organizational development summary

8/20/2019 Organizational Development Summary

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General Introduction to OrganizationalDevelopment

Organizational development

• Process that applies a broad range of

behavioral science knowledge andpractices to help organizations buildtheir capacity to change and toacheive greater eectiveness

• Focus is on building the org’s ability toassess its current functioning and toachieve its goals

• Worley and Feyerherm

o Focus on result on or result in the

change of some aspect of theorganization system

o Must be learning or the transfer of

knowledge or skill to the clientsystem

o Must be evidence of improvement

in or an intention to improve theeectiveness of the client system

• ystemwide application and transfer

of behavioral science knowledge otthe planned development!improvement! and reinforcement of strategies! structures and processesthat lead to organization eectiveness

"ective organization

• #daptable

• $as high %nancial and technical

performance

• $as satis%ed and loyal customers or

other e&ternal stakeholders and anengaged! satis%ed and learningworkforce

'rends

• (lobalizationo )hanging the markets and

environment in which orgs operateas well as the way they function

• *nformation technologyo +ede%ning the traditional business

model by changing how work isperformed! how knowledge is used!and how the cost of doing businessis calculated

• Managerial innovation

o +esponded to the globalization and

information technology trends andhas accelerated their impact onorgs

The Nature of Planned Change

,ewin’s )hange Model

• )hange as a modi%cation of those

forces keeping a system’s behaviorstable

• Forces

o 'hose striving to maintain the

status -uoo 'hose pushing for change

• teps

o .nfreezing

+educing those forces

maintaining the org’s behavioat its present level

Phychological discon%rmation

ɵ *ntroducing information that

shows discrepanciesbetween behaviors desiredand current behavior

o Moving *ntervening in the system to

develop new behaviors! valuesand attitudes through changesin org structures and processes

o +efreezing

tabilizes the org at a new state

of e-uilibirium

• ,ippit! Watson! Westley

o .nfreezing

couting

"ntry /iagnosis

o Moving

Planning

#ction

o +efreezing

tabilization

"valuation

'ermination

• 0otter

o .nfreezing

"stablishing a sense fo urgency

)reating the guiding coalition

/eveloping a vision and

strategy )ommunicating the change

o Moving

"mpowering broad1based action

(enerating short1term wins

o +efreezing

)onsolidating gains and

producing more change


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#nchoring new approaches in

the culture

#ction +esearch Model

• *terative cycle of research and ction

• *nvolves considerable collaboration

among organization members and O/practitioners

• $eavy emphasis on data gatheringand diagnosis prior to action planningand implementation

• )areful evaluation of results after

action is taken

• #imed at helping speci%c orgimplement planned change and atdeveloping more knowledge that canbe applied to other settings

• teps

o Problem identi%cation

o )onsultation wiht a behavioral

science e&pert Practitioner has his or her own

normative! developmentaltheory or frame of reference

Must be conscious of

assumptions and valueso /ata gathering and preliminary

diagnosis *nterviews

Process observation

2uestionnaires

Organizational performance #ny action by the O/

practitioner can be viewed asan intervention

o Feedback to key client or group

What is relevant and useful

o 3oint diagnosis of the problem

Failure to establish a common

frame of reference in the client1consultant relationship maylead to a faulty diagnosis or to acommunication gap

o 3oint action planning peci%c action to be taken

depends on the culture!technology and environment of the org! diagnosis of theproblem! timing and e&pense of the intervention

o #ction

o /ata gathering after action

• 'rends

o Movement from smaller subunits of

org to total systems andcommunities

o *ncreasingly applied to

international settings $owever! action research mode

has 4northern hemisphere5assumptions about change

o

#pplied increasingly to promotesocial change and innovationo (rowing tendency to involve org

members in learning about theirorg and how to change it Participatory action research

#ction learning

#ction science

elf1design

"mphasizes the need for

organiation members to learn%rsthand about planned change

if they are to gain theknowledge and skills needed tochange the organization

Positive Model

• Focuses on what the organization is

doing righ

• 6uilds o those capabilities

• 'hrough appreciative in-uiry

o *nfuses a positive value orientation

into analyzing and changing

organizations• ocial constructionism

o #ssumes that org members’ shared

e&periences and interactionsin7uence how they perceive theorganization and behave in it

• teps

o *nitiate the in-uiry

o *n-uire into best practices

o /iscover themes

8o theme is too small

o "nvision a preferred future

o /esign and deliver ways to createthe future

)omparisons of change models

• Models overlap on their emphasis on

action to implement org change ispreceeded by a preliminary stage andis followed by a closing stage

• #ll threee emphasize the application of

behavioral science knowledge! involveorg members and recognize that any


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interaction constitutes an interventionthat may aect the org

• ,ewin and action

o consultant with limited member

involvemento %&ing problems

• Positive

o consultant and participants as co1

learnerso leveraging on strengths

(eneral model of planned change

• "ntering and contracting

o $elp managers decide whether

they want to engage further inplanned change progress

o Problems or opportunities are

discussed with managers and otherorg members to develop a contractor agreement

o )ontract spells out future changeactivities! resources that will becommited and how O/practitioners and org members willbe involved

• /iagnosing

o )hoosing an appropriate model for

understanding the org andgathering! analyzing and feedingback info

o "&plore 9 levels of activities

Org issues

(roup1level issues

*ndividual issues

• Planning and implementing change

o )riteria for designing interventions

Org’s readiness for change

)urrent change capability

)ulture

Power distributions

)hange agent’s skills and

abilitieso 'ypes of interventions

$uman process interventions Modify an org’s structure and

technology $uman resources intervention

trategic intervention

• "valuating and institutionalizing

'ypes of planned change

• Magnitude of change

o Fundamental changes

+adically altering how it

operates *nvolve several org dimensions

and levelso *ncremental changes

Fine1tuning org

*nvolve limted dimensions and

levels

Occur within the conte&t of theorg’s e&isting business strategyand structure

• /egree of organization

o Overorganized

,oosening constraints on

behavioro .nderorganized

*ncreasing organization

o teps

*denti%cation

)onvention

Organization

"valuation

• etting

o /omestic

o *nternational

Od practitioner

ɵ Must develop a keen sense

of awareness of their owncultural bias

ɵ 6e open to seeing a variety

of issues from another

perspectiveɵ 6e 7uent in the values and

assumptions of the hostculture

)riti-ue of planned change

• More information is needed to guide

how those steps should be performedin speci%c situationso Org features that can be changed

o *ntended outcome from making

those changeso )ausal mechanisms by which those

outcomes are achieved

• /e%cient in knowledge about how this

stages of planned change dier acrosssituations

• More chaotic -uality involving

o hifting goals

o /iscontinuous activities

o urprising events


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o .ne&pected combinations of

changes

• *n the face of increasing globalization

and technological changes! unlikelythat change will ever be over

• +elationship between planned changeand org performance andeectiveness is not well understood

Practice of planned change

• +ely on preconceptions of what the

problem is and hire consultants withappropriate skills

• 2uick %&es

• Other orgs have not recognized the

systemic nature of change

• )hanging any one part or feature of an

org often re-uires ad:ustments inother parts to maintain alignment

The Organization DevelopmentPractitioner

O/ practitioner

• 'hose specializing in O/

o "&ternal

o *nternal

o )ommon set of humanistic values

Open communication

"mployee involvement

Personal growth and

developmento "&pansion

Organizational eectivenss

)ompetitiveness

6ottom1line results

'ehcnical! structural and

strategic parts

• 'hose specializing in %elds related to

O/

• Managers and administrators who

have gained competence in O/ andwho apply it to their own work areaso (ained through interacting with O/

professionals in actual changeprograms

• (aining competence may take

considerable time and eort

• 2uestionable whether the other two

types of O/ practitioners also needthat full range of skills and knowledge

6asic skills and knowledge

• *nterpersonal skills or self1

management competenceo 0now their own values! feelings

and purposes as well as theintegrity to behave responsibly

o Must have active learning skills and

a reasonable balance betweentheir rational and emotional sides

o

Manage their own stress• *nterpersonall skills

o Must establish rapport and trust

o #ble to converse in members’ own

languageo (ive and receive feedback about

how the relationship is progressing

• (eneral consultation skills

o "ective diagnisis

o /esign and e&ecute an intervention

• Organization development theory

o (eneral knowledge about O/

O/ professionals

• Position

o *nternal

#dvantage of ready access to

and relationships with clientsknow the language and haveinsights

6asic level of rapport and trust

May be overly cautious

o "&ternal

#dvantage of being able toselect the clients they want towork with

• Marginality

o One who successfully straddles the

boundary between two or moregroups with diering goals! valuesystems and behavior patterns

o 2ualities

,ow dogmatism

8eutrality

Open1mindedness

Ob:ectivity

Fle&ibility

#daptable information1

processing ability

• "motionally demanding

• .se of knowledge and e&perience

o )onsultant

o )lient

"thical dilemmas


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• Misrepresentation

o When O/ practitioners claim that

an intervention will produce resultsthat are unreasonable for thechange program or situation

o When client portray inaccurate

goals and needs

• Misuse of data

o hould have agreement with orgmembers about how data collectedwill be used

• )oercion

o Forced to participate

o "&cessive manipulation

Freedeom to choose

Must remain keenly aware of

her or his own value systemo /ependency

Openly and e&plicitly discuss

with the client how to handlethe dependency problem

Focus on problem %nding

)hanging the client’s

e&pectation from beinghelped;controlled to a greaterfocs on the need to manage theproblem

•


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• collaborative and does not accept the

implicit assumption that something iswrong with the organization

/iagnostic models

• conceptual frameworks that people

use to understand organizations

• describe the relationships among

dierent features! conte&t andeectiveness of the organization

• point out what areas to e&amine and

what -uestions to ask in assessinghow an organization is functioning

Open systems model

• introduces systems theory

o set of concepts and relationships

describing the properties andbehaviors of things

• recognizes that organizations e&ist in

the conte&t of a larger environmentthat aects how the organizationperforms and in turn is aected byhow the organization interacts with it

• orgs operate within an e&ternal

environment! takes speci%c inputsfromt he environment and transformsthose input using social and technicalprocesses

• outputs of the transformation are

returned to the environment and canbe used as a feedback to the org’sfunctioning

• suggests that orgs and their

subsystems share a number of common features

• properties

o environment

cannot completely control their

own behavior and arein7uenced in part by e&ternalforces

o inputs

part of and ac-uired from theorg’s e&ternal environment

o transformation

processes of converting inputs

into outputso outputs

results of what is transformed

by the system and sent to theenvironment

o boundaries

permeable border

de%ning boundaries of socia

systems is more di=cultbecause there is continuousin7ow and out7ow

boundary line for one

subsystem may not be thesame as that for a dierentsubsystem

varies from %&ed to diuse

con7ict is always a potentia

problemo feedback

information regarding the actua

performance or the outputresults of the system

only information used to contro

the future functioning of thesystem

o e-ui%nality

suggests that similar results or

outputs may be achieved withdierent initial conditions and inmany dierent ways

o alignment

characteristic of the relationship

between two or more parts e&tent to which the features

operations and characteristicsof one system support theeectiveness of another

system’s overall eectiveness is

partly determined by the e&tentto which the dierentsubsystems are aligned witheach other

,evels of diagnosis using open systemsmodel

• Organization

o trategy

o tructure

o Processes

o

• (roupo (roup design

o /evices for structuring interaction

• *ndividual

o 3ob design

• /iagnosis can occur at all three org levels

• 0ey to eective diagnosis is knowing what

to look for at each level as well as howthe levels aect each other


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• Org levels must %t with each other if the

org is to operate eectively

trategic orientation

• )ombination of design component

elements

Organization ,evel /iagnosis

•*nputo "nvironment 'ypes

(eneral environment

ɵ "&ternal forces and elements

that can in7uence an organd aect its eectiveness

'ask environment

ɵ *ndustry structure

ɵ Five forces

□ upplier power

□ 6uyer power

□ 'hreats of substitutes

□ 'hreats of entry□ +ivalry among

competitors +ate of change

ɵ /ynamic

□ )hange rapidly and

unpredictably□ $igh in uncertainty

ɵ tatic

□ /o not change fre-uently

or dramatically

)omple&ityɵ 8umber of important

elements in the generalenvironment and industrystructure

"nacted environment

ɵ Org members’ perception

and representation of itsgeneral and taskenvironment

ɵ Only this can aect which

org responses are choseno "nvironmental /imensions

)haracterized along dimensions

that describe the org’s conte&tand in7uence its responses

*nformation uncertainty

ɵ *nformation orgs need to

process info to discover howto relate to theirenvironments

+esource dependence

ɵ )onsisting of resources fo

which orgs compete

• /esign components

o trategy

+epresents the way an org uses

its resources to achieve itsgoals and gain competitiveadvantage

*ntentɵ /escribes how the org

intends to leverage %vedimensions of strategy

Five dimensions

ɵ 6readth

ɵ #ggresiveness

ɵ /ierentiation

ɵ Orchestrate short1term with

long1term goalsɵ "conomic logic

Functional policies

ɵ Methods! procedures! rulesor administrative practicesthat guide decision makingand convert plans intoactions

o 'echnology

Way an org converts inputs into

products and services )ore transformation process

'echnical interdependence

ɵ *n7uence other design

componentsɵ Ways in which the dierent

parts of a technologicasystem are related

'echnical uncertainty

ɵ *n7uence other design

componentsɵ #mount of info processing

and decision1makingre-uired

o tructure

$ow attention and resources

are focused on taskaccomplishment

/ivide the overall work of an

org into subunits )oordinate these subunits

8eeds to be closely aligned with

org’s technology Formal structure

,evel fo dierentiation

,evel of integration


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ɵ Function of amount of

uncertainty in theenvironment

ɵ ,evel of dierentiation in the

structureɵ #mount of interdependence

among departmentso Measurement systems

Methods of gathering! assessingand disseminating info

'ell how well the org is

performing .sed to detect and control

deviations from goalso $uman resource systems

Mechanisms for selecting!

developing! appraising!rewarding org members

o )ulture

6asic assumptions! values and

norms shared by org members Outcome of the org’s hisotry

and environment and priorchoices

)onstraint in that it is more

di=cult to change than the othecomponents

• Outputs

o Organization performance

Financial output

o Productivity

*nternal measures of e=ciency

o takeholder satisfaction

#lignment

• Org’s strategic orientation %t with the

inputs

• /esign components %t with each other

Diagnosing Groups and Jobs

(roup level diagnosis

• *nputs

o Organization design 'echnology

ɵ /etermine the

characteristics of the group’stask

tructure

ɵ pecify the level of

coordination re-uired amonggroups

Measurement systems

ɵ /etermine team functioning

$uman resources systems

ɵ /etermine team functioning

Organization culture

• /esign )omponents

o (oal clarity

$ow well the group understands

its ob:ectiveso 'ask structure

$ow the group’s work isdesigned

)oordination of members

eortsɵ /egree to which group tasks

are structured to promoteeective interaction amonggroup members

+egulation of their task

behaviorsɵ /egree to which members

can control thei own task

behaviors and be relativelyfree from e&ternal controls

o (roup composition

Membership of groups

o 'eam functioning

$ow members relate to each

other 2uality of relationships can

aect task performanceo Performance norms

Member beliefs about how the

group should perform its taskand include acceptable levels ofperformance

• Outputs

o Performance

(roup’s ability to control o

reduce costs *ncrease productivity

*mprove -uality

o 2uality of work life

Work satisfaction

'eam cohesion

Organizational commitment

• (roup design should be congruent with

the larger organization design

• dierentiation integration > should have

highly skilled and e&perienced membersperforming highly interdependent tasks

• /ierentiated structures and formalized

$+ and info systems > have clear-uantitative goals and that supportstandardized behaviors


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• When org’s technology results in

interdependent tasks > coordinationpromoted by goal clarity! task structure!group composition! performance normsand team functioning

• When technology is relatively uncertain

and re-uires high amounts of infoprocessing and decision making > task

structure! group composition!performance norms and team functioningshould promote self1regulation

*ndividual level diagnosis

• *nputs

o Org design

,arger org

Powerful impact on the way :obs

are designed and on people’se&periences in :obs

o (roup design

,arger group containing theindividual :ob

More immediate impact on :obs

o Personal characteristics of

:obholders #ge

"ducation

"&perience

kills and abilities

#ect

ɵ :ob performance

ɵ

people’s reaction to :obdesignsɵ employee :ob responses

• /esign components

o kill variety

*denti%es the degree to which a

:ob re-uires a range of activitiesand abilities to perform thework

o 'ask identity

/egree to which a :ob re-uires

the completion of a relatively

whole! identi%able piece of worko 'ask signi%cance

/egree to which a :ob has a

signi%cant impact on otherpeople’s lives

o #utonomy

/egree to which a :ob provides

freedom and discretion inscheduling the work anddetermining work methods

o Feedback

/egree to which a :ob provides

employees with direct and clearinfo about the eectiveness oftask performance

• 3ob design should be congruent with the

larger org and group designs within whichthe :ob is embedded

•$ighly dierentiated and integrate orgsand groups that permit members to self1regulate > enriched :obs

• 3ob design should %t the persona

characteristics of the :obholders

• "nriched :obs %t people

o with strong growth needs

o moderate to high levels of task

relevant skills! abilities andknowledge

Collecting and nal!zing Diagnostic

Information

• 8ature of relationship between O/ and

client aects the -uality and usefulnessof the data collected

/iagnostic contract should answer

• Who am *

• Why am * here and what am * doing

• Who do * work for

• What do * want from you

• $ow will * protect your con%dentiality• Who will have access to the data

• What’s in it for you

• )an * be trusted

/ata collection

• (oals

o Obtain valid information

o +ally energy for constructive

organizational changeo /evelop the collaborative

relationship necessary for eectingorg change

• Methods

o 2uestionnaires

#dvantages

ɵ +esponses can be -uanti%ed

and easily summarizedɵ "asy to use with large

samplesɵ +elatively ine&pensive


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ɵ )an obtain large volume of

data /isadvantages

ɵ 8onempathy

ɵ Predetermined

-uestions;missing issuesɵ Overinterpretation of data

ɵ +esponse bias

o *nterviews #dvantages

ɵ #daptive

□ #llows data collection on

a range of possiblesub:ects

ɵ ource of rich data

ɵ "mpathic

ɵ )an build rapport

/isadvantages

ɵ "&pense

ɵ 6ias in interview responses

ɵ )oding and interpretation

di=cultiesɵ elf1report bias

(roup interviews

ɵ ave time and allow people

to build on others’ responsesɵ May inhibit people from

responding freelyo Observations

#dvantages

ɵ )ollects data on behavior

ɵ +eal time! not retrospectiveɵ #daptive

/isadvantages

ɵ )oding and interpretation

di=cultiesɵ ampling inconsistencies

ɵ Observer bias and

-uestionable reliabilityɵ "&pense

Which people to observe

'ime periods

'erritory

"vents in which people to

observeo .nobtrusive measures

#dvantages

ɵ 8onreactive

□ 8o response bias

ɵ $igh face validity

ɵ "asily -uanti%able

/isadvantages

ɵ #ccess and retrieva

di=cultiesɵ


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times a particular response wasgiven

o cattergrams

Measures of the strength of a

relationship between twovariables

/iagram that visually displays

the relationship between two

variables Patterns

ɵ Positive

□ ↑ & ↑ y

ɵ 8egative

□ ↑ & ↓ y

ɵ hotgun

□ 8o relationship between

& and yo )orrelation coe=cients

Measures of the strength of a

relationship between two

variables 8umber that summarizes data

in a scattergram ?@AB to 1@AB

?@AB > positive relationship

1@AB > negative relationship

B > shotgun

o /ierence tests

.sed to compare a sample

group against some standard ornorm

.sed to determine whether twosamples are signi%cantlydierent

.sed to determine whether a

group has changed its scoreover time

"eeding #ac$ Diagnostic Information

• 0ey ob:ective of feedback process is to be

sure that the client has ownership of thedata

• uccess of feedback depends largely onits ability to arouse the organizationalaction and to direct energy towardorganizational problem solving

)haracteristics of feedback data

• +elevant

o *ncluding managers and employees

in the initial data collectionactivities can increase therelevance of the data

• .nderstandable

• /escriptive

•


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Designing Interventions

O/ intervention

• e-uence of activities! actions and

events intended to help an orgimprove its performance andeectiveness

• /eliberate attempts to change an org

•)riteriao "&tent to which it %ts the org

6ased on valid info

Provide org members with

opportunities to make free andinformed choices

o /egree to which it is based on

causal knowledge of intendedoutcome

o "&tent to which it transfers change

management competence to orgmembers

)ontingencies that aect interventionsuccess

• +elated to change situation

o *ndividual dierences among org

memberso Org factors

o /imensions of the change process

o +eadiness for change

ensitivity to pressures for

change

/issatisfaction with the status-uo #vailability of resources to

support change )ommitment of signi%cant

management timeo )apability to change

Function

ɵ change1related knowledge

and skills presentɵ resources and systems

devoted to change

ɵ org’s e&perience withchange

o )ultural conte&t

)an e&ert a powerful in7uence

on members’ reactions tochange

o )apabilities of the change agent

• +elated to target of change

o Org issues that the intervention is

trying to resolve trategic

ɵ *ntergrated strategic change

ɵ Mergers and ac-uisitions

ɵ #lliance and network

developmentɵ Org learning

'echnological and structura

issuesɵ Org design

ɵ "mployee involvementɵ Work design

$uman resource issues

ɵ #ttracting people

ɵ etting goals

ɵ #ppraising and rewarding

ɵ /eveloping careers

ɵ Managing stres

$uman process issues

ɵ )ommunication

ɵ /ecision making

ɵ ,eadership

ɵ (roup dynamics

ɵ )on7ict resolution

ɵ 'eam building

*nterrelated and need to be

integrated with one anothero ,evel of org systems at which the

intervention is e&pected to have animpact /esign intervention to apply to

speci%c org levels! address thepossibility of cross1level eects

and integrate interventionsaecting dierent levels

*nterventions

• $uman process interventions

o Process consultation

Focuses on interpersona

relations and social dynamics #im is to help members gain the

skills and understandingnecessary to identify and solveproblems themselves

o 'hird party intervention #imed at dysfunctiona

interpersonal relations Problem solving

6argaining

)onciliation

o 'eam building

$elp work groups become more

eective in accomplishing taskso Organization confrontation

meetings


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*dentify problems

et action targets

6egin working on problems

When orgs are e&periencing

stress When org needs to mobilize

team for immediate problemsolving

o *ntergroup relations *mprove interaction

o ,arge group interventions

(etting a broad variety of

stakeholders into a largemeeting to clarify importantvalues

/evelop new ways of working

#rticulate new vision

olve pressing org problems

• 'ehcnostructural interventions

o tructural design

Org’s division of labor

o /ownsizing

+educes costs and bureacracy

by decreasing the size of orgo +eengineering

+edesigns the org’s core work

processes

• $uman resources management

interventionso (oal setting

)lear and challenging goals

o Performance appraisal 3ointly assessing work1related

achievements! strengths andweakness

,ink between goal setting and

reward systemso +eward systems

o )oaching and mentorig

One1on1one relationship

between O/ and client Focuses on personal learing

o )areer planning and development

$elps people choose org career

paths and attain careerob:ectives

o Management and leadership

6uilding the competencies

needed to lead the orgo Managing workforce diversity

Makes $+ practicies responsive

to a variety of individual needso "mplyee stress and wellness

"mployee assistance program

tress management

• trategic intervention

o *ntegrated strategic change

6usiness strategies and org

systems must be changedtogether in response to e&ternaand internal disruptions

$elps members manage thetransition between a currentstrategy and org design

o Org design

#lignment and support each

othero )ulture change

/evelop cultures appropriate to

their strategieso Mergers and ac-uisitions

'wo or more org forms a new

entity

#ddress key strategicleadership and cultural issuesprior to the legal and %nanciatransaction

o #lliances

$elps two orgs pursue a set of

common goals through sharingof resources

trategy formulation

Partner selection

#lliance structuring and start1up

#lliance operation andad:ustment

o 8etworks

$elps develop relationships

among three or more orgs toperform tasks or solve problems

#ddress how to manage change

within e&isting networko elf1designing orgs

(ain the capacity to alter

themselves fundamentallyo Org learning and knowledge

management eeks to enhance an org’s

capability to ac-uire anddevelop new knowledge

Focuses on how that knowledge

can be organized and used toimprove org performance

o 6uilt to change orgs

)hallenges traditional principles

that view stability and


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e-uilibrium as the keys tosuccess

#ssume that the source of

eectiveness is the ability tochange continuously

%eading and &anaging Change

• 'raditionally! change management has

focused on identifying sources of resistance to change and oering ways toovercome them

#ctivities contributing to eective changemanagement

• Motivating change

o )reating a reason for change

ensitize org to pressures for

changeɵ "ncouraging leaders to

surround themselves withdevil’s advocates

ɵ )ultivating e&ternal

networks comprise thatcomprise of people withdierent perspectives

ɵ


15/51

o

• Managing the transitiono #ctivity planning

+oad map for change

peci%c activities and change

)learly identify! temporarilly

orient and integrate discretechange tasks

"&plicitly link these tasks to the

org’s goals and principleso )ommitment planning

*dentifying key people and

groups whose commitment isneeded for change to occuro Planning special management

structures *nclude people who have the

power to mobilize resources topromote change! respect of e&isting leadership and changeadvocates and interpersonaland political skills to guide thechange

o ,earning processes

)reating a system view of theorgɵ )reating a model of work

and change that allowsindividual org members tosee how theyir eortscontribute to org functioningand performance

)reating shared meaning

ɵ .se of models! languages!

tools and processes thatprovide people with a way to

making sense of change "ngaging in after1action reviews

ɵ When people get timely

support and feedback abouttheir behaviors! their abilityto learn more -uicklyincreases

/ecentralizing implementation

processes and decisions tolower levels

• ustaining momentum

o Providing resources for

implementing change Provide buer as performance

drops during transitiono 6uiling support systems for change

agents Maintain psychological distance

)onsists of network of people

with whom the change agenthas close personal relationshipso /eveloping new competencies

'echnical competencies

ocial skills

o +einforceing the new behaviors

,inking formal rewards directly

to the desired behaviorso taying the course

+easons for not having a steady

focus on changeimplementationɵ Fail to anticipate the decline

in performance! productivityand satisfaction

ɵ *mplement the ne&t big idea

that comes along

Evaluating and InstitutionalizingOrganization DevelopmentInterventions

"valuation

• )oncerned with providing feedback to

practitioners and organizationmembers about the progress andimpact of interventions

• 'ypes

o *ntended to guide the

implementation of intervention /uring1implementation

assessments *f and how well changes are

actually being implemented /ata about dierent features of

the intervention Perceptions of the people

involved /ata about the immediate

eects of interventiono #ssess the overall impact

#fter1implementation

assessments Producing e&pected results

Whether resources should

continue to be allocated


16/51

• 0ey issues

o Measurement

electing appropriate variables

ɵ hould incorporate the key

features of the interventionɵ *ncorporate e&pected results

ɵ *ntervention variables

□ $elps determine the

correct interpretation of outcome variables

ɵ Outcome variables

□ Participation membership

□ Performance on the :ob

□ #mbiguous without

knowledge of how wellthe intervention has beenimplemented

/esigning good measures

ɵ Operational de%nition

□ peci%es empirical data

needed□ $ow they will be

collected□ $ow will they be

converted from data toinformation

□ Provide guidelines about

what characteristics of the situation are to beobserve and how they areto be used

ɵ +eliability

□ "&tent to which a

measure represents thetrue value of a variable

□ +igorously and

operationally de%ne thechosen variables

□ .se multiple methods to

measure a particularvariable

□ .se multiple items to

measure the same

variable in a-uestionnaire

□ .se standardized

instrumentsɵ


17/51

'o rule out the

possibility that theresults are caused byrandom error orchange

□ Multiple mesures

#ssessing perceptual

changes resulting

from interventions #lpha

∗ Movementalong ameasures thatre7ects stabledimensions of reality

6eta

∗ +ecalibration of the intervalsalong some

constantmeasure of reality

(amma

∗ +ede%ning themeasure as aresult of an O/intervention

"&ternal validity

ɵ Whether the intervention

would work similarly in othersituations

• /ecisions about measurement of relevant

variables and design of evaluationprocess should be made early in the O/cycle so that evaluation choices can beintegrated with intervention decisions

*nstitutionalization

• Process for maintaining a particular

change for an appropriate period of time

• Frameworko

• #ntecedentso Organization characteristics

)ongruence

ɵ /egree to which an

intervention is perceived asbeing in harmony with theorg’s managerial philosophystrategy! structure andcurrent environment

ɵ Make it easier to gain

commitmentɵ Make it easier to diuse it to

wider segments tability of environment and

technologyɵ /egree to which org’s

environment and technologyare changing

ɵ table > favored

.nionization

ɵ May be di=cult to diuse

interventions

ɵ Mahy be a power ful force forpromoting change

o *ntervention characteristics

(oal speci%city

ɵ "&tent to which intervention

goals are speci%cɵ $elps direct socializing

activities to particularbehaviors

Programmability

ɵ /egree to which changes

can be programmedɵ "&tent to which the dierent

intervention characteristicscan be speci%ed clearly inadvance

,evel of change target

ɵ "&tent to which the change

target is the totaorganization

ɵ "ach level of org has

facilitators and inhibitos ofpersisitence

ɵ /epartmental and groupchange□ usceptible to

countervailing forcesfrom others in org

ɵ Wider segments

□ )an help or hinder

change persistence *nternal support


18/51

ɵ /egree to which there is an

internal support system toguide the change process

ponsorship

ɵ )oncerns the presence of a

powerful sponsor who caninitiate! allocate andlegitimize resources

•Processo ocialization

'ransmission of info about

beliefs! preferences! norms andvalues with respect to theintervention

continuous

o )ommitment

6inds people to behaviors

associated with the interventiono +eward allocation

,inking rewards to the new

behaviors )an reinforce new behaviors

8ew behaviors will persist to the

e&tent that rewards areperceived as e-uitable byemployees

o /iusion

Process of transferring changes

from one system to another Facilitates institutionalization by

providing a wider org base to

support the new behaviors ,ock in behaviors by providing

normative consensuso ensing and calibration

/etecting deviations from

desired intervention behaviorsand taking corrective action

• *ndicators of institutionalization

o 0nowledge

"&tent to which org members

have knowledge of thebehaviors associated with an

interventiono Performance

/egree to which intervention

behaviors are actuallyperformed

o Preferences

/egree to which org members

privately accept the orgchanges

o 8ormative consensus

"&tent to which people agree

about the appropriateness ofthe org changes

$ow fully changes have become

part of the normative structureo


19/51

o (roup problem solving and

decision makingo (roup norms

#ssisting group to understand

and articulate its own norms /etermine whether those norms

are helpful or dysfunctionalo .se of leadership and authority

• *nterventionso *ndividual

$elp people be more eective in

their communication with others 3ohari window

ɵ

(uidelines on eective

feedbackɵ (iver and receiver must

have consensus on thereceiver’s goals

ɵ (iver should emphasize

descriptiona andappreciation

ɵ (iver should be concrete

and speci%cɵ (iver and receiver must

have constructive motivesɵ (iver should not withhold

negative feedbackɵ (iver should own his

observations! feelings and :udgements

ɵ Feedback should be time to

when giver and receiver areready

o (roup

#imed at the process! contentor structure of groups

Process intervention

ɵ ensitize the group to its

own internal processes andand generate interest inanalyzing them

)ontent intervention

ɵ /etermine what it works on

tructural intervention

ɵ "&amine the stable and

recurring methods toaccomplish tasks and deawith e&ternal issues

• +esults

o /i=cult to evaluate because it is

conducted with groups performingmental tasks

o

/i=cult because it is combinedwith other interventionso .sed people’s perception! not hard

performance measures

'hird party interventions

• Focus on con7icts arising between two

or more people within the same org

•


20/51

problem1solving skills and increaseteam performance

• 'ypes of teams

o (roups reporting to the same

supervisoro (roups involving people with

common org goalso 'emporary groups formed to do a

speci%c! one1time tasko (roups consisting of people whose

work roles are interdependento (roups whose members have no

formal links in the org but whosecollective purpose is to achievetasks they cannot do alone

• Factors that aect the outcomes

o ,ength of time allocated to the

activityo 'eam’s willingness to look at its

processes

o ,ength of time members have beenworking together

o 'eam’s permanence

• )lassi%cation

o ,evel

One or more individual

(roup’s ooperation and

behavior (roup’s relationship with the

rest of the orgo Orientation

/iagnostic

/evelopment

• #ctivities

o One or more individual

/iagnostic

ɵ *nstruments! interviews and

feedback to understand styleand motivations of groupmembers

/evelopment

ɵ )oaching

ɵ 9EB degree feedback

ɵ 'hird party interventiono (roup operations and behavior

/iagnostic

ɵ urveys! interviews and

team meetings tounderstand the group’sprocesses and procedures

/evelopment

ɵ +ole clari%cation

ɵ Mission and goal

development

ɵ /ecision1making processes

ɵ 8ormative change

o +elationships with the org

/iagnostic

ɵ urveys and interviews to

understand how the grouprelates to its org conte&t

/evelopment

ɵ trategic planningɵ takeholder analysis

• Manager ultimately is responsible for

all team1building activities

• (oal of the consultant’s presence is to

help the manager learn to continueteam development processes withminimum consultant help

• #ects the -uality of performance

• (oal setting aects the -uantity ofperformance

• )an improve group performance

o )omple&! unstructured and

interdependent tasks

• Process over time

• Perform personal management

interviewso Follow1up intervention that arrests

the potential fade1out eects of o1siteteam building

o ,eader negotiates roles with each

membero $olds regular meetings with each

member to resolve problems andincrease personal accountability

Organization Process pproaches

Organization confrontation meeting

• $elps mobilize the problem1solvingresources by encouraging members toidentify and confront pressing issues

• .seful

o when org is under stress

o when there is a gap between the

top and the rest of the org

• teps

o (roup meeting of all thos involved

is scheduled and tasked to identifyproblems related to the workenvironment and eectiveness ofthe org

o (roups are appointed representing

all departments ubordinate should not be in

the same group as his or her


21/51

boss and management shouldform its own group

o (roups are to be open and honest

o (roups are given an hour or two to

identify org problmeso (roups then reconvene and each

group reports the problemsidenti%ed and sometimes oers

solutionso Master list of problems is broken

down into categories to eliminateduplication and overlap

o Participants are divided into

problem1solving groupso "ach group ranks the problems!

develops a tactical action plan anddetermines an appropriate timetable

o "ach group periodically reports its

list of priorities and tactical plans of

actionso chedules for periodic follow1up

meetings are established and teamleaders report their team’sprogress and plans for future action

*ntergroup relations

• )onsists of two interventions

o *ntergroup con7ict resolution

meeting peci%cally oriented toward

con7ict processes

#pplies where there is littleinterdependence

6asic strategy is to change the

perceptions that the two groupshave of each other

teps

ɵ "&ternal consultant obtains

the two groups’ agreementto work directly on improvingintergroup relationships

ɵ 'ime is set for the two

groups to meetɵ 'ime is seet for the two

groups to meetɵ )onsultant describes the

purpose and ob:ectives of the meeting and presentedwith the following -uestions□ What -ualities or

attributes best describeour group

□ What -ualities or

attributes best describethe other group

□ $ow do we think the

other group will describeus

ɵ 'wo groups establish norms

of openness for feedback

and discussionɵ 'wo groups are assigned to

separate rooms and asked towrite answers to the-uestions

ɵ 'wo groups reconvene and a

representative from eachgroup presents the writtenstatements□ Only the representatives

are allowed to speekɵ (roups separate again

ɵ (roups analyze and reviewthe reasons for thediscrepancies□ $ow did these

perceptions occur□ What actions on the part

of our group may havecontributed to this set ofperceptions

ɵ Meet again to share both the

identi%ed discrepancies andtheir problem1solving

approaches□ Open discussion

ɵ (roups deelop speci%c plans

of actionɵ #t least one1follow up

meeting #pproaches

ɵ 6ehavioral

□ Oriented to keeping the

relevant partiesphysically separate andspecifying the limitedconditions under whichinteraction will occur

□ ,ittle attempt is made to

understand or changehow members of eachgroup see the other

□ #pplicable in situations in

which taskinterdependencebetween the con7icting


22/51

groups is relatively lowand predictable

ɵ #ttitudnal

□ /irected at changing how

each group perceives theother

□ /i=cult

□ When task

interdependencebetween the con7ictinggroups is high andunpredictable

o Microcosm groups

(eneric systemwide change

strategy # small number of individuals

who re7ect the issue beingaddressed

Work through parallel processes

ɵ .nconscious changes that

take place in individualswhen two or more groupsinteract

teps

ɵ *dentify an ussue

ɵ )onvene the group

□ (roup membership needs

to re7ect the appropratemi& of stakeholdersrelated to the issue

□ (roup becomes

responsible for

determining itsmembership

ɵ Provide group training

□ Problem solving

□ /ecision training

ɵ #ddress the issue

□ )ommunication plan

should link groupactivities to the org

□ (roup members need to

be visible and accessible

to management and labor□ 'here should be an

appropriate lelve of participation by orgmembers

ɵ /issolve the group

• #imed at diagnosing and addressing

important organization1level processes

• *mportance

o (roups often must work with and

through other groups

o (roups within the org often create

problems and place demands oneach other

o 2uality of the relationships

between groups can aect thedegree of org eectiveness

,arge1group interventions

•(et a whole system into the room andcreate processes that allows a varietyof stakeholders to interactsimultaneously

• )an be used to clarify important

organization values! develop newways of looking at problems! articulatea new vision for the organizationsolve cross1functional problemsrestructure operations or devise anorganizational strategy

• Focus on issues that aect the whole

organization• /e%ning feature is the bringing

together of large numbers of orgmembers and other stakeholders

• *nterventions

o Open systems thinking

o Participation

uggests that a variety of org

stakeholders must be involvedto create an accurate view ofthe environment and org

o ocial constructionism

uggests that only be

developing a sharedunderstanding of theenvironment and the org amongthese stakeholders can commonground be found andcoordinated action be possible

o elf management

Proposes that large1group

processes must create theconditions for ownership and

commitment• teps

o Preparing for the meeting

/esign team is formed

ɵ #ddresses 9 key ingredients

□ )ompelling meeting

theme□ #ppropriate participants

□ +elevant tasks to address

the teamo )onducting the meeting


23/51

Frameworks

ɵ Open systems methods

□ $elp org assess their

environmentssystematically anddevelop strategicresponses to them

□ teps

Map the currentenvironmentsurrounding the org

#ssess the org’s

responses toenvironmentale&pectations

*dentify the core

mission of the org #s revealed by

org’s behaviors )reate a realistic

future sceario of envrionmentale&pectations and orgresponses

)reate an ideal future

scenario of environmentale&pectations and orgresponses

)ompare the present

with the ideal futureand prepare an action

plan for reducing thediscrepancy

ɵ Open space methods

□ 6y imposing a minimal

level of formal structure□ teps

et the conditions for

self1organizing 8orms

∗ ,aw of two feet

"ncourages

people totakeresponsibility for theirownbehavior

∗ Four principles

Whoever

comes is theright people

1 *ntendedto freepeople tobeginconversations withanyoneat anytime

1 ignalsthat-uality ofaconversation iswhat’smostimportant

Whatever

happens isthe onlything thatcould have1 *nfuses

the groupwithresponsibility!enocuragesparticipa

nts to be7e&ibleandpreparesthe to besurprised

Whenever it

starts is theright time1 #imed at

encouraging

creativityandfollowingthenaturalenergy ofthe group

When it is

over! it isover1 #llows

people to


24/51

move onand notfeel liketheyhave tomeet fora certaintimeperiod orsatisfysomeoneelse’sre-uirments

)reate the agenda

Person announcing

the topic agrees toconvene themeeting at theposted time and

place Participants sign

up as many of thesessions as theyhave interests in

)oordinate activity

through informatin "ach morning and

evening acommunitymeeting is held toannounce new

topics #s the dierent

meetings occur!the convenersproduce one1pagesummaries of whathappened! whoattended! whatsub:ects werediscussed! andwhatrecommendations

or actions wereproposed

ɵ Positive methods

□ teps

/iscover the org’s

positive core Participant’s pair

up with anotherperson andconduct an

appreciativeinterview

Pairs :oin up with

three other pairs todiscuss theiranswers

)onversations are

aggregated toreate a broad andinclusive list ofsuccess factorsand other themes

/ream about and

envision a moredesired and ful%llingfuture

/esign the structura

and systemsarrangements that wilbest re7ect and

support the vision ordream )reate the speci%c

action plans that wilful%ll the org’s destiny

Four key dilemmas of large

group interventionsɵ /ilemma of voice

□ Problem of encouraging

participation□ Problem of being

overwhelmed if each

individual wants to speakɵ /ilemma of structure

□ $ow tightly or loosely the

meeting should beorganized

ɵ "gocentric dilemma

□ Problem of people

holding on to their ownpersonal views of right orwrong! better or worse

ɵ /ilemma of emotiona

contagion□ (roup dynamic where

many people take on thefrustrations or e&citementof others

□ groupthink

o Following1up on outcomes


25/51

(aining wider commitment to

the changes tructuring the change process

'estructuring Organizations

tructural design

• /escribes how the overall work of the

org is divided into subunits and howthese subunits are coordinated fortask completion

• Fit with four factors

o "nvironment

o Org size

o 'echnology

o Org strategy

Functional departments

• 'ask specialized

• #dvantages

o Promotes skill specializationo +educes duplication of scarce

resources and uses resources fulltime

o "nhances career development for

specialists within largedepartments

o Facilitates communication and

performance because superiorsshare e&pertise with theirsubordinates

o

"&poses specialists to others withinthe same specialty

• /isadvantages

o "mphasizes routine tasks! which

encourages short time horizonso Fosters parochial perspectives by

managers which limit theircapabilities top1managementpositions

o +educes communication and

cooperation between departmentso Multiplies the interdepartmental

dependencies which can makecoordination and schedulingdi=cult

o Obscures accountability for overall

outcomes

• )ontingencies

o table and certain environment

o mall to medium size

o +outine technology!

interdependence within functions

o (oals of e=ciency and technica

-uality

elf1contained divisional units

• Oriented to speci%c products

customers or regions

• Formal structure within a self1

contained unit is functional in nature

• #dvantageso +ecognizes sources of

interdepartmental dependencieso Fosters an orientation toward

overall outcomes and clientso #llows diversi%cation and

e&pansion of skills and trainingo "nsures accountability by

departmental managers and sopromotes delegation of authorityand responsibility

o $eightens departmental cohesion

and involvement in work• /isadvantages

o May use skills and resources

ine=cientlyo ,imits career advancement by

specialists to movements out oftheir departments

o *mpedes specialists’ e&posure to

others within the same specialtieso Puts multiple1role demands on

people and so creates stresso

May promote departmentaob:ectives

• )ontingencies

o .nstable and uncertain

environmentso ,arge size

o 'echnological interdependence

across functionso (oals of product specialization and

innovation

Matri&

• )ombine functional specialization andself1containment

• #dvantages

o Makes specialized! functiona

knowledge available to all pro:ectso .ses people 7e&ibly because

departments maintain reservoirs ofspecialists

o Maintains consistency between

dierent departments and pro:ects


26/51

by forcing communication betweenmanagers

o +ecognizes and provides

mechanisms for dealing withlegitimate! multiple sources of power in the org

o )an adapt to environmental

changes by shifting emphasisbetween pro:ect and functionalaspects

• /isadvantages

o )an be very di=cult to introduce

without a pree&isting supportivemanagement climate

o *ncreases role ambiguity! stress

and an&iety by assigning people tomore than one department

o Without power balancing between

pro:ect and functional forms!lowers overall performance

o Makes inconsistent demands!which may result in unproductivecon7icts and short1term crisismanagement

o May reward political skills

• )ontingencies

o /ual focus on uni-ue product

demands and technicalspecialization

o Pressure for high information1

processing capacityo Pressure for shared resources

Process structure

• +adically new

• "mphasize laterla relationships

• #ll functions necessary to produce a

product or service are placed in acommon unit

• Features

o Processes drive structure

Organized around three to %ve

key processes

o Work adds value "liminates nonessential tasks

+educes layers of management

"nriched by combining tasks so

that teams perform wholeprocesses

o 'eams are fundamental

o )ustomers de%ne performance

o 'eams are rewarded for

performance

o 'eams are tightly linked to

suppliers and customerso 'eam members are well informed

and trained

• #dvantages

o Focuses on resources on customer

satisfactiono *mproves speed and e=ciency

o #dapts to environmental changerapidlyo +educes boundaries between

departmentso *ncreases ability to see total work

7owo "nhances employee involvement

o ,owers costs because of less

overhead structure

• /isadvantages

o )an threaten middle managers and

sta specialistso +e-uires changes in command1

and1control mindsetso /uplicates scarce resources

o +e-uires new skills and knowledge

to manage lateral relationships andteams

o May take longer to make decisions

in teamso )an be ineective if wrong

procesess are identi%ed

• )ontingencies

o

.ncertain and changingenvironmentso Moderate to large sze

o 8onroutine and highly

interdependent technologieso )ustomer1oriented goals

)ustomer centric structure

• Focuses subunits on the creation of

solutions and the satisfaction of keycustomers or customer groups

• Front1back organizations

• 6rought about by globalization! e1commerce and desire for solutionsthat greatly enhanced the power ofthe customer to demand orgstructures that service their needs"eature Product Custom

(oal 6est

product

for

customer

6est solutio

customer


27/51

ource of

value

8ew

products!

new

features

)ustomized

bundles of

products! services!

support! education

and consulting)ore

structure

Product

teams!

product

reviews!

product

pro%t

centers

)ustomer teams

and segments)ustomer P,s

)ore

process

8ew

product

processes

)ustomer

relationship

management

processes and

integration;solution

s

• #dvantageso Presents one integrated face to the

customero (enerates a deep understanding of

customer re-uirementso "nables org to customize and tailor

solutions for customerso 6uilds a robust customer response

capability

• /isadvantages

o )ustomer teams can be too

inwardly focusedo haring learnings and developing

functional skills is di=culto Managing lateral relations between

customer1facing and back o=ceunits is di=cult

o /eveloping common processes in

the front and back is problematico )larifying the marketing function is

problematic

• )ontingencies

o $ighly comple& and uncertain

environmentso ,arge org

o (oals of customer focus and

solutions orientationo $ighly uncertain technologies

8etwork structure

• Manages the diverse! comple&! and

dynamic relationships among multipleorgs or units! each specializing in aparticular business function or task

• 'ypes

o *nternal market

When single org establishes

each subunit as an independentpro%t center that is allowed totrade in services and resourceswith each other and e&ternamarket

o


28/51

• )ontingencies

o $ighly comple& and uncertain

environmentso Orgs of all sizes

o (oals of org specialization and

innovationo $ighly uncertain technologies

/ownsizing• /ecreasing number of employees

o ,ayos

o #ttrition

o +edeployment

o "arly retirement

• +educing the number of org units or

managerial levelso /ivestiture

o Outsourcing

o +eorganization

o /elayering

• "ectG rise of contingent workforce

• +esponse to ma:or conditions

o Mergers and ac-uisitions

o Org decline caused by loss of

revenues and market share and bytechnological and industrial change

o 8ew org structures

o 6eliefs and social pressures that

smaller is better

• teps

o )larify the org strategy

o #ssess downsizing options andmake relevant choices 9 methods

ɵ Workforce reduction

□ hort time frame

□ #ttrition

□ +etirement incentives

□ Outplacement services

□ layos

ɵ Org redesign

□ Medium term

□ Merging org units□ "liminating management

layers□ +edesigning tasks

ɵ ystemic change

□ ,onger term

□ )haning culture and

strategic orientationo *mplement the change

6est controlled from the top

down

peci%c areas of ine=ciency

and high cost need to beidenti%ed and targeted

peci%c actions should be linked

to the org’s strategy )ommunicate fre-uently using

a variety of mediao #ddress the needs of survivors and

those who leaveo Follow through with growth plan

Failure to move -uickly to

implement growth plans is a keydeterminant of ineectivedownsizing

+eengineering

• Fundamental rethinking and radica

redesign of business processes

• 6reaking down specialized work units

into more integrated! cross1functiona

work processes• tages

o Prepare the org

)lari%cation and assessment of

the org’s conte&to Fundamentally rethink the way

work gets done *dentify and analyze core

business processesɵ #ssigning costs to each of

the ma:or phases of

work7ow to help identifycosts that may be hidden inthe activities

/e%ne performance ob:ectives

/esign new processes

ɵ "ach essential process is

desgined according to the guidelines□ 6egin and end the

process with needs andwants of the customer

□ implify the current

process by combiningand eliminating steps

□ .se the best of what is in

the current process□ #ttend to both technica

and social aspects of theprocess

□ /o not be constrained by

past practice□ *dentify the critical info

re-uired at each step


29/51

□ Perform activities in their

most natural order□ #ssume the work gets

done right the %rst time□ ,isten to people who do

the worko +estructure the org around the new

business processes

•0eyG commitment to and developmentof an integrated info systems

Emplo!ee Involvement

"mployee involvement

• tarted with the -uality1of1work1life

movement

• OutcomeG engagement

o Org member’s work e&perience

o Motivated

o )ommitted

o *nterested• eeks to increase members’ input into

decisions that aect ofg performanceand employee well1being

• "lements

o Power

Providing people with enough

authority to make work1relateddecisions

o *nformation

"nsuring that necessary inof

7ows freely to those withdecision authority

o 0nowledge and skills

Providing trainings and

development programso +ewards

*nternal

"&ternal

o "lements are interdependent and

must be changed together

• +elationship with productivity

o

o

Parallel structures

• *nvolve members in resolving illde%ned! comple& problems and buildadapatability into bureaucratic orgs

• )ollaterl structures! dualistic

structures! shadow structures

• Operate in con:unction with the forma

org

• Provide members with alternative

setting in which to address problems

and propose innovative solutions freefrom the e&isting! formal org structureand culture

• Membership

o +estricted to making proposals and

oering suggestions for changeo ,imited to volunteers and numbers

of employees for which there areade-uate resources

• For orgs with little or no history of "*

top1down management styles and

bureaucratic cultures• teps

o /e%ne the purpose and scope

o Form a steering committee

)omposed of acknowledged

leaders of the various functionsand constituencies

O/ practitioner

ɵ $elp to establish the team

and select appropriatemembers

ɵ #ssist in developing and

maintaining group norms oflearning and innovation

ɵ $elp the committee create a

visionɵ $elp committee members

develop and specifyob:ectives and strategiesorg e&pectations andre-uired resources! andpotential rewards forparticipation


30/51

)ommunicate with org

members )reate forums for employee

problem solvingɵ #lternatives

□ #d hoc teams

)harged with

particular task and

have limited lifetime□ ,arge1group interventions

□ Facilitation support

#ddress the problems and

issues *mplement and evaluate the

changes

'otal -uality management

• )ontinuous process improvement!

continuous -uality! lean! si& sigma

• (rew out of manufacturing emphasis

on -uality control• *ncreases workers’ knowledge and

skills through e&tensive training

• Provides relevant information to

employees

• Pushes decision1making power

downward in the org

• 'ies rewards to performance

• ources of -uality problems

o #voidable

$ours spent reworking defective

products! processing complaintsand scrapping otherwise usefulmaterial

o .navoidable costs

Work association with

inspection and other preventivemeasures

• teps

o (ain long1term senior management

commitmento 'rainmembers in -uality methods

o tart -uality improvement pro:ects

6oth product and on process

o Measure progress

o +ewarding accomplishment

Process improvements

$igh involvement orgs

• #ddress almost all org features

• Features

o Org structure

Flat

,ean

Minienterprise oriented

'eam based

Participative council or structure

o 3ob design

*ndividually enriched

elf1managing teams

o *nformation ssytem

Open *nclusive

'ied to :obs

/ecentralizedD team1based

Participatively set goals and

standardso )areer system

'racks and counseling available

Open :ob posting

o election

+ealistic :ob previews

'eam based Potential and process1skil

orientedo 'raining

$eavy commitment

Peer training

"conomic education

*nterpersonal skills

o +eward system

Open

kill based

(ain sharing or ownership

Fle&ible bene%ts

#ll salaried workforce

"galitarian per-uisites

o Personnel policies

tability of employment

Participatively established

through representative groupo Physical layout

#round org structure

"galitarian

afe and pleasant

• C distinct factors that characterizehow $*Os are implementedo (uided by an e&plicit statement of

values that members want the neworg to support

o Participatie nature

(or$ design

"ngineering approach


31/51

• Focuses on e=ciency and

simpli%cation

• +esults in traditional :ob and work1

group designs

• Member interactions typically

controlled by rigid work 7ows!supervisors and schedules

• #nalyzes workers’ tasks to discover

those procedures that produce thema&imum output with the minimuminput of energies and resources

• Work design with high levels of

specialization and speci%cation

• #llow workers to learn tasks rapidly

• Permit short work cycles

• Work designs

o 'raditional :obs

)ompleted by one person

impli%ed! with routine and

repetitive tasks having clearspeci%cations concerning timeand motion

o 'raditional work groups

Work re-uires coordination

among people +outine yet related tasks

Overall group task is broken into

simpler! discrete parts 'asks and work methods are

speci%ed for each part andassigned to group members

• *gnores workers’ social andpsychological needs

3ob enrichment

• /esigning :obs with high level of meaning! discretion and knowledge of results

• Function of member needs and

satisfaction

• eeks to improve employee

performance and satisfaction

•)ore dimensions of :obso kill variety

*n7uence the e&tent to which

work is perceived as meaningful 8umber and types of skills used

to perform a particular tasko 'ask identity


work is perceived as meaningful "&tent to which an individual

performs a whole piece of work

o 'ask signi%cance


work is perceived as meaningful *mpact that the work has on

otherso #utonomy

#mount of independence

freedom and discretion that the

employee has to schedule andperform tsks *n7uence the e&tent to which

they are responsible for theirwork

o Feedback

*nfo that workers receive about

the eectiveness of their work

• Psychological sates

o "&perienced meaningfulness of the

worko "&perienced responsibility for

outcomes of worko 0nowledge of the actual results of

the work activities

• Outcomes

o $igh internal work motivation

o $igh -uality work performance

o Work satisfaction

o ,ow absenteeism and turnover

• *ndividual dierences also aects

outcomeso 0nowledge

o kills levelso (rowth1need strength

o atisfaction of conte&tual factors

+eward systems

upervisory style

)oworker satisfaction

• teps

o Making a thorough diagnosis of the

situation Function of 9 psychologica

states Pro%le one or more :obs

*ndicates how ready employees

are to accept change /etermine whether the :ob is

low in motivating potential /etermine whether motivation

and satisfaction are reallyproblems

'o isolate speci%c :ob aspects

that are causing problemso Forming natural work units


32/51

o )ombining tasks

o "stablishing client relationships

)lient must be identi%ed

)ontact between the client and

the worker needs to beestablished as directly aspossible

)riteria and procedures are

needed by which the client can :udge the -uality of the productor service received and relaythose :udgements back to theworkeer

o


33/51

(roup

responsibility forboundary1controldecisions

Members

su=ciently trainedto perform taskswithout relyingheavily on e&ternalresources

'ask control

"nables self1

managed workteams to observeand controltechnical variancesas -uickly and asclose to theirsource as possible

ɵ 'eam process interventions

ɵ Organization supportsystems□ "&ternal leadership

Working with and

developing teammembers

#ssisting the team in

managing itsboundaries

ɵ 'eam functioning

ɵ 'eam performance and

member satisfaction

+ecruitment and selectionɵ electing team leaders with

a balanced mi&ture of technical and social skills

'raining

ɵ "&tensive formal and on1the1

:ob training in humanrelations! group dynamicsand leadership styles

"valuation and reward systems

ɵ 'ie team leader rewards to

achievements in teamdevelopment ,eadership and support systems

ɵ /evelop peer support groups

.se of freed1up time

ɵ 'eam leader has more time

when the team has maturedɵ 6e involved in higher1level

planning and budgeting!companywide training and

development and individuacareer development

o teps

anctioning the design eort

ɵ 8ecessary protection and

support to diagnose theirwork system and to createan appropriate work design

/iagnosing the work systemsɵ /iscover how it is working

(enerating appropriate designs

ɵ Principles

□ )ompatibility

Process of designing

work should %t thevalues and ob:ectivesunderlying theapproach

□ Minimal critica

speci%cation

pecify only thosecritical featuresneeded to implementthe work design

pecifying support systems

*mplementing and evaluating

work design )ontinual change and

improvementɵ #s new things are learned

and new conditions areencountered

'echnical factors

• 'echnical interdependence

o "&tent to which cooperation among

workers is re-uired to produce aproduct or service

o /etermines whether work should

be designed for individual :obs orfor work groups

• 'echnical uncertainty

o #mount of info processing and

decision making employees mustdo to complete a task

o /etermines whether the work

should be designed for e&ternaforms of control or for worker self1control


34/51

•

Personal1need factors

• ocial needs

o /esire for signi%cant relationships

o /etermines whether work shouldbe designed for individual :obs orwork groups

• (rowth needs

o /esire for personal

accomplishment! learning anddevelopment

o /etermines whether work designs

should be routine and repetitive orcomple& and challenging

•

Performance &anagement

Performance management

• *ntegrated process of de%ning

assessing and reinforcing employeework behaviors and outcomes

• )onte&tual factors that determine how

practices aect work performanceo 6usiness strategy

(oals and ob:ectives! policies

and intended relationships

between the org and itsenvironmento Workplace technology

#ects whether performance

management practices shouldbe based on the individual orthe group

o "mployee involvement

/etermine the nature of

performance managementpractices

(oal setting• *nteraction between managers and

employees in :ointly de%ning memberwork behaviors and outcomes

• peci%es kinds of performance that

are desired

• )an facilitate employee counseling

and support

• )an generates goals in servera

de%ned categories at dierent orglevels

•*n7uences what people think and doby focusing their behavior in thedirection of the goals

• Prompts persistence over time

• "nergize behavior

• Processes that aect positive

outcomeso "stablishing challenging goals


35/51

oriented participative goal1setting tends to increasecommitment

o )larifying goal measurement

Ob:ectives should be

operationally de%ned )onte&tual factors

ɵ (oal speci%cation and clarity

can be di=cult in high1technology settingsɵ "mployee involvement

policies can impact the waygoals are clari%ed

ɵ Process of specifying and

clarifying goals is e&tremelydi=cult if the businessstrategy is unclear

• teps

o /iagnosis

Of the :ob or work group! of

employee needs and of theconte&tual factors

o Preparation for goal setting

*ncreasing interaction and

communication betweenmanagers and employees

Oering formal training in goal1

setting methods peci%c action plans for

implementing the programo etting of goals

)hallenging goals are

established Methods for goal measurement

o +eview

(oal1setting process is assessed

(oal attributes are evaluated

• Management by ob:ectives

o ystematic and periodic manager1

subordinate meetingso teps

Work1group involvement

ɵ #ll members de%ne overall

group and individual goalsand establish action plans

3oint manager1subordinate goal

settingɵ #ttention is given to :ob

duties and responsibilities of the individual roleincumbents

"stablishment of action plans

for goals

ɵ ubordinate develops action

plans for goaaccomplishment

"stablishment of criteria o

successɵ Manager and subordinate

agree on the success criteria +eview and recycle

ɵ

ubordinate takes the leadreviewing progress anddiscussing achievementsand the obstacles faced

ɵ Manager discusses work

plans and ob:ectives for thefuture

ɵ More general discussion

covers the subordinate’sfuture ambitions and otherfactors of concern

Maintenance of records

Performance appraisal

• )ollecting and disseminating

performance data to improve workoutcomes

• #ssesses outcomes

• Feedback system that involves the

direct evaluation of individual or work1group performance

• *mportant link between goal1setting

processes and reward systemsElements Traditional )ig

InvolvePurpose Organizational

! legalfragmented

/evelo

alintegra

#ppraiser upervisor!

managers

#pprais

co1work

others

+ole of

appraisee

Passive

receipient

#ctive

participMeasuremen

t

ub:ective)oncerned

with validity

Ob:ecti

sub:ect

'iming Periodic! %&ed!

administrative

ly driven

/ynam

timely!

employ

work1 d

• teps

o elect the right people

$+ sta! legal reps! senior

management and system userso /iagnose the current situation


36/51

o "stablish the system’s purposes

and ob:ectiveso /esign the performance appraisal

systems Who performs the appraisal

Who is involved in determining

performance $ow performance is measured

$ow often feedback is given

)riteria

ɵ 'imeliness

ɵ #ccuracy

ɵ #cceptance

ɵ .nderstanding

ɵ Focus on critical control

pointsɵ "conomic feasibility

"&periment with

implementation "valuate and monitor the

system

+eward systems

• )oncerned with eliciting and

reinforcing desired behaviors and workoutcomes through compensation andother forms of recognition

• /esign features

o Person;:ob based vs performance

based "&tent to which rewards and

incentives are based on theperson in a :ob! the :ob itself! orthe outcomes of the work

o Market position

"&ternal e-uity

+elationship between what an

org pays an what other orgs payo *nternal e-uity

"&tent to which people doing

similar work in an org arerewarded the same

o $ierarchy

"&tent to which people in higherpositions get more and variedtypes of rewards than peoplelower in the org

o )entralization

"&tent to which reward system

design features! decisions andadmin are standardized acrossan org

o +ewards mi&

"&tent to which dierent types

of rewards are available andoered to people

o ecurity

"&tent to which work is

guaranteedo eniority

"&tent to which rewards are

based on length of service•


37/51

o drawbacks

tendency to top out

ɵ when employees learn all

the skills there is to learn e&pensive

ɵ trainings

ɵ measurement systems

ɵ highly paid and 7e&ible but

not productive lack of performance

contingency

• performance1based pay systemso dimensions

org unit by which performance

is measured for rewardpurposes

way performance is measured

what rewards are given for good

performance

• gain1sharing systemso paying employees a bonus based

on improvements in the operatingresults of the org

o design elements

process of design

ɵ employee acceptance and

cooperationɵ management and

nonmanagement interests org unit covered

bonus formula

ɵ standard of performancemust be developed that canbe used as a baseline forcalculating improvements orlosses

ɵ costs included in arriving at

the bonus must be chosen sharing process

ɵ who will share in the bonus

ɵ how the money will be

divided among employees fre-uency of bonus

change management participative system

ɵ gather! assess and

implement employeesuggestions andimprovements

• goal1sharing plans

o pay bonuses when performance

e&ceeds a standard

o use changing! strategic ob:ectives

as the primary standard ofperformance

• promotion systems

o focuses attention on advancement

o can lead to reduced 7e&ibility in

the workforce

• issues

o who should be involved indesigning and administering thereward system

o what kind of communication should

e&ist with respect to rewards

Developing Talent

)oaching and mentoring

• coaching

o working with org members on a

regular basis to help them clarify

their goals! deal with potentiastumbling blocks and improve theirperformance

• mentoring

o establishing a relationship between

a manager or someone moree&perienced and another orgmember who is less e&perienced

• guided in-uiry

• active listening

• reframing

• improves personal productivity andbuilds capacity in individuals to leadmore eectively

• goals addressed

o assisting an e&ecutive to more

eectively e&ecute some transitiono addressing a performance problem

o developing new behavioral skills as

part of a leadership developmentprogram

• assumes that the client is healthy

• primarily future and action oriented

• involves helping clients understandhow their behaviors are contributing tothe current situation

• stages

o establish the principles of the

relationshipo conduct an assessment

o debrief the results

o develop an action plan

o implement the action plan


38/51

o assess the results

)areer planning and development

• provide the appropriate resources!

tools and processes necessary to helporg members plan and attain theircareer ob:ectives

• career

o

se-uence of work1related positionsoccupied by a person

• career planning

o concerned with individuals

choosing :obs! occupations andorgs at each stage of thier

organizational development summary

Documents