the crops, requested varieties, quantities, qualities and season..

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Crops to grow during conversion

High-value perennial crops such as fruit trees take at least 3 years until the first harvest from the date of

planting. This makes them appropriate crops for the conversion period. For new plantations, species and varieties

must be carefully selected to suit the organic market and production requirements. For conversion of an existing

orchard, it might be necessary to replace old existing varieties, if they are very susceptible to diseases and the

product quality does not match with the market requirements.

The success of a crop will also depend on provision of favourable growing conditions. The better a crop variety

matches local soil and climate conditions, and is tolerant or resistant to common pests and diseases, the better it

will grow.

Planting of hedges and agro-forestry trees can be valuable to help establish a diverse farming system.

Growing leguminous green manures provides nutrients to the soil. Green manures do not provide immediate

income, but in the long-term, they make the soil fertile and productive for the future..

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Recommendations to farmers for reducing the GMO contamination risk:

o Use either personally selected seeds or get organic or untreated seeds that were not genetically modified from

neighbouring farmers you and are certain do not use GMO seeds and are not surrounded by GM crops of

conventional farmers (distance of at least 1 km). If you use seeds from a trader, make sure that he is registered

and can confirm where the seed is derived from. Check that he is not involved in GM production and

multiplication. Ask your trader for a certificate confirming GM free seeds and inquire about the trader’s involvement

in the GM-seed market.

o Check for the breeding habits of the specific crops you are interested in. Most cross breeding species such as

maize can disperse by wind or bees to distances of up to 1 to 3 km.

o Seeds of some crops can survive for 5 to 20 years in the soil. Therefore, precautions must be taken that no GM

crops have been planted on land that shall be used for organic production.

o Create protective safety (buffer) zones around your fields to reduce the risk of GMO pollen dispersal, if GM

crops are cultivated in this region. Isolation distances between GM crops and organic fields should be established,

about 2-3 times larger than those required for seed production for a given species. For dispersal of critical GM

crops such as maize, the isolation distance should probably not be less than 2 to 3 km. This will reduce GMO

dispersal by pollen to a great extent. For wind pollinated crops, like maize, borders or hedges with tall plant

species, such as sugarcane or trees, can additionally prevent cross-pollination with GM crops.

o Avoid any physical GM contamination by using sowing and harvesting machines, transporters, processing and

storage facilities not used for GM crops. In case you have to use the same machines, thorough cleaning is

necessary. Do not store organic products next to GM products.

o GMO free regions should be encouraged wherever possible, especially for own seed production.

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Recommendations to farmers for reducing the GMO contamination risk:

The conversion process for organic certification

From the point of view of certification, the period of conversion starts when a farmer manages his farm in

accordance with the organic regulations. This starts when a farmer renounces use of synthetic pesticides,

fertilizers and GMO or treated seeds. Stepwise reduction of agrochemicals cannot be considered part of the

conversion period. An important step of the conversion period is the recognition of the farm as organic by a

certification body.

The conversion period is accomplished after the third year or third harvest is certified as organic. Nevertheless,

even if the formal conversion period is accomplished, the adaptation of the farm is not finished. It usually takes

several years to establish a well-balanced farm ecosystem and restore natural soil fertility. According to the basic

regulations of IFOAM, the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements, the entire farm must be

managed organically.

This is true for all private organic labels as well. Whereas most governmental regulations allow farmers to certify a

part of the farm as organic and still manage the rest of the farm conventionally. Such separation, however,

involves risks and, therefore, also some restrictions and constraints.

Generally, for small farms, only conversion of the entire farm can be recommended, as the farm unit would

become too small to enable establishment of a diverse production system, allow proper crop rotation and

introduction of livestock.

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The procedure of inspection and certification.Once a farmer or a farmer group has taken the decision to convert his or their farm(s), the farmer or

the farmer group can take the first step towards certification by contacting the certification body and asking for

information on the certification procedure, the costs and the subscription forms for certification. This can happen at

any time of the year. The contact between the farmer and the certification body may also be established through

an agricultural adviser. Following the farmer’s contact, the certification company will give the farmer the application

forms for starting the official conversion process, and the organic regulation manual to make sure that the farmer

has all information available on the requirements of organic agriculture. The farmer is then asked to get familiar

with the regulations and sign the application. Together with the application, the farmer provides detailed

information about the farm to be certified.

Based on the forms, the certification body sets up a contract and forwards it to the farmer. The farmer

signs the contract, declaring commitment to comply with organic regulations and the conditions of the certification

procedure including the annual visit, the duty of record keeping and payment of certification fees.

The conversion can start at 1st of January or during the year when the crop season starts (for example

flowering of fruit trees or soil preparation for vegetable crops). When converting, the farmer must start keeping

records, such as purchase and application of inputs (fertilizers, pest and disease management agents, seeds) as

well as marketing of products. The records will serve as one of the references on crop and animal husbandry for

certification.

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The procedure of inspection and certification.

Every year the farm is inspected by an inspection officer or by a member of the participatory control system.

During inspection, the farmer informs the officer about the management of the crops and of livestock and his or

her successes and failures. The officer consults the records and takes a look at the fields and the stables.

Inspection also includes an estimation of the risk of contamination of the farm through synthetic pesticides and

GMO from neighbouring fields. In case products are transformed on the farm, the procedures will also be

discussed. The more open and honest the communication by the farmer is, the better any possible

misunderstandings can be avoided. Based on the farm-visit the inspection officer writes the inspection report and

forwards it to the certifiers for analysis and final certification decision. If the farm complies with the organic

regulations, the farmer receives the certificate, if necessary with additional recommendations for the management.

In case of non-compliance with requirements, for example, following the use of synthetic pesticides, the certifier is

not authorized to issue a certificate.

With the certificate, the farmer may now sell his products as organic in conversion during the first 2-3 years. After

the third year only, the farmer can sell his products as full organic.

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Organic seed requirements for certificationFor organic certification according to most standards, farmers are required to use only organic seed and planting

materials, if available. If organic seed and planting materials are not commercially available, the following options

(in order of preference) may be permitted with documentation that organic seed is not available:

Seed grown only with substances in accordance with organic standards (can be from fields under conversion).

Untreated seed and planting stock from neighbours or group members.

Non-organic seed for perennial plants may be used. Perennial plants or crops must be managed organically for

at least 12 months before harvest or sale as organic, but the original plants need not be organic.

Arrangements in brief for control and inspectionPeople or companies who, as part of a commercial activity, produce, process, or import from another country

foodstuffs or agricultural produce that are sold as "organic", must notify this fact to the appropriate authority or

authorities of the Member State under whose jurisdiction they fall; and furthermore, they must make their

operations available for inspection by the authority or authorities appointed by the Member State. The Member

State may nominate one or more bodies from the public or private sectors to act as its appointed inspectors. And a

separate body appointed by the Member State is specifically responsible for ensuring, via its own inspections, that

the appointed inspectors are carrying out their duties in a fair and proper way.

Organically produced food can only be sold as such if it has been checked and certified by the Member State’s

inspectors.

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Arrangements in brief for control and inspectionThe methods and criteria of the inspections are specified in EU regulations, and adapted from those

set out in detail in Appendix III of Regulation No 2092/91, on the Regulations EC 834/2007 and 889/2008, also

including labelling rules.

When the farm is first inspected, the inspector submits a full description of it to the authority he

represents. After that, it is the farmer’s duty every year to notify the authority of his crop-growing programme for

every plot of land. The farmer must keep a detailed record of the products he buys and the farm produce he sells,

specifying quantity, exact nature, and origin or destination.

If a farm uses organic and conventional methods contemporaneously, there must be a rigorous

separation between the cultivated areas and the storage spaces set aside for each method. It is not allowed to

grow the same variety of crop using both methods. During the inspection of such a farm, the inspector will

consider it as a whole, and will look at every part of it, including the part where conventional agriculture is

practised. If the inspector should find any breach of regulations, the authority should withdraw the farmer’s right to

make any reference to organic farming methods, either with regard to the whole crop, or to that part of it that is

affected by the breach. In the event of blatant breaches, or those having long-term effects, the authority can ban

the farmer from making any reference, for a specified length of time, to the organic process in connection with the

crops grows and/or sells. Each Member State organises the arrangements for control and inspection in its own

national territory.

.

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Labelling of organically produced foodstuffs

EU legislation lays down very precise rules concerning the labelling and advertising of organically produced

foodstuffs. This is intended to put an end to a state of affairs that until recently was highly ambiguous and tended

to leave the consumer confused or annoyed. Regulation 2092/91 created various categories of produce

according to the proportion of organically produced ingredients that each category contains. The new Regulation

EC No 834/2007 also maintains the same categories and proportion. This proportion is expressed as a

percentage.

Only two types of product can be sold with labelling that refers to the organic method of production. These are: i)

unprocessed organically-produced (vegetable) agricultural produce and ii) processed products containing over

95% of ingredients defined as produced by organic methods. This last category can contain a maximum of 5% of

ingredients produced by conventional farming methods, provided that such ingredients are not available, or are

available in insufficient quantities in organic form on the EU market (i.e. exotic fruit, specific natural flavours,

products of hunting and fishing, ingredients added for specific nutrition purposes,..). If the producer wishes, the

labelling for this category can also state that the product conforms to EU organic farming standards. USA and EU

have agreed an “equivalence arrangement”, taking effect on 1st June 2012, by recognising that organic products

certified to the USDA organic or European Union (EU) organic standards may be sold and labelled as organic in

both the U.S. and the EU. It is also foreseen in order to facilitating trade between the two largest markets in the

world, collaboration programs to promote organic agriculture, protect organic integrity and share technical

information and best practices.

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Incentives to convert to organic farming

A measure of the interest shown by many Member States in organic methods of farming, is the fact

that they encouraged farmers to adopt them even before the approval of Regulation 2078/92 on agricultural

environmental measures.

The first Member State to introduce financial incentives for organic farming was Denmark, which set

up a scheme to encourage consulting, information, and marketing services; farms were also eligible for direct

grants and subsidies during the conversion period. Since then also other EU countries introduced grants and

subsidies to stimulate the conversion to organic farming, contributing to enlarge the organic farmers’ movement.

Amongst EU countries, Germany was the first to introduce, in 1989, a conversion programme to

organic farming as part of the European Community’s general agricultural policy. The German programme set out

mainly to reduce agricultural output, and did not contain any stated environmental aims. Financial aid made

available for conversion to organic farming was DM 425 per hectare per year for crops of which there was a

surplus, and DM 300 for other crops. The subsidies lasted for a period of five years. (Lampkin, 1996).

The approval of EC Regulation 2078/92 marked the Community’s commitment to finance and promote

environmentally-friendly methods of production in the agricultural sector. The Regulation included a range of

measures which together tended to reduce the quantity of agricultural produce, to protect the rural landscape, and

to save endangered plant and animal species.

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Incentives to convert to organic farming

Specifically, the measures were as follows:

• to reduce the use of chemical products on farms, and to promote organic farming methods

• to discourage all forms of intensive farming

• to reduce the density of the sheep and goat population

• to encourage the introduction of a range of environmentally-friendly practices, including the protection the

landscape and the breeding of endangered animal species

• to protect abandoned farm- and forest-land

• 20-year set-aside in order to allow it to regain its vitality

• to manage land with an eye to public access and recreational uses

• to offer training and to promote public awareness

Most Member States have concentrated their energy on the first and last of these measures.

Furthermore, most Member States have granted aids and subsidies both to existing organic farms and to those

wishing to convert to organic methods and some of them have set up networks to provide consumers with

information and technical advice. Arrangements for control and inspection are not financed by the EU, but some

Member Countries have made funds available for these purposes. The new Agro-environment measures included

in the Rural Development Plans 2007/2013 are addressed to at least one of two broad objectives, reducing

environmental risks associated with modern farming on the one hand, and preserving nature and cultivated

landscapes on the other hand. France, Britain, Greece, and some of the German Länder have decided just to

offer financial help during the conversion period.

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1.2.2 ECONOMIC IMPACT OF ORGANIC FARMING IN EUROPE

Global turnover in organic food was almost 55 billion US dollars or approximately 40 billion Euros in 2009 (Sahota

2011). About one quarter of the world’s organic agricultural land, estimated 37.2 million hectares in total, is in

Europe, which accounts for 9.2 million hectares (Willer & Kilcher 2011). Since the beginning of the 1990s, organic

farming has rapidly developed in almost all European countries (European Commission 2010). In Europe,

currently more than nine million hectares are managed organically by more than 260,000 producers (2009, see

Table 1). In the European Union there were 8.3 million hectares in 2008 dedicated to organic farming, constituting

4.7 percent of the European whole agricultural land. They were managed organically by almost 220, 000

producers (Willer & Kilcher 2011). Between 2008 and 2009, the organic agricultural land in Europe increased by

almost 1 million hectares (see Figure 1). The increase is due to high growth rates in Turkey, Spain, Italy and

France. In recent years, growth rates were higher in the new member states compared to those in the EU 15. The

country with the largest organic agricultural land area in 2010 was Spain with 1,456,672 hectares, followed by Italy

with 1,113,742 hectares, Germany with 990,702 hectares, France with 845,442 hectares and United Kingdom with

699,638 (see Figure 3). Italy is the country in Europe with the highest number of producers (41,807 producers).

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The European market for organic food and drink

In 2010, the EU organic food and drink market (general retails sales, specialised shops, farm gates sales etc.)

was estimated to value approximately 18,400 million euro. The largest market is Germany with approximately 6

billion € (2010), followed by France (approx. 3,4 billion €), and the UK (approx. 2 billion €). Denmark, Austria and

Switzerland account for the highest market shares with more than five percent of the total food and drink market.

While land area under organic management has expanded rapidly in many new EU member states as well as in

candidate and potential EU candidate countries, consumption levels have remained low in these countries (less

than 1 percent). Whereas 2009 was characterised by slower growth than the previous years, with stagnation in

some countries, the situation has changed in 2010 with organic products showing notable increases in sales

again, which can be related to the improvement of economic conditions in general. In 2010 prices rose

considerably in the second half of the year after a lower harvest of many crops, so it is likely that the limiting factor

for market growth could again be supply. Overall it is estimated that market development in 2010 across Europe

resulted in single digit growth rate for sales values and a bigger growth rate for the sales volumes. For 2011

market actors expect ongoing mainly single-digit growth of the organic market in many countries.

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The European market for organic food and drink

Action plans for organic food and farming

Organic action plans provide a framework for integrating policies and measures in order to encourage organic

sector development. Thus action plans serve as a strategic instrument for governments to achieve policy goals,

particularly when multiple policy areas (such as agriculture, environment, and trade) and different levels of policy

formulation are to be integrated (Schmid & al. 2008). According to a recent survey at least 26 countries or regions

in Europe have an action plan (Gonzálvez 2011), many of them with quantitative targets. Austria for instance

aimed to have 20% organic land by 2010. This goal was almost achieved: the country had a 19.5% share of

organic land in 2010. In 2004 the European Action Plan for Organic Food and Farming was launched. The

information campaign proposed in the plan started in July 2008. With this campaign, Action 1 - a multi-annual EU

wide information and promotion campaign to inform consumers, public institutions' canteens, schools and other

key actors is implemented.

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PART I – LEVEL 2 TEST

Module 3 - Tests and assignments

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS

What is IFOAM?

a. International standard for organic farming

b. International association of organic associations and movements

c. International financial system for small and medium enterprises

What is biodynamic agriculture?

a. Farming approach based on the principle that all organic substances are to be put back into the natural

system

b. Technological approach based on intensive use of agricultural machineries

c. Kind of farming based on use of GMOs (Genetically Modified Organisms)

Question 1

Question 2

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PART I – LEVEL 2 TEST

What is permaculture?

a. Kind of farming based on permanent cultivations

b. Cultural approach based on primitive and old fashioned farming

c. Method for sustainable energy saving farming aiming at a slow decrease of human intervention

What is crop rotation?

a. Intensive cultivation method permitting quick and extra-seasonal replacement of crops

b. Farming technique based on rotating crops with high nitrogen needs with those returning it to the soil

c. Alternative use of GMO, conventional and organic seeds

Question 3

Question 4

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PART I – LEVEL 2 TEST

What is biodiversity?

a. Variety of living organisms (crops, animals, spontaneous plants,..) inhabiting an area

b. Proliferation of bacteria

c. Method to analyze and select seeds for crops

What is the Council Regulation (EC) No 834/2007 of 28 June?

a. EU Regulation on organic farming updating the Regulation 2092/91

b. EU Regulation on agricultural environmental measures

c. EU Regulation on CAP subsidies

Question 5

Question 6

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PART II – LEVEL 3 TEST

What is the conversion process to organic farming?

a. Charter of principles listing all the procedures for organic farming

b. Farming based on intensive land use

c. Transition process to manage a farm by adopting organic farming practices and organic standards

What is the Council Regulation (EC) No 889/2008?

a. EU Regulation on farming best practices

b. EU Regulation on organic standards including labelling rules and control requirements

c. EU Regulation on incentives for conversion to organic farming

Question 7

Question 8

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What are the organic action plans?

a. Development plans for EU rural areas

b. EU regional plans to favour coexistence of conventional and organic farming

c. EU initiatives to develop the organic food market, improve transparency and consumer confidence

What is the largest national organic market in Europe?

a. Switzerland

b. Italy

c. Germany

Question 9

Question 10

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PART II – LEVEL 3 TEST

SOLUTIONS

1)b

2)a

3)c

4)b

5)a

6)a

7)c

8)b

9)c

10)c

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MODULE 3.3 Organic crops

3.3.1. RGANIC FARMING AND SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

One of the basic differences between conventional and organic agriculture lies in the differing views of

how plants are supplied with minerals. The so called principle of input-output was explained by Liebig in one of his

most important works, “The Application of the chemistry in Agriculture and Physiology": “If a farmer wants to be

sure of a long-term high yield he must make sure to replace the nutrients which are lacking in stable manure from

other sources, as the amount of these substances contained in the fields is very limited … if the farmer does not

ensure their replacement the time will inevitably come when any field is no longer able to produce crops" (Liebig

1865).

In organic farming the crops are sustained by the soil, from which they extract the nutrients, making

the soil, together with the climate, the two conditions which must be taken into consideration. In such a system the

soil is considered a fragile element that must be cared for and protected to assure its long-term productivity and

stability. Soil fertility is a general concept expressing soil capacity to allow growth and production of plants. This

concept in organic farming, since the EEC Regulation 2092/91 as well as in Regulations EC 834/2007 and

889/2008, means that soil fertility has to be maintained by bringing organic substances, instead of synthetic

chemical fertilizers. This entails that in order to maintain and improve the productivity of the soil the following

agricultural practices should be carried out:

Reduction of tilling

Adequate management of watering in order to reduce the erosion and the resulting loss of soil through drag.

Maintenance of vegetable cover or crop remains on the soil to diminish the erosion processes.

Addition of organic material by means of compost, manure or burying green crops (i.e. leguminous plants).

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3.3.2 FERTILITY OF THE SOIL AND CHOICE OF CROPS

Soil is the most important resource for the ecological farmer. By managing it efficiently it can remain in an

adequate state from a productive point of view as well as from the viewpoint of the fertility of the soil. In 6 you can

see the main factors that affect the fertility of the soil. Given that in ecological production synthetic fertilisers may

not be used, the maintenance of the fertility in organic production systems is based on:

Crop rotation.

Burying cover crops and straw.

Composting vegetable and animal residues.

Maximum recycling of nutrients.

Maintenance of the soil structure.

Use of crops that fix nitrogen.

Figure : Factors that affect the fertility of the soil

Even though it is not the aim of this paragraph, it is of interest to note that water is at present, and will be even

more so in the future, the main limiting factor in agricultural production, therefore its correct use and preservation

is fundamental for organic production and for agricultural sustainability. The management of water in this context

must consider the following actions:

Improving the means of its preservation

The use of species and varieties that are tolerant of drought

The use of watering systems of reduced volume

A correct manipulation of the crops and their watering in order to reduce the loss of water through evaporation

and run-off

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General principles for choosing crops

When one chooses a type of ecological production it is important to take the following points into consideration:

The destiny of highly specialised quality markets

To choose varieties capable of competing favourably with the weeds

To choose varieties which have a good resistance to common diseases

To choose early varieties in areas where the production is late to allow the reduction of the number of

phytosanitary treatments

To cultivate a determined amount of varieties sequentially in order to get successive staggered harvests To

optimise the use of labour and a longer period of time on the market

To take into account the effect of both the crops that came before and those that will come after when deciding

on the rotation

Factors determining the choice of crop

The factors which should be considered and condition type of crop to choose are:

The situation of the farm and its proximity to the destination markets

The demands of the market

The type of soil

The farm specific characteristics

A correct crop rotation is a strong point for an efficient organic agriculture.

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Rotation

Crop rotation, as a basis of organic crops and vegetable production, allows biodiversity to be introduced

throughout the duration of the rotation. It is indispensable to maintain the fertility of the soil and to avoid

phytosanitary problems derived from the reiterative cultivation of just one species. It also allows:

To re-establish the fertility of the soil.

The use of crops with different root structures that allow the soil to maintain its structure while exploring different

layers.

To introduce alternatively crops that fix the nitrogen (clover, alfalfa) with others that require it (cereals).

To prevent damage due to erosion (on and under the surface) by maintaining the soil covered with a vegetable

covering for as long as possible throughout the year. This also includes green manure and the sowing of cover

crops.

To provide a wide range of possibilities for weed control. To include the so-called cleaning crops, such as those

which are grown for their roots, meaning that weed control can be easily carried out.

To minimise the effect of plagues and diseases.

To include species from different families with the aim of preventing plagues and diseases that are resident in

the soil.

To diminish the effect of operations on the crops by carrying them out with tools and at different times of the

year for the different crops.

To reduce the risks associated with the deficient behaviour of a determined crop.

To provide a better use of investments in machinery and equipment.

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The distribution of different rotation of crops

Organic rotations, especially in humid climates, are based, at least for 3 or 4 years, on vegetable cover of

herbaceous/clover meadows. From time to time and for short periods the rotation includes grazing crops.

The cover crops include pulses, which synthesise nitrogen and provide food for animals whose excrements are

recycled.

This also offers the chance to reduce weeds, plagues and diseases. In organic production livestock is the ideal

complement to agricultural crops, due to the permanent recycling of nutrients and organic matter.

When establishing the rotations the following points should be considered:

Their economic viability

The pedological-climatic adaptation of the different crops

The level of technical knowledge

The availability of suitable machinery

Factors to take into consideration in the crop model

Susceptibility of the different crops to plagues and diseases

The reaction of the crops to the residual fertility (from previous crops)

The requirements of the crops in manure (organic material)

The economic viability of the rotations

The climatic adaptation of the different crops

The availability of experts in organic production and of machinery

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Satisfaction of the nutritional requirements

You should choose the adequate place for each species in the rotation, bearing in mind that the fertility of the soil is

high after a meadow crop (grass-clover) which will give a good result for crops such as cereals or potatoes,

therefore different vegetable crops should come after meadow crops. The use of organic correctors is essential

given that they provide nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, but in different quantities and in different ratios. In

addition they improve the structure of the soil, increase the capacity for retaining nutrients by means of the humic

compound, as well as water.

Correctors or green manure (roots or forage) should be applied to the crops that extract high quantities of nutrients.

The residual fertility of the forage is best taken advantage of when it is used as a cover or green manure as a

previous crop. Some crops, as for example leaves of cruciferous plants, have high nutritional needs.

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Micro-elements

There are a determined amount of other nutrients that are required by crops in small quantities (kg or g per ha)

which are known as microelements and include, amongst others things, iron, sodium, chlorine, selenium, cobalt,

manganese, copper, zinc, boron, iodine, silicon and molybdenum. The majority of these are available for the

plants in organic production, but under some circumstances there can be deficiencies, such as, for example, when

the pH of the soil is high. They are heavy metals and in excessive quantities they can be phytotoxic.

Important nutrients

These are required in hundreds of kg per ha. Three of them (carbon, hydrogen and oxygen) can be found in the

atmosphere, three more (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) must be added to the crops and the three

remaining ones (magnesium, calcium and sulphur) are usually found in sufficient amounts in the soil.

The availability of the different nutrients in the soil depends largely on the pH of the soil, as can be seen in figure

5. A pH of between 5.7 and 6.2 is normally acceptable for grazing land, depending on the species that make it up

and the arable crops introduced in the rotation. On the other hand alfalfa needs, for its optimum development,

lightly basic soil.

Figure 5:

Availability of nutrients according to the pH level

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3.3.3 PLANT NUTRITION AND TECHNIQUES IN ORGANIC FARMING

The nutrition of crops which are produced ecologically should be based on a system that is as close as

possible to sustainability from the point of view of the nutrients, in other words the largest possible amount of

mineral elements extracted from the soil return to it. As is logical, crops are extractions that are not revertible so

the recycling is not total but it is more efficient than in the case of conventional farming. In order to compensate

the balance of nutrients in the soil at least two nutrients must be specifically applied, these are phosphorus and

potassium as will be explained forthwith. In order to programme the nutrition of the crops it must be born in mind

that each crop has its own nutritional needs, hence the interest in establishing crop rotations. As a starting point

the soil should be tested for its phosphorus, potassium and pH level, and if necessary the levels should be

optimised before establishing the first crop of organic production.

In organic farming, in the same way as in other parts of the production process, (phytosanitary

defence, elimination of weeds etc.) there is a tendency to optimise the efficiency of fertilisers by means of

Integrated Systems of Plant Nutrition (SINP). SINP tries to achieve maximum efficiency when bringing nutritive

elements to crops by means of a better association of the agricultural and non-agricultural sources of nutrients,

trying to achieve a sustainable agricultural production based on a better productive capacity of the soil. With these

systems the need for mineral fertilisers can be considerably reduced as they bring timely and sufficient supplies of

plant nutrients and reduce the loss of these nutrients in the cultivation systems as much as possible. The adoption

of SINP includes the potential to increase the profitability of the use of fertilisers (FAO, 1993).

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3.3.3 PLANT NUTRITION AND TECHNIQUES IN ORGANIC FARMING

Environmental reasons

Economic reasons

Problems with supply

That of the farm producing ecologically. The nutrients are transferred by livestock and crops (animal

manure, straw, forage) and also between the different stages of rotation.

That of the soil. In the plant/soil system the nutrients are absorbed from the soil by the plant and later

returned to it when the plant dies. Micro-organisms and the fauna in the soil, water and gas also intervene

in this cycle. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium circulate in the soil and in animals in different ways due

to their chemical properties. This affects the way in which the different nutrients should be managed to

obtain maximum recycling and retention.

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Options for managing the fertility

A fertile soil is that which is capable of maintaining a crop with optimum production. The most fertile soils are

deep, well drained and loose, with an adequate content of nutrients and organic material and with a correct

structure. These soils have an intense activity of microbial and invertebrate organisms, assuring an optimal

liberation of nutrients for the growth of the crop. The best soils are the same as in conventional farming, except

that in organic production the use of synthetic fertilisers is not permitted. It is for this reason that, in order to

provide the nutritive necessities of the crops, the choice of a correct crop rotation is fundamental.

Cultivation systems:

Crop rotation

Covering with leguminous species

Green manure

Covering crops

Supply of manure and fertilisers

Produced in the same farm (solids and liquids)

The purchase of organic manure or fertilisers

Crops

Given that it is not permitted to use synthetic fertilisers it is vitally important to achieve a natural availability of

nutrients according to the needs of the crop.

Nitrogen in the soil

Nitrogen is required for the growth of leaves and for the production used in photosynthesis. In organic production it

habitually occurs in organic ways and needs to be converted into ammonia or nitrate in order to be absorbed into

the plant. The most interesting aspects, with reference to its availability in function of the form in which it is found,

are shown in Table 7.

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Table 7: Forms of nitrogen in the soil and conversion by micro-organisms

Nitrogen supply

In dung, as well as in compost or other forms, nitrogen is found mainly in organic forms and needs to be converted

into an ammoniac or nitric form so that it can be used by the plants.

Some plants, as for example leguminous ones (clover, alfalfa, beans, peas, etc.) are able to absorb atmospheric

nitrogen, therefore the inclusion of clover or other leguminous crops in the rotation allows adequate nitrogen levels

in the soil without the need for fertilisers.

This process is due to bacteria, known as Rhizobium, which are found in the nodules of leguminous crops. During

the symbiosis the bacteria bring nitrogen to the plant and the plant gives them the necessary nutrients.

By introducing the following crop into the rotation the nitrogen present in the nodules will be available over the

next two years as not all the nitrogen is liberated immediately.

A mixed cover with clover can fix about 160 kg of nitrogen per hectare, although this quantity can vary according

to the age of the leguminous plants, climatic conditions etc.

Form in the soil Nitrogen in the

organic material

Ammoniacal

nitrogen (NH4+)

Nitrate (NO3-)

Conversion by the micro-organisms in the soil

Availability for the

plant

No Scarcely Yes

Lost in the

atmosphere

No As ammonia gas Nitrogen and nitrous

oxide gas

Lost through

draining away

No No Yes

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The quantities of humus contributed by different crops vary in function of the part of the plant considered, as in the

species in example (Table 8).

Table 8: Quantity of humus in function of the part of the plant used.

With regard to the nitrogen, it is important to remember some points in order to optimise the advantages and avoid

losses:

It is soluble and can be lost in gas form.

The extractions by the crop and losses may be replaced thanks to the absorption of leguminous plants.

These crops liberate nitrogen making it available for the plant or losing it.

When the soil is barren in winter large quantities of nitrogen can be lost (for example due to water seepage).

The problem is not usually the total quantities required, so much as the extractions not being in harmony with

what is supplied.

Nitrogen is less difficult to replace than phosphorus and potassium.

Quantity of humus in function of the part of the plant used. kg of humus per ha of crop

Wheat stalks and roots

Wheat roots and buried pellets

Barley stalks and roots

Barley roots and buried pellets

Corn roots and stalks

Corn roots and buried leaves

Beetroot leaves and necks

Green manure

300-600

600-1200

200-500

400-1000

400-800

800-1200

500-800

300-700

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The diagram in 6 shows the nitrogen cycle in a grass and clover meadow.

You can see that one of the most important fluxes is the direct fixing of nitrogen by Rhizobium bacteria in the roots

of the clover.

Another aspect worth mentioning is the action of bacteria in the soil on the organic matter (in the form

of compost) providing nitrogen available for the plants, this being the main way of supplying nitrogen to non-

leguminous plants. The possibility of leaching can mean important losses of nitrogen, depending on the rainfall

and/or watering.

Figure 6: The cycle of nitrogen in a grass/clover meadow (Source: Simpson, 1987)

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Phosphorus in the soil (P2O5)

Phosphorus in the soil is assimilated by plants only in the form of phosphate (P2O5). Phosphates are

needed so that seeds can germinate and so that the roots can grow. More than 90% of the phosphate in the soil is

not available in a form that plants can assimilate, as it forms part of the different mineral compounds (tricalcium

phosphate, iron and aluminium compounds, etc.) and the organic material. Phosphate levels can be maintained

by the residues of the crops and by the addition of phosphoric rock. This constitutes the only contribution of

phosphorus in organic production, apart from phosphate, that is usually allowed. In spite of the fact that

phosphoric rock is accepted in the usual techniques of standard production it can take months or years until the

phosphate can be assimilated by the plants. The availability of phosphate is greater when the pH level is between

5.5 and 6.6, which is not the case for the majority of soils i.e. in the Mediterranean basin, which usually have pH

levels of higher than 8 and contents of active limestone greater than 7%. Ion phosphate is much less mobile than

nitrogen and needs to be found within the root system or nearby. The Mycorrhiza Fungi that live in the roots of the

plants are very useful as their hyphae can colonise a volume of soil much greater than that which the plants’ own

roots can.

Important aspects which should be known about phosphorus:

The availability of phosphate, short-term, can become an important problem given that phosphoric correctors

(phosphoric rock, etc.) are for long-term use.

Phosphate does not suffer losses due to seepage or in gas form, but it can be lost through erosion, particularly

when the correctors have been heaped up.

Standard soil analysis only shows the phosphorus available for the plant but not the existing reserves.

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Phosphorus in the soil (P2O5)

Potassium (K2O)

Potassium is used to control the balance of water in the plant and helps to maintain its defences. It is required for

the synthesis of hydrocarbons, whether these be in the form of starch or sugars. It favours a natural resistance

against attacks by plagues and diseases. Potassium is probably the most difficult nutrient to manage in organic

production.

Clay soils are no particular handicap, as they allow for a balanced crop rotation of species and have adequate

levels for the majority of crops.

The most important problems are found in sandy soils, in which there is usually a deficiency of potassium. Straw

has a considerable potassium content and its recycling as manure is essential in ecological production.

Certain compounds such as potatoes and leafy vegetables need important quantities, straw can also extract a lot

of potassium. If these crops are sold a great deal of attention must be paid to replacing losses. Like phosphorus,

potassium is not very mobile in the soil, although more so than phosphorus, therefore crops with a good root

system are the best ones for extracting the available potassium from the soil. The following must be considered:

To replace the potassium in the same place as the losses are produced.

Important quantities of potassium can be lost through leaching in the mounds where potassium correctors are

stored.

Potassium rock constitutes a long-term supply of potassium.

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Extraction of nutrients for crops

The extractions depend on the kind of crop, as here below in example (Table 9) and quantifying must be carried

out to plan their supply with compost or manure.

Table 9: Extractions by weight and by hectare corresponding to different crops.

Kg of nutrient per ton of fresh matter Production Kg of nutrient extracted per ha.

N P2O5 K2O per ha N P2O5 K2O

Barley grain 17 7.8 5.6 5 85 39 28

Parley straw 5 1.5 12.6 3 15 5 38

Wheat grain 19 7.8 5.6 7 130 55 39

Wheat straw 5 1.3 9.3 4 20 5 37

Oats 17 8.0 6.0

Potato tuber 3 1.0 5.0 36 126 32 180

Grass ensilage 1.4 4.8 30 160 42 144

Grass hay 4.8 16.0 7.5 90 36 120

Pea grain 8.8 10.0 4 144 35 44

Carrot 2 1 4

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Green manure

Green manure or cover crops are often confused, both are cultivated for different reasons but they have some

advantages in common. Cover crops are grown throughout the winter period, when the soil would be barren were

it not for these crops, mainly to prevent the loss of nitrates through leaching. They provide a residual supply of

nitrogen for the next crop. Green manure is the use of a green crop, normally a leguminous one, which is grown

mainly so that it can be buried to provide nutrients. Green manure can be used several times for its forage

benefits or for selling. It is usually grown for 12 months or longer.

Amongst the many advantages of green manure the following are noteworthy:

• It provides organic material

• If they are leguminous crops they allow the nitrogen in the air to be available to the plants

• It increases the availability of nutrients (phosphorus, potassium, etc.)

• It improves the structure of the soil

• It reduces the leaching of nitrates

• It eliminates weeds

• It reduces the problems brought about by plagues and diseases by providing a break in the normal sequence

of the crops

Possible crops that can be considered green manure: clover, red clover, peas. Possible cover crops: ray-grass,

forage rape, mustard (it can die off in the winter) and forage radish. The residues of the crops also provide

important quantities of humus when they decompose. (Table 10).

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Table 10: Quantities of humus provided by different crop residues.

Sowing/planting

In certain plots of land transplanting may have advantages such as:

Less time required from the time of planting to the time of harvesting

An earlier harvest

The land is occupied for less time thus allowing two crops per year

The crop is better assured as problems of germination and shoots have been eliminated

Weeds are controlled more effectively, by growing the crop and colonising the area more quickly than the weeds

can.

The main disadvantage of this system is the higher cost per plant, which is why it is usually used for

vegetable production. In larger areas the transplant operation needs to be mechanised meaning an investment in

buying or hiring machinery, which is not always possible. The best time for sowing and/or transplanting of different

species and varieties depends on latitude with relevant climate, specific climatic conditions and hydric state of the

soil. The dates shown in Table 11 are just examples to understand the importance of choosing the right period for

sowing.

Type of crop residue Kg of humus per ha. of crop

Wheat stalks and roots

Wheat roots and buried pellets

Barley stalks and roots

Barley roots and buried pellets

Corn stalks and roots

Corn roots and buried leaves and stems

Beetroot leaves and necks

Green manure

300-600

600-1200

200-500

400-1000

400-800

800-1200

500-800

300-700

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Table 11: Sowing dates corresponding to different crops.

Crop Suggested dates for

sowing

Too soon Too late

Spring oats March/April Weeds/Few plants Low production

Winter wheat October Diseases / Weeds Few plants, low production

Potatoes April/May Low shoots, affected by frosts Low production, diseases

Carrot May Weakness,deficient establishment Low production, deficient establishment in

dry soil

Leeks April Deficient establishment Low production

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Density of sowing and distances for planting (transplanting)

The density of sowing and transplanting are vitally important, given that the results are related to this variable, in

spite of the fact that other factors such as the species, variety, soil preparation, soil temperature and

environmental conditions influence the number of plants per m² and therefore the results. Therefore the following

should be taken into consideration:

Loss of production may be caused by too many or too few plants.

Denser crops make it harder for weeds to low grow.

Crops with large seeds (corn, etc.) should be planted deeper in the soil than those which have small seeds

(grass seed, common bentgrass, fescue grass, alfalfa, clover). This is due to the fact that the reserves of the

smaller seeds are much more limited, and if they were planted deeper, when they germinated they would not

reach the surface, therefore they must be planted near the surface in a springy soil.

Very early or very late seeds or those sown in soil with bad conditions need to be sown more densely than in

optimum condition soil, due to the lower percentage of shoots.

In heavy soils with insufficient structure and with low organic content crusts may be formed which lead to

important decreases in the percentage of shoots if the soil is not turned over.

In certain species of edible vegetables (onions, lettuce, etc.) the variation in the density when planting allows

different sizes to be obtained, the greater the density the smaller the size.

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The density and thus the amount of seeds sown vary according to species due to the differences in the size of the

seeds.

For the majority of crops the ideal situation is that in which there is the same distance between the plants in the

same row as in the next row (a squared framework). This allows the plants an optimum spatial growth even

though it allows room for small weeds to grow.

For practical sowing and transplanting reasons this framework is not often applicable. However the decrease in

the distance between the rows, for example in the case of cereals of 18 cm instead of 13 cm can be

advantageous. In many vegetable and cereal crops cultivation between the rows (mechanical weeding) is habitual

for weed control, therefore the distance between the rows must be adequate to allow this operation. The distance

between plants in the same row will be used to obtain the size or calibre required. In Table 12 you can see an

example for the amount of seeds and densities when planting for some crops.

Table 12: Amount of seeds and density of planting for some crops.

Crop Amount of seed (kg/ha) Plants/m2 Distance (cm)

Spring oats

Spring barley

Winter wheat

Potatoes

200-300

200-300

250-300

1000-1500

400-500

350-450

250-400

4-10

18x1.2 - 12x2

18x1.5 - 12x2

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Harvesting

Harvesting is a process that takes on special importance in the case of some crops that can be

damaged if they are not harvested correctly, such as certain fruits and vegetables (apples, peaches, grapes,

tomatoes, etc.). In the case of others the harvesting does not take on such importance as the crops are easily

handled (potatoes, melons, carrots, beans, artichokes, etc..) In addition, apart from the physical process of

harvesting the best moment to do it must be taken into consideration, depending on:

The species and the variety

The destination of the product and the requirements of the market-consumer

The means of transport

The packaging system used

Due to the important differences in harvesting processes, the different crops may de divided into:

Cereals

Cereals are ready to be harvested when the grain has hardened. However, in certain crops and in

damp climates it is difficult to achieve degrees of humidity that allow for adequate preservation, so they will have

to be artificially dried in dryers (corn, sunflowers, etc.).

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Root crops and vegetables

Tubers must be harvested as soon as the skin has formed. The earliness with which they are harvested is

influenced by:

The presence of certain diseases of the foliage (bacteria, fungi) that could reach the tuber and cause important

damage whether it be in the field or later when stored.

The variety of the crop. Early varieties are better suited to organic production, as they are harvested, i.e. before

potato bacteriosis becomes a problem.

The market. Early varieties usually command higher prices, despite the fact that the production and taste may

be inferior to later varieties.

Preservation and storage

The possibility of preserving the products correctly is not only limited by the choice of technical harvesting

conditions but it also depends on factors that have occurred throughout the growth of the product to be preserved.

In many cases these factors condition the duration of the preservation. Amongst these factors the following are

worthy of a mention:

The climate: temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, light, wind, etc.

The nutritional state

Watering

Attacks by plagues and diseases

The state of maturity when harvesting

In the case of fruit and vegetables as well as cereals the following points should be considered:

Hygienic measures when handling the food products

Ventilation in the store

A suitable temperature in the store

Enough space

The amount of time in storage

Available resources for the exploitation

Planning of the market needs

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In the same way that there are different methods of harvesting according to the different kind of crop and in the

part that is eaten, they may be divided into two main groups:

Root crops

These should be stored when, having been pulled from the ground, they have dried. The store must be cool, free

from frosts and well ventilated to prevent disease. The potato is the tuber that throughout history has been the

most important crop, providing the basis of the diet in many countries, especially after war conflicts.

Vegetables

These may be stored for:

A short period of time ( a few days) before being commercialised, to avoid excess offer or to lengthen the period

in periods of scarcity.

Long-term (several months) to extend the period of commercialisation.

Vegetables harvested must be put into cold-storage as quickly as possible. The length of the storage depends on

the part of the leaf that is to be used. For example, in leafy vegetables (lettuce, curly lettuce, chard, etc.) the

storage time is limited, whilst for other crops such as marrow, radishes or carrots the length is much greater. The

ones that are in between are those crops in which the fruit is the edible part (tomatoes, peppers, cucumber,

aubergine or courgettes). Granaries: if the floors are ventilated or in bulb containers (onions).

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Potatoes as an example

As an example here are some of the most important characteristics for preserving potatoes. The preservation of

potatoes is generally easy, but it basically depends on the temperature and the relative humidity of the store. The

mid-season or late varieties may be kept for up to 10 months. In order to do this they must be free from damage or

alterations in the pulp and they must not be green. The greater the specific weight and content of dry matter the

better they will preserve. During the first fortnight they must be at a temperature of 15ºC and well ventilated, with a

high relative humidity to help any "wounds" to heal over. After this the temperature depends on the variety and

their destination. If the destination is for direct consumption the best temperature is 4º-5ºC, but if they are for

industrial use they should be stored at between 7º and 10ºC. The relative humidity should be kept at around 85%

so as to avoid excessive loss due to excess weight. They should be well ventilated and not exposed to light as this

can cause them to go green. (Gorini, 1979).

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3.4. ORGANIC FOOD PROCESSING .

3.4.1. Organic food processing and HACCP

Organic food processing is submitted, as it is also for conventional food products, to HACCP (Hazard

Animal Critical Control Point) prescriptions. HACCP provides continual measures of quality that can uncover

problems and fluctuations since they occur and before the product is shipped. Therefore HACCP is a more

immediate and consistent way to control quality and risks associated to food processing than off-the-shelf testing.

HACCP prescriptions set all measures necessary to ensure the safety and wholesomeness of foodstuffs. The

HACCP measures cover all stages after primary production, during preparation, processing, manufacturing,

packaging, storing, transportation, distribution, handling, and offering for sale or supply to the consumers.

All main prescriptions concerning hygiene are included:

Biological hazard, due to pollution from any biological agent (moulds or toxins from raw materials, equipment,

etc.) ;

Chemical hazard, due to pollution from any chemical agent (heavy metals, pesticide residues, traces of

reagents, cleansers, etc.) ;

Physical hazard, due to pollution from any physical agent (fragments of wood, plastic, metal or glass deriving

from raw materials or equipment).

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3.4. ORGANIC FOOD PROCESSING .

3.4.1. Organic food processing and HACCP

The HACCP procedures are based on Critical Control Points, a step at which control can be applied

and is essential to prevent or eliminate a food safety hazard or reduce it to an acceptable level, in correspondence

of critical points, that are manufacturing phases (or areas) where some kind of risk is expected or was highlighted

by a specific monitoring activity. Preventive or corrective measures can be set in order to protect safety and

healthiness of products. The principles of HACCP from Codex Alimentarius are based on seven principles:

Principle 1: conduct a hazard analysis ;

Principle 2: determine the CCPs (Critical Control Points) ;

Principle 3: establish critical limits

Principle 4: state a system to monitor the CCPs ;

Principle 5: establish corrective actions to be taken when monitoring indicates that a specific CCP is not under

control ;

Principle 6: fix procedures for verification to confirm that the HACCP system is correctly working ;

Principle 7: set documentation concerning all procedures and records appropriate to guarantee HACCP

principles and their application.

Even if the HACCP Manual will be provided by an external expert, it is very important to choose the

right persons for internal control, responsible for specific critical points and the person in charge of the general

control procedures. All those persons have to be trained before they are in charge of the correspondent control

level. The HACCP manual will be specifically released by the expert for the specific farm or company with a step-

by-step description of all processing procedures, from the raw materials to the food products.

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The product are to be described according to specific characteristics

concerning:

Packaging description ;

Durability (Best before..) ;

Composition ;

Physical/chemical structure ;

Processing treatments ;

Nutritional facts ;

Storage conditions ;

Method of distribution.

Also intended use is to be provided, such as expected use by consumers (i.e. for organic consumers residues

must be absent) and recommendations for vulnerable groups of population (i.e. suitable for babies or people

intolerant to lactose or celiac persons). A flow-diagram is included in the HACCP Manual to identify the Critical

Control Points during the different phases. (Figure 14)

Figure 14 - HACCP flow diagram

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On this basis a monitoring procedure for each CCP is established as follows:

Collected data are evaluated by a designated person in charge of carrying out corrective actions ;

Must be possible to take corrective actions can be taken as soon as possible ;

All records must be signed by the persons doing the monitoring and by a responsible reviewing official.

The HACCP Plan is to be regularly verified and reviewed by mean of :

formal internal auditing plan ;

certification ;

analyzing clients’ complaints ;

record keeping.

it will include :

Description of the farm/factory with:

name, address, business number registration and kind of activities ;

owner related personal data ;

description of activities, such as processing and/or selling, staff organization and work description.

Processing area description:

factory lay-out with processing steps in relation to divisions;

cleaning (schedule, tools and procedures);

maintenance plan, to avoid contamination from utilities; pest control.

General requirements for the processing areas:

easy cleaning and disinfection of walls and floors;

appropriate lighting and airing;

regularly performed pest monitoring and controlling measures; separate room for lavatories and cleaning

products.

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Processing equipment description:

equipment description with processing steps in relation to divisions;

cleaning (schedule, tools and procedures);

maintenance plan, to avoid contamination from equipment; pest control.

Equipment and tools cleaning:

detailed scheduled plan of ordinary cleaning activities,

detailed description of the cleaning procedures for extraordinary cleaning in case of long work interruption; tools

to be used for

each operation.

Staff management:

personal hygiene and training on HACCP procedures.

Organic farming and traceability

Food products in conversion to organic farming can also be labeled with the relevant reference, with exclusion of

animal production (eggs, milk, meat,..) that can not be labeled as in conversion. The conversion period is different

depending of kind of product:

vegetables can be commercialized as organic after a 24 months conversion period,

before seeding;

permanent pastures can be used as organic fodder after a 24 months conversion period;

permanent cultivations different of pastures can give organic products after a 3 years

conversion period since the first harvest.

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The EC Reg. 834/07 includes (Art. 23, paragraph 4,a) the mandatory provision to use the organic logo

of the European Union on label of the pre-packed organic food made in EU. This use is optional for labels of non

pre-packed products made in EU or imported from third countries. The technical provisions to reproduce the EU

organic logo are described in the CE Reg. 271/2010, Annex XI, in all the EU languages (see

http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/organic/eu-policy/logo_en ). According to the EC Reg. 834/07 also national and/or

private logo can be associated on label with the EU official one. The most known in the world, for their large use,

are in Europe:

„Agricolture Biologique” (AB-France), is property of the Ministry of Agriculture, Food, Fishery and Rural

Development and is very popular in France, so it can be convenient to associate it to the EU logo. It obliges to

respect also the French organic regulation that includes some differences for the animal production. For organic

wines it is obligatory to add “Vin d e s raisins biologiques”. Information on www.agencebio.org .

„BIOSIEGEL” is the official food for organic farming in Germany. It is optional and complementary to

the EU logo. It is necessary to send a written request to the BioSiegel certification centre to be authorized to use

the logo. See also www.bio-siegel.de

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Japanese Agricultural Standards (Japanese Market). This certification is obligatory to export to Japan

both organic vegetable raw materials and processed products; it is optional for products from animal

production and feedstuffs. The certification is not necessary if the Japanese importer is JAS certified.

Canada Organic Regime (Canadian Market). COR started as a certification in July 2009 and it is

obligatory since July 2011 for organic products addressed to the Canadian Market. There are two

categories:

“organic” (at least 95% in weight organic);

“contains X% organic ingredients” (between 70% and 95% organic ingredients).

All the organic supply chain has to be COR certified. From an Agreement between Canada and USA, the COR

certified products, with some added requirements, can be admitted to the USA organic market.

National Organic Program (USA Market). The NOP certification is obligatory for export of organic

products to USA. There are four categories:

“100% organic”;

“organic” (at least 95% organic ingredients);

“made with organic ingredients” (at least 70% organic ingredients);

“less than 70% organic” (products with less than 70% organic ingredients).

(Swiss Market) The certification BioSuisse is based on a private Swiss standard ownership of an

organic producers’ association. Special strict rules are requested to the producers, also involving

environmental sustainability, such as i.e. air freight not admitted for raw materials and for organic ingredients not

available in Switzerland the proximity criteria (the closest country where those ingredients are available) are to be

followed.

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3.5. ORGANIC FOOD MARKETING AND COMMERCIALIZATION

3.5.1. Marketing and organic farming and food

Marketing is a management tool of any business aiming to enhance sales and incomes. Marketing

starts with deciding what to produce based on the requirements of the market. The market, in this case, refers to

the persons or organisations who demand the products on offer for consumption, further selling or processing.

Knowing the target market or markets is an extremely important factor to successful marketing. Traditionally,

farmers and their advisors focus on increasing production on farms and then look for markets to sell what is

produced, instead of producing what the market wants. The adoption of a marketing strategy requires farmers to

shift their focus from “producing for the market” to “producing what the target customers want”. The decision to

produce according to market requirements is an important marketing step, as it involves a commitment to specific

customer needs, such as type of product, quality and quantity and sets some strategic aims:

Understand the importance of marketing

Understand where to find relevant information about market opportunities, prices and quality requirements

Understand how to identify market expectations in terms of quality, standards and know how to cope with these

standards

Recognize who is involved in organic marketing and know the steps on how to organise organic markets

Learn how to assess the market potential of organic products

Learn how to develop a marketing concept, define a marketing strategy and apply marketing techniques

Understand how organic market development can be promoted beyond individual businesses

Determine when organic certification is useful and know how to get access to it.

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Marketing of organic productsOrganic farmers who produce for the market are interested to know the market potential and how to

get access to organic markets. Giving best value to high quality organic products is a major concern of organic

farmers and needs specific techniques. Marketing products as organic also requires certification of the farm. No

organic certification is required, if the farm products are not sold as organic. The decision to certify the farm as

organic should be linked to the possibility of marketing a relevant share of the farm products as organic with a

premium price. The premium price should cover at least the certification costs. Application for certification can be

made when the entire farm, or a specific part of it appointed to organic farming, is managed organically.

Depending on the organic standards there is a defined transition or conversion period of one to three years.

During this time, depending on the standards, the farm products must either be marketed as non-organic, or they

can be marketed as organic products originating from a farm in conversion. Most customers in export markets,

however, request organic products that originate from farms that have already achieved the conversion period.

Marketing organic products involves considerable personal initiative. To access domestic and local markets,

farmers need to communicate the value of their products to local traders and customers. This may involve inviting

them to the farm and explaining the principles of organic production and showing them advantages of the organic

approach for nature and the positive impact on product quality. Traders and customers buy organic products

based on a certificate from a nationally recognized organic certification body. Local supermarkets may require

registration as a member of an organic farming association as an additional guarantee of the farmer’s commitment

to organic agriculture. In case the farmers want to sell to export markets through a trader, there may be specific

regulations to comply with. Organic products are commonly targeted for the local market in the producing

countries whereby local demand normally surpasses the supply. In such situations, there is still room to increase

production to meet the ever increasing demand. However, in some cases, consumers even within domestic

markets are demanding sustainably produced animal products such as eggs, milk and meat. There is, therefore,

an opportunity for marketing sustainably produced or organic products which can fetch premium prices. But the

decision to certify organic production should be primarily based on the availability of the market or the willingness

of retailers to promote sustainably produced or organic animal products.

Figure 17 - Flow chart cycle production-sales

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Quality requirements for organic products

Supply chain management is one of the key issues to the success of developing an organic market at

local, regional, national and international level. Efficiency and quality management are determining factors and

need particular attention. Key issue in quality development is the establishment of a quality assurance system

throughout the supply chain. This involves quality of raw materials, procurement control system, processing

quality, packaging, and stock management. Both the marketing organisations and the producers need to apply a

Total Quality Management (TQM) for their operation so that product quality can be continuously maintained.

Different markets have different requirements regarding the quality, certification and documentation of

organic products. Therefore, in the process of planning an organic business and corresponding marketing

activities, producers need to decide for which market they would like to produce. Part of this query relates to find

out which regulations are relevant for what countries and marketing opportunities.

Consumers expect a specific quality from specific products. To know the quality expectations and to

implement them in the product design and marketing, therefore, are fundamental for the success of an organic

business. At the same time, producers have to make sure that they can guarantee this quality along the complete

product chain.

Quality refers to multiple aspects that define as the marketability of a given product in terms of:

Food safety: free of residues and contaminants

Nutritional value of product, content of vitamins, antioxidants, polyunsaturated fatty acids etc.

Free from additives and colorants

Natural taste and smell

External appearance: colour, healthy looking (free of blemishes, disease)

Appropriate packaging; presentable and hygienic packaging for consumer markets

Environmental benefits of a product towards natural resources and climate

Consistency and continuity of supply

Communication services such as labelling, informing about this quality

Organic certification endorsing this quality.

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Organic markets differences from other markets

Company objectives. In addition to economic objectives like increase sales volume and income, aspects of

ecological and social responsibility are also to be considered. This means for example: save and recycling of

energy, a minimum fair salary for all employees of a farm or a trading company and a fair share of the benefits

to all business partners. These aspects are highly appreciated and increase the credibility for customers.

Transportation restrictions. Food miles and carbon emission in transport become increasingly important in

organic trade. Some privately controlled organic standards such as Soil Association (UK) and Bio Suisse

(Switzerland) do not allow import by air. Transported goods may only be sprayed with pesticides or cleansing

agents, which are specially permitted for use with organic products.

Packaging and declaration. Packaging must be free from pesticides, colourings, solvents or cleansing

agents, which could contaminate the organic products. Organic products must be labelled in accordance with

the regulations laid down by the organic legislation of the country where the products are sold.

Organic legislations and standards. In order to sell organic products on the market and labelling them as

organic, producers and traders have to comply with specific regulations. The main goal of organic standards

and regulations is to regulate organic production (on the farm), organic processing (food industry) and trade.

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Organic markets differences from other markets

Private standards in organic agriculture were first set up by organic farmers’ associations on a private level,

as binding rules of production for their members. The first private organic standards and labels were Demeter

(international), Bioland and Naturland (Germany), Bio Suisse (Switzerland), Nature et Progrès (France) and the

Soil Association (UK).

Since the nineties of the last millennium, more than 60 governments developed and put into force public

organic regulations or are on the way to it. On a governmental level, there are organic regulations in the EU, in

the USA (NOP), Japan (JAS), Switzerland and many other countries.

At the international level the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) publishes the “Guidelines for

Production, Processing, Labelling and Marketing of Organically Produced Foods” on which national

governments base their legal regulations. At the international private sector level, the IFOAM Norms include a

global organic standard approved by the representative of the organic movement. These standards provide

guidance on management principles for the production of agricultural products, handling, storage, processing,

packaging and transport of products as well as a list of permitted substances.

MODULE 3

PART II – LEVEL 3

Market opportunities

In the process of identifying a market opportunity, most important is to clarify how a specific business

idea might generate tangible benefits to a specific group of consumers. In terms of ’marketing thinking’, this comes

down to the development of a sound ’marketing concept’, which relates the value that is perceived by a specific

target group of consumers with the costs that occur when providing a specific good. For producers it becomes

interesting as soon as the value consumers attribute to a specific good is considerably higher than the costs

providing it. This is the case for many organic producers, but of course needs to be analysed individually, for

example in the process of conversion to organic farming. In methodological terms, a marketing concept is defined

by 5 P’s, which all relate to how consumers perceive and value a specific good: Product, Packaging, Price, Place

and Promotion:

Product: an innovative, high quality product is the basis for success in an organic business.

Place: the place where a product is sold is of great relevance to make sure that those consumers who are

targeted get to know the product and have access to it for purchasing. It is important to make sure that the

product is easily found in the store and shelf where it logically should be placed.

Price: each product involves production and marketing costs. However, the product price is much more than

’just’ covering these.

MODULE 3

PART II – LEVEL 3

Market opportunities

Costs: it is to visualize the value this product has for the consumer. Therefore, the price is an important asset to

help consumers understand the value of a product and should be determined based on knowing how much

consumers are willing to pay for this product.

Packaging: the packaging is many times the first thing a consumer notes about a product. The packaging must

not only be appealing but communicate in an optimal way what the product is offering, meeting consumer’s

wish. In this sense, the packaging with its label must establish a clear hierarchy of what attributes are most

important for the consumer and visualize these correspondingly.

Promotion: there are so many products out there, that consumers don’t have the time to search for products

and get informed about them. That is why promotion is so important, to help present a product to the target

consumers in the right way: in the right time, in the right place and with the best way to make the consumer

understand the valuable attributes it is offering to him. It is important to come across clearly well positioned and

available messages that help consumers understand why this product is beneficial to them.

MODULE 3

LEVEL 3 Test

Module 3 - Tests and assignments

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS

What kind of farming technique is not allowed by organic method?

a. Maintenance of vegetable cover or crop remains on the soil

b. Use of synthetic chemical fertilizers to increase nitrogen availability on the soil

c. Addition of organic material by means of compost, manure or burying green crops

Which of the following farming practices is not useful to preserve the soil from degradation?

a. Crop rotation

b. Managing vegetable residues for manure

c. Use of chemical herbicidal

Question 1

Question 2

MODULE 3

LEVEL 3 Test

Which of the following sentences is not right?

a. Susceptibility of the different crops to plagues and diseases is not to be considered in organic farming

b. Nitrogen is required for the growth of leaves and for the production used in photosynthesis

c. In organic farming the largest possible amount of mineral elements extracted from the soil return to it

Which bacteria located in the nodules of leguminous crops are able to absorb atmospheric nitrogen?

a. Botrytis

b. Rhizobium

c. Oidium

Question 3

Question 5

MODULE 3

LEVEL 3 Test

What is the main economic advantage of crop rotation?

a. It provides nitrogen for soil fertility

b. It allows the farmer to distribute the economic risks and to be less sensitive to fluctuations in price

c. It provides subsidies from agro-environmental measures

Why organic farming and food process is defined as an holistic production method?

a. Because it is based on economic global standards

b. Because it develops agriculture as a human activity inscribed in the life of the planet

c. Because it aims at developing farming and food systems at the highest level

Question 5

Question 6

MODULE 3

LEVEL 3 Test

What condition is not necessary to define “organic” a food product?

a. All the ingredients of agricultural origin of the product are, or are derived from, products obtained in

accordance with the requirements of organic production method

b. All the ingredients of agricultural origin or not have necessarily to be 100% organic

c. An organic product can not contain any ingredient of non-agricultural origin not listed as allowed

What are the references for labeled organic products on which is based the Reg. CE 834/07?

a. References to organic production method, certification and logos for organic products

b. References to food safety and hazard analysis critical control points

c. References safety at work in food supply chains

Question 7

Question 8

MODULE 3

LEVEL 3 Test

What product can be defined “organic”?

a. The product and all its ingredients have been obtained in compliance with EC Reg. 510/06

b. The product and all its ingredients have been obtained in compliance with EC Reg. 834/07

c. The product and all its ingredients have been obtained in compliance with EEC No 2078/92

Since HACCP provisions are obligatory also for organic food, there is a derogation in some cases?

a. Derogation for traditional foods in the European Union as listed by Member States

b. Derogation for agro-environmental measures included in the Rural Development Plans

c. Derogation for use of non-organic ingredients from non-agricultural products

Question 9

Question 10

MODULE 3

LEVEL 3 Test

SOLUTIONS

1)b

2)c

3)a

4)b

5)b

6)b

7)b

8)a

9)b

10)a

MODULE 3 Glossary

Antibiotics - are a type of antimicrobial used specifically against bacteria and are often used in medical

treatment of bacterial infections They may either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria. Several antibiotic agents are

also effective against a number offungi, protozoans and some are toxic to humans and animals, even when

Audit planning is a vital area of the audit primarily conducted at the beginning of audit process to ensure that

appropriate attention is devoted to important areas, potential problems are promptly identified, work is completed

expeditiously and work is properly coordinated. "Audit planning" means developing a general strategy and a

detailed approach for the expected nature, timing and extent of the audit. The auditor plans to perform the audit in

an efficient and timely manner.

Biodynamic agriculture is a method of organic farming originally developed by Rudolf Steiner that employs what

proponents describe as "a holistic understanding of agricultural processes". One of the first sustainable

agriculture movements, it treats soil fertility, plant growth, and livestock care as ecologically interrelated tasks,

emphasizing spiritual and mystical perspectives. Proponents of biodynamic agriculture, including Steiner, have

characterized it as "spiritual science" as part of the larger anthroposophy movement

Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of dissimilar/different types of crops in the same area in

sequential seasons. Crop rotation gives various nutrients to the soil. A traditional element of crop rotation is the

replenishment of nitrogen through the use of green manure in sequence with cereals and other crops. Crop

rotation also mitigates the build-up of pathogens and pests that often occurs when one species is continuously

cropped, and can also improve soil structure and fertility by alternating deep-rooted and shallow-rooted plants.

Crop rotation is one component of polyculture.

Derogation is the partial revocation of a law, as opposed to abrogation or the total abolition of a law. The term is

used in both civil law and common law. It is sometimes used, loosely, to mean abrogation, as in the legal maxim:

Lex posterior derogat priori, i.e. a subsequent law imparts the abolition of a previous one. Derogation differs from

dispensation in that it applies to the law, where dispensations applies to specific people affected by the law. In

terms of European Union legislation, a derogation can also imply that a member state delays the implementation

of an element of an EU Regulation (etc.) into their legal system over a given timescale, such as five years; or that

a member state has opted not to enforce a specific provision in a treaty due to internal circumstances (typically a

state of emergency).

MODULE 3

Glossary

Green manure is created by leaving uprooted or mown crop parts to wither on a field so that they serve as a

mulch and soil amendment. The plants used for green manure are often cover crops grown primarily for this

purpose. Typically, they are plowed under and incorporated into the soil while green or shortly after flowering.

Green manure is commonly associated with organic farming and can play an important role in sustainable annual

cropping systems.

Growth hormone (GH or HGH), also known as somatotropin or somatropin, is a peptide hormone that

stimulates growth, cell reproduction and regeneration in humans and other animals. It is a type of mitogen which

is specific only to certain kinds of cells. Growth hormone is a 191-amino acid, single-chain polypeptide that is

synthesized, stored, and secreted by somatotropic cells within the lateral wings of the anterior pituitary gland.

Humus - (coined 1790–1800; from the Latin humus: earth, ground) refers to the fraction of soil organic matter that

is amorphous and without the "cellular structure characteristic of plants, micro-organisms or animals." Humus

significantly influences the bulk density of soil and contributes to moisture and nutrient retention. In agriculture,

humus is sometimes also used to describe mature, or natural compost extracted from a forest or other

spontaneous source for use to amend soil. It is also used to describe a topsoil horizon that contains organic

matter (humus type, humus form, humus profile).

IFOAM - The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) is the worldwide umbrella

organization for the organic agriculture movement, which represents close to 800 affiliates in 117 countries.

IFOAM's declares its mission is to, "Lead, unite and assist the organic movement in its full diversity." and vision is

"Worldwide adoption of ecologically, socially and economically sound systems, based on the Principles of Organic

Agriculture."

Among its wide range of activities, IFOAM maintains an organic farming standard, and an organic accreditation

and certification service.

MODULE 3

Glossary

Know-how is a term for practical knowledge on how to accomplish something, as opposed to “know-what” (facts),

“know-why” (science), or “know-who” (communication). Know-how is often tacit knowledge, which means that it is

difficult to transfer to another person by means of writing it down or verbalising it. The opposite of tacit knowledge

is explicit knowledge. In the context of industrial property (now generally viewed as intellectual property - IP),

know-how is a component in the transfer of technology in national and international environments, co-existing with

or separate from other IP rights such as patents, trademarks and copyright and is an economic asset. While

know-how is recognized in U.S. Tax regulations as a property, services by individuals having know-how are not.

Organic farming is a form of agriculture that relies on techniques such as crop rotation, green manure, compost,

and biological pest control. Depending on whose definition is used, organic farming uses fertilizers and pesticides

(which include herbicides, insecticides and fungicides) if they are considered natural (such as bone meal from

animals or pyrethrin from flowers), but it excludes or strictly limits the use of various methods (including synthetic

petrochemical fertilizers and pesticides; plant growth regulators such as hormones; antibiotic use in livestock;

genetically modified organisms; human sewage sludge; and nanomaterials for reasons including sustainability,

openness, independence, health, and safety.

An organic product is made from organic raw materials. It also requires Organic certification.

Root vegetables are plant roots used as vegetables. Here "root" means any underground part of a plant. Root

vegetables are generally storage organs, enlarged to store energy in the form of carbohydrates. They differ in the

concentration and the balance between sugars, starches, and other types of carbohydrate. Of particular economic

importance are those with a high carbohydrate concentration in the form of starch. Starchy root vegetables are

important staple foods, particularly in tropical regions, overshadowing cereals throughout much of West Africa,

Central Africa, and Oceania, where they are used directly or mashed to make fufu or poi

Solid-phase extraction (SPE) is a sample preparation process by which compounds that are dissolved or

suspended in a liquid mixture are separated from other compounds in the mixture according to their physical and

chemical properties. Analytical laboratories use solid phase extraction to concentrate and purify samples for

analysis. Solid phase extraction can be used to isolate analytes of interest from a wide variety of matrices,

including urine, blood, water, beverages, soil, and animal tissue.

MODULE 3

Glossary

Sustainable agriculture is the act of farming using principles of ecology, the study of relationships between

organisms and their environment. The phrase was reportedly coined by Australian agricultural scientist Gordon

McClymont. It has been defined as "an integrated system of plant and animal production practices having a site-

specific application that will last over the long term" For Example: satisfy human food and fiber needs, enhance

environmental quality and the natural resource base upon which the agricultural economy depends, make the

most efficient use of non-renewable resources and on-farm resources and integrate, where appropriate, natural

biological cycles and controls, sustain the economic viability of farm operations, enhance the quality of life for

farmers and society as a whole.

Total quality management (TQM) consists of organization-wide efforts to install and make permanent a climate

in which an organization continuously improves its ability to deliver high-quality products and services to

customers. While there is no widely agreed-upon approach, TQM efforts typically draw heavily on the previously

developed tools and techniques of quality control. TQM enjoyed widespread attention during the late 1980s and

early 1990s before being overshadowed by ISO 9000, Lean manufacturing, and Six Sigma.

MODULE 3

References

• References

•

• Abitabile C., Povellato A. (a cura di) (2009) Strategie per lo sviluppo dell’agricoltura biologica. Risultati degli stati generali del biologico. Rapporto INEA

• Bookstaller C. , Girardin P. , Van Der Werf H.M.G. (1997) Use of agro-ecological indicators for the evaluation of farming systems, European Journal of

Agronomy

• Cavinato G. (a cura di) , Guida Verde & Naturale 2005 (2004) Ulysse Network s.r.l.

• Caccioni D., Colombo L. (a cura di) Il Manuale del biologico , Edagricole (2012)

• Ernst & Young LLP (1997) Outline for a business plan. A proven approach for entrepreneurs only.

• European Commission Directorate-General for Agriculture and Rural Development (2010): An analysis of the EU organic sector. Available at:

http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/analysis/markets/organic_2010_en.pdf

• Ferrari M., Marcon E., Menta A. (2000) Lotta biologica. Edagricole Bologna

• Guet G. (2001) Agricoltura biologica mediterranea. Edagricole, Bologna.

• Hamilton L.H. (2007) Farming to create heaven on earth, Shumei international press, Shiga

• Hovi M., Sundrum A., Thamsborg S.M. (2003) Animal heath and welfare in organic livestock production in Europe: current state and future challenges.

Livest. Prod. Sci. 80: 41-53

• IFOAM (2002) Basic standards for organic production and processing. www.ifoam.org

• Koopmans C.J., Bokhorst J. (2000) Optimizing organic farming systems: Nitrogen dynamics and long term soil fertility in arable and vegetable production

systems in the Netherlands. Proceedings 13th International IFOAM Scientific conference, Bassel, Switzerland, 28-31 August 2000, 69-72.

• Lange, Stefan; Williges, Ute; Saxena, Shilpi and Willer, Helga, Eds. (2006) Research in Organic Food and Farming. Reports on organisation and

conduction of research programmes in 11 European countries. Bundesanstalt für Landwirtschaft und Ernährung (BLE) / Federal Agency for Agriculture

and Food BLE, Bonn, Germany.

• Pohl, Alexandra (2009): How do European Rural development Programmes support Organic Farming? Published by IFOAM EU Group, Brussels;

Available at: http://www.ifoam.org/about_ifoam/around_world/eu_group-new/positions/Others_II/final-RD_study_7.1_web.pdf

• Raviv M. (2010) Is organic agriculture sustainable? Chronica Horticulturae, 50 (2): 7-14.

• Sahota, Amarjit (2011): The Global Market for Organic Food and Drink. Published in: Willer, Helga and Lukas Kilcher (Eds.) (2011): The World of Organic

Agriculture. Statistics and Emerging Trends 2011. FiBL-IFOAM Report. IFOAM, Bonn and FiBL, Frick.

• Schaack, Diana et al. (2011) The Organic Market in Europe. Published in: Willer, Helga and Lukas Kilcher (Eds.) (2011): The World of Organic

Agriculture. Statistics and Emerging Trends 2011.

MODULE 3

References

• FiBL-IFOAM Report. IFOAM, Bonn and FiBL, Frick. Schmid, O., Dabbert, S., Eichert, C., Gonzálvez, V., Lampkin, N., Michelsen, J., Slabe, A., Stokkers,

R.,

• Schwarz, Gerald, Hiltrud Nieberg, Jürn Sanders: Organic Farming support Payments in the EU (2010), Special issue 339, Johann Heinrich von Thünen

Institut; Available at: http://literatur.vti.bund.de/digbib_extern/dn047300.pdf

• Soil Association (2000) The biodiversity benefits of organic farming

• Willer, Helga and Kilcher Lukas (Eds.) (2011): The World of Organic Agriculture. Statistics and Emerging Trends 2011. FiBL-IFOAM Report. IFOAM,

Bonn and FiBL, Frick.

• Stolze, M., Stopes, C., Wollmuthová, P., Vairo, D. and Zanoli, R. (2008): Organic Action Plans: Development, implementation and evaluation. A resource

manual for the organic food and farming sector. Edited by Schmid O., Stopes C., Lampkin N. and Gonzálvez V. Research Institute of Organic Agriculture

FiBL, CH-5070 Frick, Switzerland and IFOAM-EU Group, BE-1000 Brussels, Belgium (ISBN 978-3-03736-022-4). 105p. Available at

http://orgprints.org/13481/

• “Suolo e Salute” Associazione (2011) Guida all’etichettatura dei prodotti biologici. Grafiche Il Dado, Mirandola (MO)

• Vaarst M., Roderick S., Lund V., Locckretz W. (2004) Animal health and welfare in organic agriculture. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford

UK

• Zanoli R., Vairo D. , Bordoni A. (a cura di) (2010) Efficienza qualità e innovazione nella zootecnia biologica. Errebi Grafiche Ripesi, Falconara M. (AN)

MODULE 3

LEVEL 3 CERTIFICATE