orgchemchapter12.pdf

John E. McMurry

http://www.cengage.com/chemistry/mcmurry

Javier E. Horta, M.D., Ph.D. University of Massachusetts Lowell

Chapter 12 Organohalides: Nucleophilic

Substitutions and Eliminations

Alkyl halide or haloalkanes Compounds with a halogen atom bonded to a saturated sp3-

hybridized carbon atom Widespread in nature

Chloromethane is released in large amounts by ocean kelp, as well as by forest fires and volcanoes

Vast array of industrial applications Use as inhaled anesthetics, refrigerants, pesticides, and solvents

Alkyl Halides

Other halo-substituted compounds are providing important leads to new medicines

Pentahalogenated alkene Halomon, isolated from the red alga Portieria hornemannii, exhibits anticancer activity against several human tumor cell lines

Alkyl Halides

Alkyl halides are not often involved in the biochemical pathways of terrestrial organisms

The kinds of reactions they undergo nucleophilic substitutions and eliminations are frequently involved

Alkyl halide chemistry acts as a relatively simple model for many mechanistically similar but structurally more complex reactions found in biomolecules

Alkyl Halides

Haloalkanes Commonly called alkyl halides The halogen is treated as a substituent on a parent alkane

chain

Alkyl halides can be named by following three steps1. Find the longest chain, and name it as the parent If a double or triple bond is present, it must be included in the

parent chain

12.1 Naming Alkyl Halides

2. Number the carbons of the parent chain beginning at the end nearer the first substituent, whether alkyl or halo

Assign each substituent a number according to its position on the chain

3. If the parent chain can be properly numbered from either end by step 2, begin at the end nearer the substituent that has alphabetical precedence

Naming Alkyl Halides

Many simple alkyl halides are also named by identifying first the alkyl group and then the halogen

CH3I can either be called iodomethane or methyl iodide

Names shown in parentheses will not be used in this textbook


The carbon-halogen bond of alkyl halides is polarized with the carbon atom bearing a slight positive charge (+) and the halogen a slight negative charge (-)

The alkyl halide C-X carbon atom behaves as an electrophile in polar reactions


Halogens increases in size down the periodic table Lengths of corresponding carbon-halogen bonds increase

accordingly

The C-X carbon bond strengths decrease going down the periodic table


Methods of preparing alkyl halides Reactions of HX and X2 with alkenes in electrophilic addition

reactions The hydrogen halides HCl, HBr, and HI react with alkenes by

a polar mechanism to give the product of Markovnikov addition Bromine and chlorine undergo anti addition through a

halonium ion intermediate to give 1,2-dihalogenated products

12.2 Preparing Alkyl Halides from Alkenes: Electrophilic Addition

Many common methods have been developed to transform alcohols into alkyl halides

Treat the alcohol with HCl, HBr, or HI Simplest method The reaction works best with tertiary alcohols, R3COH Primary and secondary alcohols react slowly and at higher

reaction temperatures

12.3 Preparing Alkyl Halides from Alcohols

The reaction of HX with a tertiary alcohol is so rapid that it is often carried our simply by bubbling the pure HCl or HBr gas into a cold ether solution of the alcohol

Conversion of 1-methylcyclohexanol into 1-chloro-1-methylcyclohexane

Preparing Alkyl Halides from Alcohols

Primary and secondary alcohols are best converted into alkyl halides by treatment with either thionyl chloride (SOCl2) or phosphorus tribromide (PBr3)

Reactions normally take place readily under mild conditions Reactions are less acidic and less likely to cause acid-related

complications associated with the HX method

Preparing Alkyl Halides from Alcohols

Alkyl halides are electrophiles that react with nucleophiles/bases in one of two ways

Undergo substitution of the X group by the nucleophile

Undergo elimination of HX to yield an alkene

12.5 Discovery of the Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction

Nucleophilic substitution reactions One of the most common and versatile reaction types in

organic chemistry Explain the transformations taking place in Waldens cycle Each step involves the substitution of one nucleophile (in

Waldens cycle: chloride ion, Cl-, or hydroxide ion, HO-) by another

Discovery of the Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction

What product would you expect from a nucleophilic substitution reaction of (R)-1-bromo-1-phenylethane with cyanide ion, -CN as nucleophile? Show the stereochemistry of both reactant and product, assuming that inversion of configuration occurs.

Worked Example 12.2

Predicting the Stereochemistry of a Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction

Strategy Draw the R enantiomer of the reactant and then

change the configuration of the chirality center while replacing the Br with a CN

Worked Example 12.2


Solution

Worked Example 12.2


SN2 reaction Short for substitution, nucleophilic, bimolecular Suggested in 1937 by E. D. Hughes and Christopher Ingold Essential features of the SN2 Reaction

Takes place in a single step without intermediates Incoming nucleophile reacts with the alkyl halide or tosylate

(the substrate) from a direction opposite the group that is displaced (the leaving group)

The SN2 Reaction

The mechanism of the SN2 reaction when (S)-2-bromobutane reacts with OH to give (R)-butan-2-ol

The reaction takes place in a single step Incoming nucleophile approaches from a

direction 180 away from the leaving halide ion, thereby inverting the stereochemistry at carbon

The SN2 Reaction

The SN2 reaction occurs when an electron pair on the nucleophile Nu:-forces out the group X:-, which takes with it the electron pair from the former C-X bond The transition

state of an SN2reaction has a planar arrangement of the carbon atom and the remaining three groups

The SN2 Reaction

Steric hindrance to the SN2 reaction. The carbon atom in (a) is readily accessible, resulting in a fast SN2 reaction. The carbon atoms in (b) bromoethane (primary), (c) 2-bromopropane (secondary), and (d) 2-bromo-2-methylpropane (tertiary) are successively more hindered, resulting in successively slower SN2 reactions

Characteristics of the SN2 Reaction

SN2 reactions occur only at relatively unhindered sites Relative reactivities for some different substrates are as

follows:


Vinylic halides (R2C=CRX) and aryl halides are unreactive toward SN2 reaction The incoming nucleophile would have to approach in the plane

of the carbon-carbon double bond to carry out a backside displacement


The Nucleophile A Lewis base Any species either neutral or negatively charged that has an

unshared pair of electrons If negatively charged, the product is neutral

If neutral, the product is positively charged


Wide array of substances prepared using SN2 reactions


Trends found in SN2 reactions: Nucleophilicity roughly parallels basicity when

comparing nucleophiles that have the same reacting atom OH- is more basic and more nucleophilic than acetate ion,

CH3CO2-, which in turn is more basic and more nucleophilic than H2O

Nucleophilicity is the affinity of a Lewis base for a carbon atom in the SN2 reaction

Basicity is the affinity of a base for a proton


Nucleophilicity usually increases going down a column of the periodic table HS- is more nucleophilic than HO-

Halide reactivity order is I-> Br-> Cl-

Going down the periodic table, elements have their valence electrons in successively larger shells, where they are successively farther from the nucleus, less tightly held, and consequently more reactive

Negatively charged nucleophiles are usually more reactive than neutral ones SN2 reactions are often carried out under basic conditions

rather than neutral or acidic conditions


The Leaving Group Best leaving groups are those that best stabilize the negative

charge in the transition state WEAK BASES! The greater the extent of the charge stabilization by the leaving

group, the lower the energy of the transition state and the more rapid the reaction

Weak bases such as Cl and tosylate ion make good leaving groups, while strong bases such as OH and NH2 make poor leaving groups


Alkyl fluorides, alcohols, ethers, and amines do not typically act as electrophiles in SN2 reactions

To carry out an SN2 reaction with an alcohol, the strong base HOmust be converted into a better leaving group A primary or secondary alcohol is converted into an alkyl chloride by

reaction with SOCl2 A primary or secondary alcohol is converted into an alkyl bromide by

reaction with PBr3


An alcohol can be made more reactive toward nucleophilic substitution by treating it with p-toluenesulfonyl cholride to form a tosylate.


Epoxides Three-membered cyclic ethers Much more reactive than other ethers because of angle

strain in the three-membered ring React with aqueous acid to give 1,2-diols React readily with many other nucleophiles

Propene oxide reacts with HCl to give 1-chloropropan-2-ol by SN2 backside attack on the less hindered primary carbon atom


The Solvent Protic solvents those that contain an OH or NH group are

generally the worst for SN2 reactions Methanol and ethanol slow down SN2 reactions by solvation of

the reactant nucleophile Solvent molecules hydrogen bond to the nucleophile and form a

cage around it, reducing its reactivity


Polar aprotic solvents, which are polar but do not have OH or NH group, are the best solvents for SN2 reactions Solvents can dissolve many salts because of their high polarity, but

they do not solvate nucleophilic anions very well, making them more reactive

Barely solvated anions have greater nucleophilicity and SN2reactions take place at correspondingly faster rates

Example: Reaction of azide ion with 1-bromobutane


Substrate Steric hindrance raises the energy of the SN2 transition state, increasing G and decreasing the reaction rate. As a result, SN2 reactions are best for methyl and primary substrates

A Summary of SN2 Reaction Characteristics


Nucleophile Basic, negatively charged nucleophiles are less stable and have a higher ground-state energy than neutral ones, decreasing G and increasing SN2 reaction rate


Leaving group Good leaving groups (more stable anions) lower the energy of the transition state decreasing G and increasing SN2 reaction rate


Solvent Protic solvents solvate the nucleophile, thereby lowering its ground-state energy, increasing G, and decreasing SN2 reaction ratePolar aprotic solvents surround the accompanying cation but not the nucleophilic anion, thereby raising the ground-state energy of the nucleophile, decreasing G and increasing SN2 reaction rate


SN1 reaction Unimolecular nucleophilic substitution reaction

12.8 The SN1 Reaction

Mechanism of the SN1 reaction of 2-bromo-2-methylpropane with H2O involves three steps The first step

spontaneous, unimolecularionization of the alkyl bromide to yield a carbocation the slowest step

The SN1 Reaction

SN1 reaction Slowest step is

a spontaneous ionization of the alkyl halide to give a carbocation intermediate

The SN1 Reaction

If an SN1 reaction is carried out on one enantiomer of a chiral reactant and proceeds through an achiral carbocation intermediate, the product will be optically inactive

The symmetrical intermediate carbocation can react with a nucleophile equally well from either side, leading to a racemic 50 : 50 mixture of enantiomers

The SN1 Reaction

SN1 reactions on enantiomerically pure substrates do not occur with complete racemization

Reaction of (R)-6-chloro-2,6-dimethyloctane with H2O, product is approximately 60% inverted and 40% retained

The SN1 Reaction

Ion pairs in an SN1 reaction The leaving group shields one side of the carbocation intermediate

from reaction with the nucleophile, thereby leading to some inversion of configuration rather than complete racemization

The SN1 Reaction

SN1 Reaction Factors that lower G , either by lowering the energy level of the

transition state or by raising the energy level of the ground state, favor faster SN1 reaction

The Substrate The more stable the carbocation intermediate, the faster the SN1

reaction Stability of carbocations 3 > 2 > 1 > CH3 Reaction is favored for more highly stabilized

carbocation intermediates

12.9 Characteristics of the SN1 Reaction

The resonance-stabilized allylic and benzylic cations also favor reaction


Due to resonance stabilization: Primary allylic and primary benzylic carbocations are about

as stable as secondary alkyl carbocations Secondary allylic and secondary benzylic carbocations are

about as stable as a tertiary alkyl carbocations


Primary allylic and benzylic substrates are particularly reactive in BOTH SN2 and SN1 reactions

Allylic and benzylic C-X bonds are about 50 kJ/mol (12 kcal/mol) weaker than the corresponding saturated bonds, making them easy to break during an SN2 reaction

The stability of allylic and benzylic carbocations allow easy ionization, and thus, favors SN1 reactions as well


The Leaving group An identical reactivity order is found for the SN1 reaction as

for the SN2 reaction


For SN1 reactions carried out under acidic conditions neutral water is sometimes the leaving group

Mechanism of the SN1 reaction of a tertiary alcohol with HBr to yield an alkyl halide Leaving group is

neutral water


The Nucleophile Does not affect the SN1 reaction rate

The slowest step of an SN1 reaction does not involve the nucleophile it only depends on the ease of carbocation formation


The Solvent Solvent effects in the SN1 reaction are due largely to

stabilization or destabilization of the transition state Any factor stabilizing the intermediate carbocation should

increase the rate of an SN1 reaction Carbocation solvation

The electron-rich oxygen atoms of solvent molecules orient around the positively charged carbocation and thereby stabilize it


SN1 reactions take place much more rapidly in solvents having greater polarity such as water and methanol (regardless of whether they are protic or aprotic) than in nonpolar solvents such as ether and chloroform


Substrate The best substrates yield the most stablecarbocations. As a result, SN1 reactionsare best for tertiary, allylic, and benzylic,halides

Leaving group Good leaving groups increase the reactionrate by lowering the energy level of the transition state for carbocation formation

Nucleophile The nucleophile does not affect the reaction rate

Solvent Polar solvents stabilize the carbocation intermediate by solvation, thereby increasing the reaction rate

A Summary of SN1 Reaction Characteristics


Predict whether each of the following substitution reactions is likely to be SN1 or SN2:

Worked Example 12.3

Predicting the Mechanism of a Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction

Strategy Look at the substrate, leaving group, nucleophile, and solvent Decide from the summaries at the ends of Sections 12.7 and 12.9

whether an SN1 or an SN2 reaction is favored SN1 reactions are favored by tertiary, allylic, or benzylic substrates,

by good leaving groups, by nonbasic nucleophiles, and by protic solvents

SN2 reaction are favored by primary substrates, by good leaving groups, by good nucleophiles, and by polar aprotic solvents

Worked Example 12.3


Solution

This is likely to be an SN1 reaction because the substrate is secondary and benzylic (easily forms carbocations), the nucleophile is weakly basic, and the solvent is protic(which reduces the reactivity of the nucleophile, allowing the carbocation to form)

Worked Example 12.3


Solution

This likely to be an SN2 reaction because the substrate is primary, the nucleophile is anionic, and the solvent is polar aprotic

Worked Example 12.3


SN1 and SN2 reactions are known in biological chemistry Pathways for biosynthesis of the many thousands of terpenes The substrate in a

biological substitution reaction is often an organodiphosphate rather than an alkyl halide The leaving group is the

diphosphate ion, PPi, rather than a halide ion

Diphosphate group is the biological equivalent of a halogen

12.10 Biological Substitution Reactions

Geraniol Biosynthesis A fragrant alcohol

found in roses and used in perfumery

Two SN1 reactions occur, both with diphosphate ion as the leaving group

Biological Substitution Reactions

SN2 reactions are involved in almost all biological methylations, which transfer a CH3 group from an electrophilic donor to a nucleophile

CH3 donor is S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) Contains a positively charged sulfur (a sulfonium ion)

Leaving group is the neutral S-adenosylhomocysteine molecule

In the biosynthesis of epinephrine (adrenaline) from norepinephrine, the nucleophilic nitrogen atom of norepinephrine attacks the electrophilic methyl carbon atom of S-adenosylmethionine, displacing S-adenosylhomocysteine S-adenosylmethionine is a biological equivalent of CH3Cl


Biosynthesis of epinephrine from norepinephrin Occurs by an SN2 reaction with S-adenosylmethionine


When a nucleophile/Lewis base reacts with an alkyl halide two competing kinds of reactions can occur

Substitution where a nucleophile can react at carbon to substitute for the halide

Elimination where a nucleophile can react at a neighboring hydrogen to cause elimination of HX

12.11 Elimination Reactions: Zaitsevs Rule

Elimination reactions almost always give mixtures of alkene products Zaitsevs rule In the elimination of HX from an alkyl halide, the more highly substituted

alkene product predominates Used to predict major products Formulated in 1875 by the Russian chemist Alexander Zaitsev

Elimination Reactions: Zaitsevs Rule

Elimination reactions can take place by three different mechanisms

E1, E2, and E1cB reactions Differ in the timing of C-X and C-H bond breaking All three mechanisms occur in laboratory E1 predominates when the nucleophile is a weak base and the

substrate can easily form a carbocation



E2 predominates when the nucleophile is also a strong base


E1cB predominates in biological pathways Occurs with poor leaving groups, when formation of a

carbanion helps push the leaving group out

What product would you expect from reaction of 1-chloro-1-methylcyclohexane with KOH in ethanol?

Worked Example 12.4

Predicting the Product of an Elimination Reaction

Strategy Treatment of an alkyl halide with a strong base

such as KOH yields an alkene largely via E2 To find the products in a specific case, locate the

hydrogen atoms on each carbon next to the leaving group and then generate the potential alkene products by removing HX in as many ways as possible

The major product will be the one that has the most highly substituted double bond

Worked Example 12.4


Solution

The major product is the one that has the most highly substituted double bond 1-methylcyclohexene

Worked Example 12.4


E2 Reaction Most commonly occurring pathway for

elimination in the laboratory Occurs when an alkyl halide is treated with a

strong base, such as hydroxide ion or alkoxideion (RO-)

Reaction takes place in a single step through a transition state in which the double bond begins to form at the same time the H and X groups are leaving

12.12 The E2 Reaction

3. E2 reactions occur with periplanar geometry All four reacting atoms

the hydrogen, the two carbons, and the leaving group lie in the same plane Anti periplanar

geometry occurs when the H and the X are on opposite sides of the molecule

Syn periplanargeometry occurs when the H and the Xare on the same side of the molecule

The E2 Reaction

The sp3 orbitals in the reactant C-H and C-X bonds must overlap and become p orbitals in the alkene product

They must overlap in the transition state Occurs most easily if all orbitals are periplanar

The E2 Reaction

Anti periplanar geometry for E2 eliminations has specific stereochemical consequences

Meso-1,2-dibromo-1,2-diphenylethane undergoes E2 elimination on treatment with base to give only the E alkene No Z alkene is formed because the transition state leading to the Z

alkene would have to have syn periplanar geometry and thus be higher in energy

The E2 Reaction

Anti periplanar geometry is particularly important in cyclohexane rings where chair geometry forces a rigid relationship between substituents on adjacent carbon atoms

Only if the hydrogen and the leaving group are trans diaxial can an E2 reaction occur

The E2 Reaction

What stereochemistry do you expect for the alkene obtained by E2 elimination of (1S,2S)-1,2-dibromo-1,2-diphenylethane?

Worked Example 12.5

Predicting the Stereochemistry of an E2 Reaction

Strategy Draw (1,2-dibromo-1,2-diphenylethane) so that you

can see its stereochemistry and so that the H and Br groups to be eliminated are anti periplanar

Carry out the elimination while keeping all substituents in approximately their same positions, and see what alkene results

Worked Example 12.5


Solution Anti periplanar elimination of HBr gives (Z)-1-bromo-1,2-

diphenylethylene

Worked Example 12.5


The E1 Reaction A unimolecular elimination reaction in which the

C-X bond breaks before the C-H bond, giving a carbocation intermediate

Analogous to the SN1 reaction

Two steps are involved in the reaction, the first of which is slowest

Carbocation intermediate is present

12.13 The E1 and E1cB Reactions

E1 elimination begins with the same unimolecular dissociation as in the SN1 reaction, but dissociation is followed by loss of H+ from the adjacent carbon rather than by the substitution

E1 and SN1 reactions normally occur together whenever an alkyl halide is treated in a protic solvent with a poorly basic nucleophile

The best E1 substrates are also the best SN1 substrates and mixtures of substitution and elimination products are usually obtained

When 2-chloro-2-methylpropane is warmed to 65C in 80% aqueous ethanol, a mixture results

The E1 and E1cB Reactions

The E1cB Reaction A unimolecular elimination reaction in which the C-H bond breaks

before the C-X bond, giving a carbanion intermediate The anion formed expels a leaving group on the adjacent carbon

Common in substrates that have a poor leaving group, such as OH, that is two carbons removed from a carbonyl group, HO-C-CH-C=O Poor leaving group disfavors alternative E1 and E2 reactions The carbonyl group makes the adjacent hydrogen unusually acidic

by resonance stabilization of the anion intermediate

The E1 and E1cB Reactions

All three elimination reactions E1, E1cB, and E2 occur in various biological pathways

E1cB mechanism is particularly common 3-hydroxy carbonyl compounds are frequently converted

to conjugated unsaturated carbonyl compounds by elimination reactions

The substrate is usually an alcohol and the H atom is usually adjacent to a carbonyl group, just as in the laboratory

12.14 Biological Elimination Reactions

Biosynthesis of fats A 3-hydroxybutyryl thioester is dehydrated to the corresponding

unsaturated (crotonyl) thioester

Biological Elimination Reactions

SN1, SN2, E1, E1cB, and E2 Recognizing trends and making generalizations will aid in

predicting what will happen

Primary alkyl halides SN2 substitution occurs if a good nucleophile (i.e., large,

polarizable, anionic but not too basic) is used E2 elimination occurs if a strong base is used E1cB elimination occurs if the leaving group is two carbons

away from a carbonyl group

12.15 A Summary of Reactivity: SN1, SN2, E1, E1cB, and E2

Secondary alkyl halides SN2 substitution occurs if a good weakly basic nucleophile is used

in a polar aprotic solvent E2 elimination predominates if a strong base used E1cB elimination takes place if the leaving group is two carbons

away from a carbonyl group SN1 and E1 reactions occur if a weakly basic nucleophile is used

in a protic solvent

Tertiary alkyl halides E2 elimination occurs when a base is used SN1 substitution and E1 elimination occur together under neutral

conditions, such as in pure ethanol or water E1cB elimination takes place if the leaving group is two carbons

away from a carbonyl group in the presence of a basic nucleophile

A Summary of Reactivity: SN1, SN2, E1, E1cB, and E2

Tell whether each of the following reactions is likely to be SN1, SN2, E1, E1cB, or E2, and predict the product of each:

Worked Example 12.6

Predicting the Product and Mechanism of a Reaction

Strategy Look carefully in each reaction at the substrate,

leaving group, nucleophile, and solvent Decide from the summary in Section 12.15 which of

reaction is likely to be favored

Worked Example 12.6


Solution (a) A secondary, nonallylic substrate can undergo an SN2

reaction with a good nucleophile in a polar aprotic solvent but will undergo and E2 reaction on treatment with a strong base

In this case E2 reaction is likely to predominate

Worked Example 12.6


(b) A secondary benzylic substrate can undergo an SN2 reaction on treatment with a nonbasic nucleophile in a polar aprotic solvent and will undergo an E2 reaction on treatment with a base

Under protic conditions, such as aqueous formic acid (HCO2H), an SN1 reaction is likely, along with some E1 reaction

Worked Example 12.6


Grignard Reagents: Named after discoverer, Victor Grignard Alkylmagnesium halide, RMgX, produced from reaction of

alkyl halides, RX, with magnesium metal in ether or tetrahydrofuran (THF) solvent

Examples of organometallic compounds because they contain a carbon-metal bond

They can also be made from alkenyl (vinylic) and aryl (aromatic) halide

Halogens

12.4 Reactions of Alkyl Halides: Grignard Reagents

The carbon-magnesium bond within the Grignard reagent is polarized

The carbon atom is both nucleophilic and basic

Reactions of Alkyl Halides: Grignard Reagents

Grignard Reagents are magnesium salts, R3C- +MgX, of a carbon acid, R3C-H

They react with weak acids such as H2O, ROH, RCO2H, and RNH2 to abstract a proton and yield hydrocarbons Since hydrocarbons are extremely weak acids, with pKas in

the range of 44 to 60, carbon anions are very strong bases

They have no role in biochemistry They are useful carbon-based nucleophiles in many laboratory

reactions They act as models for more complex carbon-based nucleophiles

that are important in biological chemistry

Alkyl halide Grignard Reagent Hydrocarbon

Reactions of Alkyl Halides: Grignard Reagents

orgchemchapter12.pdf

Documents

preparing alkyl halides

alkyl group

alkyl halides reactions

naming alkyl halides2

alkyl halide cx carbon

halogen atom

hydrogen halides hcl

halogen ch3i