OTHELLO: THE TRAGEDY OF AN INSUFFICIENT LOVE

ROBERT HEHRICKtS "UNIFIED V I S I O N "

AND ITS PLACE I N EARLY SEVENTEENTH CENTURY POETRY

PATRICK WHITE'S FOIJR PLAYS I N THE LIGHT OF HIS NOVELS:

SOME STRUCTURAL PROBLEMS

ERNEST ALBERT K E V I N ROBERTS

B.A., U n i v e r s i t y o f Adelaide, 1962

TI-IREE PAPERS SUBMITTED I N PARTIAL F'ULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER O F M T S

i n the D e ~ a r t m e n t

of

E n g l i s h

@ ERNEST ALBERT KEVIN ROBERTS 1968

SIMON FRASER TJN IVERSITY

A u g u s t , 1968

EXAMINING COMMITTEE APPROVAL

Mr. J. Sandison Senior Supervisor

Dr. R.E. Habenicht Examining Committee

N r . G. Newman Examining Committee

Dr. E . J . H a r d e n Examining Committee

iii

ABSTRACTS

OTHELLO: THE TRAGEDY OF AN INSTJFFICIENT LOVE

Othel lo i s pr imar i ly a domestic t ragedy i n which Shakes-

peare seems t o be examining c l o s e l y , and i n mature terms, the

complexities of phys ica l and s p i r i t u a l love. This paper

at tempts a reading of t h e play which r e v e a l s t h e inadequacy

o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between Othel lo and Desdemona.

The p l a y ' s s t r u c t u r e , h i s t o r i c a l background, and a close

examination o f the t e x t r e v e a l s t h a t O t h e l l o ~ s decept ion by

Iago i s made poss ib le p a r t l y because of Othe l lo l s b l ind ly

a l t r u i s t i c conception of love i n t h e form of an idea l i sed

Desdemona, but mainly because of h i s own f e e l i n g of physical

insu f f i c i ency . This insu f f i c i ency i s i r o n i c i n t h a t Othel lo

was probably thouaht of i n El izabethan t imes as a l u s t y Moor,

y e t t h e r e i s some evidence t o suggest t h a t h i s phys ica l

r e l a t i o n s h i p with Desdemona may have been d e f i c i e n t .

I a g o t s dramatic funct ion i s t h a t of a c a t a l y s t working

on Othel lo 1s f e e l i n g s of inadequacy. This unleashes the

murderous sexual jealousy which eventua l ly l eads Othel lo t o

des t roy Desdemona by "sat i s f y i n g " her in death.

ROBERT HERRICK 1 S "UN IFIED VISION "

AND ITS PLACE I N EARLY SEVENTEENTH CENTURY POETRY

Indiv idual poets i n t h i s per iod have suf fered from the

c r i t i c a l d e s i r e t o ca tegor i se them i n t o var ious groups or

nschools. " Unt i l r e c e n t l y , Robert Herr ick ' s poetry has been

ABSTRACT (cont . ) cons idered a s t h e charming and uncomplicated ve r se of a

member o f a "school. " Consequentlv he has been eva lua ted a s

a q u i t e minor poet of l i m i t e d t a l e n t , a mere fo l lower o f Ben

Jonson.

This paper a t t e m p t s t o show t h e dep th and b r e a d t h of h i s

"un i f i ed v i s i o n " i n Hesperides and H i s Noble Numbers and t h e

i n d i v i d u a l manner i n which h i s poe t ry a s s i m i l a t e s and draws

t o g e t h e r i n one o rgan ic body of v e r s e , t h e t r a d i t i o n s o f t h e

~ r e v i o u s e r a of poe t ry and t h e i n f l u e n c e s of h i s contempor-

a r i e s . It main ta ins t h a t H e r r i c k ' s p o e t r y i s the product of

an i n t e l l e c t u a l and a r t i s t i c i n t e g r i t y which i s un ique ly

i n d i v i d u a l . It a l s o sugges t s t h a t t h i s v e r s e d i s p l a y s a

h i g h e r degree o f p o e t i c a b i l i t y t han has been p rev ious ly

thought .

PATRICK WHITE I S FOUR PLAYS I N THE LIGHT OF HIS NOVELS:

SOME STRUCTURAL PROBLEMS

This paper a t t e m ~ t s t o c l a r i f y t h e problems faced by

P a t r i c k White t h e n o v e l i s t i n h i s Four Plays . It sugges t s

t h r e e i n t e r r e l a t e d reasons f o r t h e c r i t i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s

which the p l a y s p r e s e n t , t h e f i r s t being t h a t a s a n o v e l i s t ,

White does no t always succeed i n o b j e c t i f y i n g h i s a r t i s t i c

c o n t r o l over t h e p l ays . The r e s u l t i s t h a t some a s p e c t s o f

t h e n a v e l i s t appear i n t h e p l ays . In p a r t i c u l a r , some

c h a r a c t e r s appear as novelist-commentators w i th in t h e p l a y i n

o r d e r t o maniau la te t h e a c t i o n , and t o a t tempt t o guide t h e

a u d i e n c e f s r e a c t i o n t o t h e p l ay a s a whole.

Closelv r e l a t e d t o t h i s a spec t of t h e p l ays i s 'White's

p h i l o s o ~ h i c a l viewpoint . Presen t i n bo th h i s nove ls and h i s

p l ays a s dominant themes, i t supposes a conception of t h e

human c o n d i t i o n very c l o s e t o t h a t of t h e Theatre of t h e

Absurd. Yet t h e dramat ic p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e i s viewpoint i s

t o some degree d i s s i p a t e d because of White 's r e l i a n c e upon a

modi f ied , "well-made " p l a y , and o t h e r n a t u r a l i s t i c conven-

t i o n s . The use o r t h e novelist-commentator a l s o d e t r a c t s

from t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e p l a y s .

A s a r e s u l t o f t h i s a t t empt t o p o r t r a y an impersonal

and malevolent u n i v e r s e i n a t r a d i t i o n a l dramat ic form, h h i t e

i s ob l iged t o r e s o r t a t t imes t o a r t i f i c i a l s t a g e t echn iques ,

i n s t e a d of f i n d i n g a new and v i t a l dramat ic method of presen-

t i n g h i s i d e a s .

CONTENTS

EXAMINING COMMITTEE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ABSTRACTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . .

PAPER I. OTHELLO: THE TRAGEDY OF AN INSUFFICIENT L o r n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

N O T E S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

PAPRR 11. ROBERT HERHICK'S "UNIFIED V I S I O N " AND I T S PLACE I N EARLY SEVENTEENTH CENTTJRY POETRY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PAPER I11 PATRICK '&ITEIS FOUR PLAYS I N TIlE LIGHT

OF HIS NOVELS: SOME STRTJCTIJRAL PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

N O T E S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Page ii

iii

The above pagination refers to the numbers in the lower right-hand corners.

PAPER I.

OTHBLLO: THE TRAGEDY OF AN INSIJFFICIENT LOW

No one could doubt t h a t Othel lo i s a sex-drenched play

and t h a t i t 1 s b a s i c a l l y about love , s p i r i t u a l and i d e a l i s t i c ,

p h ~ s i c a l and animal. Although much h a s been w r i t t e n about

the cha rac te r of Iaqo and h i s importance i n the p l a y , i t i s

important t o remember t h a t the foca l point of Othello i s the

r e l a t i o n s h i p between Othel lo and Desdemona. This i s not t o

deny Iago considerable depth as a c h a r a c t e r , but h i s main

s t r u c t u r a l funct ion i s t h a t of a percept ive fo rce working

through Othel lo t o destroy both Othel lo and Desdemona.

It i s a l s o important t h a t Othel lo is pr imar i ly a

domestic tragedy centred i n the inadequacy o f a marriage. In

previous plays Shakespeare has been content t o use marriage

i n a simple romantic way, o f t en as a binding force in the con-

c lus ion of t h e b a s i c comic p l o t . The i d e a l i s e d romanticism

and obvious psycho lo^ of Romeo and J u l i e t , t he easy frolic

of Hal and Kate i n Henry V and t h e p layfu l marriage game i n

The Merchant of Venice become much more involved i n Troi lus

and Cressida. In Tro i lus and Cressida sexua l i ty becomes more

o v e r t , and the romantic screen d isappears .

In Othel lo , however, it seems t h a t Shakespeare i s corning

t o a more mature r e a l i s a t i o n of the inherent complexities of

m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , and i n t h i s p lay more than i n o t h e r s ,

Shakespeare examines veyy c l o s e l y t h e d e l i c a t e balance

between phys ica l and s p i r i t u a l love . It i s my i n t e n t i o n here

t o suggest a reading of Othel lo which shows t h a t Iago succeeds

mainly because of t h e imperfect love r e l a t i o n s h i p between

Othel lo and Desdemona.

Shakespeare examines t h r e e verg important aspects of a

love r e l a t i o n s h i p i n t h i s p lay . These aspects do not e x i s t

i n i s o l a t i o n but a r e inter twined i n t o the organic s t r u c t u r e

of the p lav . The l o f t i e s t theme i s t h a t of s p i r i t u a l l o v e ,

expressed i n the he ro ic speeches of the warr ior Othel lo and

i n Shakespeare s c r e a t i o n of t h e "divine Desdemona. " Closelp connected with t h i s s p i r i t u a l level and i n f a c t

a p a r t of i t , i s t h e cour t ly love r e l a t i o n s h i p between

Othel lo and Desdemona. It i s not t h e t r a d i t i o n a l medieval

cour t lg love but mope akin t o the s i x t e e n t h century Spenser-

i a n concept of love and marriage a s evidenced i n The Faerie

Queene. Cassio f i t s i n t o t h i s a rea i n so f a r a s he pays

cour t ly homage t o Desdemona. In O t h e l l o f s eyes , though,

Cassio appears t o be t h e t r a d i t i o n a l cour t ly love r who seeks

love ou t s ide of marriage. Roderigo i s a l s o a t r a d i t i o n a l

c o u r t l y would-be-adulterer. However Cassio seems t o have a

foot i n both t h i s camD and the t h i r d camp.

The t h i r d and most important aspect of love i s t h a t of

anlmal s e x u a l i t y , phys ica l and m a t e r i a l i s t i c l u s t . I t i s an

invers ion of t h e values of cour t ly love and a s a t i r i c denun-

c i a t i o n of i t s pre tens ions . I t i s a l s o counterpoised with

s p i r i t u a l love and succeeds i n exposing the d e f i c i e n c i e s of

i d e a l i s t i c love . It a l s o achieves t h e des t ruc t ion of those

cha rac te r s who r e l y s o l e l y upon i t . This i s the world of

I a g o t s r ea l i sm, and t h e b a s i s , i n a l a r g e sense, f o r c r i t -

ic ism of t h e o t h e r two themes. Within t h i s world Othel lo

f i n d s himself d e f i c i e n t and i s f i n a l l y destroyed.

The manner i n which t h e s e themes a r e interwoven i n t h e

play i s analogous t o the weaving of a f a b r i c i n black and

white. It r e v e a l s Shakespeare 's recogni t ion of the co-

ex i s t ence of good and e v i l s i d e by s ide and within a l l men,

and i n t h i s way m8-j be a p o i n t e r t o t h e use of images of

black and white and l i g h t and darkness within the p lay . The

warr, upon which t h e f a b r i c o f Othel lo depends i s of black

th read suggesting, the phys ica l , l u s t f u l and m a t e r i a l i s t i c .

Climbing out of t h i s s o l i d base i s t h e f r a g i l e white t h r e a d ,

t h e weft of s p i r i t u a l i t y and a l t ru i sm. To Shakespeare, the

master weaver, no f a b r i c i s complete without both warp and

weft just as no l i f e o r love i s complete without i d e a l s based

on a s a t i s f a c t o r y physical bas i s . It i s t h i s lack of

phys ica l su f f i c i ency and overweight of u n r e a l i s t i c s p i r i t u a l -

i t y i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between Othel lo and Desdemona upon

Upon t h e i r a r r i v a l i n Cyprus, Othel lo again speaks i n abs t rac -

t i o n s ,

My soul ha th h e r content so a b s o l u t e , That not another comfort, l i k e t o t h i s Succeeds i n unknown f a t e , ( I I . i . 191-3)

Desdemona s reply i s appropr ia t e l g addressed t o t h e 'heavens"

with which she i s o f t e n assoc ia ted i n the play, "The heavens

forb id / But t h a t our loves and comforts should increase"

( I I . i . 193-4) . I t i s apparent t h a t while Desdemona loves t h e

image of a 'warrior," Othello has a b s t r a c t e d out of t h e l i v i n g

and r e a l Desdemona a v i r g i n a l i d o l t o worship.

More of t h e development of t h i s d iv ine na ture of

Desdemona i s made through Cassio. He speaks of h e r i n terms

which a r e t y p i c a l of the excesses of a cour t ly l o v e r i n one

sense, Xowever, h i s speeches r a i s e Desdemona t o d i v i n i t y and

complement O t h e l l o ' s d e i f i c a t i o n of h i s wife. Cassio says of

De sdenona ,

. . . a maid That paraqons d e s c r i p t i o n , and wild frame: One t h a t exce l s the qui rks of blazoning pens, And i n the e s s e n t i a l ves tu re of c r e a t i o n Does bear a l l excel lency . . ( I I . i .61-5)

It i s a l s o worth not ing t h a t Cass io l s desc r ip t ion o f the

tempestuous s e a , winds and rocks which al low Desdemona safe

passage t o Cyprus i s completed, ex t ravagant ly , with t h e words

n divine Desdemona."

Tempe s t s themselves, high s e a s , and howling sounds, The g u t t e r l d rocks , and congregated sands, T r a i t o r s e n s t e e p l d , t o clog t h e g u i l t l e s s k e e l , As having sense of beauty, do omit Their common na tu res , l e t t i n g go s a f e l y by The d iv ine Desdemona. (II.i.68-73)

The e f f e c t of what appears t o be simply cour t ly exaggeration

has a deeper s ign i f i cance when we remember the f a c t t h a t ,

mythologically speaking, Venus, t h e goddess of l o v e , arose out

of t h e waves a t Cyprus, j u s t a s Desdemona emerges from a

tempest t o land on Cyprus. Othe l lo t s address t o h e r , "0 my

f a i r warrior!" i s connotative of something l i k e a Mars-Venus

r e l a t i o n s h i p between the two. Fur ther a s s o c i a t i n g Othel lo and

Desdemona with Gods i s Cnssiof s speech,

. . . Great Jove , Othel lo guard, And swell h i s s a i l with t h i n e own powerful brea th That he may b l e s s t h i s bay with h i s t a l l s h i p , And s w i f t l y come t o Desdemonats arms, (11.i.77-80)

Throughout t h e play t h e r e a r e a l s o constant re ferences t o

Desdemonal s whiteness , used a s symbols of p u r i t y and d i v i n i t y . 2

Iago speaks of h e r as a "white ewen and t a l k s o f tu rn ing h e r

"v i r tue to p i t c h . " To Brabant io, Cassio and Iago she i s

" f a i r " and "v i r tuous , " and Roderigo equates h e r incorrupt ib-

i l i t y a s above t h a t of a " v o t a r i s t . " Here she i s a s soc ia ted

with Diana.

In O t h e l l o ' s speeches Desdemona t s s p i r i t u a l q u a l i t y i s

enlarged. I f we accept t h e more l o g i c a l Q2 reading o f l i n e

392 i n Act 111, Scene 3,'

. . . her] name t h a t was a s f r e s h As Dianls v i sage , i s now begrimtd, and black AS mine own face . . . ( I I I . i i i . 3 9 2 - 4 )

Desdemona becomes assoc la ted with Diana t h e goddess of

s leeping Desdemona i n terms which suggest h i s concept o f h e r

a s something c l o s e t o a Goddess,

. . . t h a t whiter sk in of h e r s than snow, And smooth, a s monumental a l a b a s t e r . . .

(V.ii.4-5

The reference t o h e r sk in a s "monumental a l a b a s t e r " suggests

t o Othel lo t h a t i n h e r s l eep Desdemona resembles the pure

white s tone s t a t u e of a Goddess. Again i n l i n e 11, Othello

speaks of h e r a s nexcel l ing na ture t t and a s s o c i a t e s h e r with

t h e god Prometheus,

Thou cunning p a t t e r n of e x c e l l i n g na tu re , I know not where i s t h a t Promethean h e a t That can thy l l g h t relume: . . .

(V.ii.11-3)

Emilia a l s o he lps t o b u i l d t h i s p i c t u r e of t h e untouched

"divine Desdemona , If

. . . 0, t he more angel s h e , And you the blacker devi l !

(v.ii .I.82-3)

and i n , "0, she was heavenly t r u e " (V.ii .136) Othel lo com-

p l e t e s t h e a s s o c i a t i o n of Desdemona with the "heavens" i n

Act V , i n these l i n e s ,

. . . 0 ill s t a r r e d wench, Pale a s thy smock, when s h a l l we meet a t count , This look of t h l n e w i l l h u r t my soul from heaven.

( V , ii .273-5 )

and,

'&ip me, you d e v i l s , From t h e possession of t h i s heavenly s i g h t , .

P . i i . 2 7 8 - 9 j '

Contrast ing with Desdemona t s "heavenly " a s s ~ ~ i a t i ~ n ~ a r e

I a g o l s connections with the d e v i l . The t h i r d scene i n A c t 111

i n which Iago and Othel lo kneel t o vow vengeance conjures up

a p i c t u r e of the Black Mass. I a g o t s tempting of Othel lo

c e r t a i n l y reminds us of t h e d e v i l and h i s t o t a l l ack of good-

ness i s demonic. Iago i s a l s o c a l l e d a "v ipe r , " with a l l i t s

a s s o c i a t i o n s with t h e Garden of Eden, and a "he l l i sh v i l l a i n . '

Othel lo i s seen by Emilia a s touched with t h i s e v i l . He i s a

"blacker d e v i l . " Furthermore the a s s o c i a t i o n of Iago with

h e l l a s a "demi-devil" i s re inforced by Othello ' s statement

t o Iago, " I f t h a t thou be ( s t a d e v i l , I cannot k i l l t hee"

(V.ii .288). In f a c t Othel lo only succeeds i n wounding Iago,

"I bleed s i r , but not k i l l t d " (V.i i .289) .

While it i s poss ib le t o agree t o some e x t e n t with

Lawrence J. ~ o s s , ~ t h a t Othel lo has a s p i r i t u a l b a t t l e with

the tempting d e v i l i n t h e form of Iago, i t i s no t , I t h i n k ,

Shakespeare s i n t e n t i o n i n Othel lo , t o p r e c i s e l y d e l i n e a t e

t h e s p i r i t u a l themes. It i s too much of a s i m p l i f i c a t i o n t o

at tempt t o equate Iaqo with Satan, Othel lo with God o r Adam,

and Desdernona with Christ o r Eve. !dhlle h i n t s of some of

t h i s symbolism nag be employed i n t h e p lay , Shakespeare's

Othel lo moves a r t i s t t c a l l g a t seve ra l l e v e l s simultaneously,

and t h e ex i s t ence of t h i s "higher" plane i s important but no t

t h e whole s to ry . Othel lo i s much more than t h e simple moral-

i t y p lay i n d i sgu i se which some c r i t i c s would have u s be l ieve

it is .

A t another l e v e l i n Othel lo , and in te r fused t o a l a r g e

e x t e n t with t h e s p i r i t u a l l e v e l t h a t we have been dea l ing

wi th , is Shakespeare's t reatment of cour t ly love . I t would

not be c o r r e c t t o sav t h a t Shakespeare i s i n t e n t i o n a l l y

c r e a t i n g t y p i c a l cour t ly l o v e r s , but it seems t h a t he i s de l -

i b e r a t e l y i d e a l i s i n g t h e love of Othel lo and Desdemona

through h i n t s o f d i v i n i t y , touches o f s p i r i t u a l i t y and the

i n t r o d u c t i o n o f some a s p e c t s of t h e a l t r u i s m o f c o u r t l y l o v e .

Roderigo, f o r example, seems r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the t r a d -

i t i o n a l c o u r t l y l o v e r i n h i s a t t empt s t o seduce Desdemona.

He i s t h e despe ra t e l o v e r who i s prepared t o k i l l h imself

when h i s l o v e seems h o p e l e s s ,

Rod. I w i l l i n c o n t i n e n t l y drown myself . - Iag,o. Well , i f thou d o e s t , I s h a l l never love

t h e e a f t e r i t . 5Jh-y thou s i l l y gentleman? Rod. It i s s i l l i n e s s t o l i v e , when t o l i v e -

i s a torment ; . . . (1.ii1.305-7)

However, h i s wave o f i dea l i sm breaks on t h e co ld rock o f

I a g o f s cynicism. Through Roderigo c o u r t l y l ove p r e t e n s i o n s

a r e made t o look r l d i ~ u l o u s . ~ He i s t r i c k e d o u t o f a l l h i s

m a t e r i a l pos ses s ions , never s o much a s speaks t o bsdemona

and i n t h e end i s c a l l o u s l y murdered by Iago.

Cassio a l s o h a s a p l a c e i n t he schenata o f c o u r t l y l ove .

In O t h e l l o l s eves he appears t o be t h e t r a d i t i o n a l cuckolder ,

b u t more impor tan t , i t i s h i s c o u r t l y g a l l a n t r y towards Desde-

mona upon h e r a r r i v a l i n Cyprus which l e a d s Iago t o conceive

h i s p l o t . Cass io excuses h i s behaviour t o Iago on t h e

grounds of c o u r t e s y ,

Let it no t g ~ l l your p a t i e n c e , good Iago, That I extend my manners; t i s my breeding That g i v e s m e t h i s bold show o f cou r t e sy .

K i s s ing h e r (II.it97-9)

Roderigo s e e s Cass iof s behaviour a s the a c t i o n s o f a

" g a l l a n t . ' Iago does n o t ,

Rod. I cannot b e l i e v e t h a t i n h e r , - s h e ' s fill o f most b l e s t cond i t i on .

Iaqo. B l e s t f i g ' s end! The wine she d r i n k s i s made o f grapes: i f she had been b l e s t , she would never have l o v f d t h e Moor. Didst thou n o t see h e r paddle wi th t h e palm of h i s hand?

Rod. Yes, but t h a t was but courtesy. - (IIei .247-53)

These l i n e s a l s o demonstrate severa l important po in t s made

previous ly ; t h e concept of the i d e a l i s e d Desdemona, "she1 s

f u l l of most b l e s t condi t ion , " Hoderigo's s t rong a f f i n i t y

with the c o u r t l y love t r a d i t i o n , and I a g o l s real ism. Iago ' s

re ference t o " the wine she d r inks i s made of grapes" seems a

c l e a r demonstration of h i s ref 'usal t o accept t h e "divine Des-

demona . tt It 1 s a l s o significant t o the c e n t r a l poin t of t h e play

t h a t once Othel lo i s conllinced t h a t Cassio has committed

a d u l t e r y with Desdemona, h i s revenge i s wreaked d i r e c t l y on

Desdemona end only obl iquely and i n secrecy, through Iago, on

Cassio. One might expect Othel lo t h e warr ior t o revenge him-

s e l f openly and personal ly on h i s supposed r i v a l . Such an

a c t i o n would have been expected and accepted i n bngland.

"The k i l l i n g of an a d u l t e r e r i n Renaissance England was con-

s idered an a c t of m ~ n s l e u g h t e r which would almost c e r t a i n l y

be pardoned, and i n I t a l y , "~evenge f o r a d u l t e r y , by t h e

murder of both wife and a d u l t e r e r , was t o l e r a t e d i n t h e ea r ly

laws o f every European country . . . In I t a l y , i n p a r t i c u l a r ,

t he b e t r a y a l of a husband's honour was a j u s t i f i e d cause f o r

murder, accented by pub l i c opinion and condoned by law. "7

Shakespeare then i s i n t e n t i o n a l l y focussing our a t t e n t i o n on

t h e r e l a t Ionship between Othel lo and Desdemona.

We know t h a t medieval cour t ly love accepted sexual

unions without marr iage, but t h e l a t e r cour t ly love of the

s ix teen th century held marriage as the acceptable end.' The

r e l a t i o n s h i p between Othel lo and Desdemona i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

of t h i s l a t e r Spenserian cour t ly love t r a d i t i o n , f o r , i n some

minor wags, Desdemona seems s i m i l a r t o Britomart of Spenser ls

The Faer ie Queene. Britomart i s Chas t i ty , t h e warr ior love r

who be l ieves t h e r i g h t f u l end t o love i s marriage. Desdemona

i s repeatedly refer red t o a s a warr ior and she , l i k e Br i to-

mart , l eaves home t o fol low h e r war r io r l o v e r . Furthermore

Desdemona too i s prepared t o w a r d h e r honour. She i s appal-

l ed a t E h i l i a l s loose a t t i t u d e towards a d u l t e r y ,

E h . . . . who would not make h e r husband a cuckold t o make him a monarch? I should venture purgatory f o r i t .

Des, Beshrew m e , i f I would do such a wrong - For t h e whole w o r l d . (1v.iii.?4-8)

She a l s o s e t s f o r Othel lo the h igh s tandards of c h i v a l r i c

generos i ty ,

. . . When I have a s u i t kherein I mean t o touch your love indeed, It s h a l l be f u l l of poise and d i f f i c u l t y And f e a r f u l t o be granted. (III.iii.81-4)

Although the irony of t h i s speech i s ev ident , t h i s suggests

the difficult t a s k s e t t h e cour t ly l o v e r by h i s lady i n order

t o t e s t h i s love. Othe l lo ' s r ep ly i s t y p i c a l of t h e humil i ty

with which a cour t ly love r a c c e ~ t s h i s l o v e t s s l i g h t e s t

whims, "I w i l l deny thee nothing" (111.1ii.85). O t h e l l o l s

e a r l i e r speech a l s o seems t o r e f l e c t t h e exaggerated a t t f tude

of t h e cour t ly l o v e r , and i n an i r o n i c way, echoes Roderigols

sent iments , "If it were now t o d i e / ITwere now t o be most

happy" ( I I . i .189-99) . However, a s a c o u r t l y l o v e r , o r any

kind of love r f o r t h a t m a t t e r , Othel lo i s d e f i c i e n t f o r

i d e a l l y he should not ques t ion llesdemona's f i d e l i t y , "it i s

rneete the Cour t ie r beare ve r i e g r e a t e reverence towards women,

and a d i s c r e e t e and courteous person ought never t o touch

t h e i r hones t i e n e i t h e r i n j e a s t , nor i n good e a r n e s t . '19 ~n

e f f e c t i t appears t h a t both Othel lo and Desdemona a r e playing

t h e p a r t of cour t ly l o v e r s , half-convinced t h a t they r e a l l y

a r e . In many ways, O t h e l l o t s ideal ism seems a kind of s u b l i -

mation o r r a t i o n a l i s a t ion of h i s d e f i c i e n c i e s . Desdemona,

though, i s more i n touch with r e a l i t y than Othel lo . Upon h e r

a r r i v a l i n Cyprus she bandies words with Iago on sub jec t s

which border on t h e obscene. She obviously enjoys the a t t e n -

t i o n and t h e repaptee , g e t she i s anxious t o show h e r concern

over Othel lo a t the same t ime,

Des. ' h a t wouldst thou wr i te of me, i f thou - shouldst p r a i s e m e ?

Iago. 0 gen t l e l a d y , do not put me t o i t , For I am nothing, i f not c r i t i c a l .

Des. Come on, assay . , . t h e r e ' s one gone t o - harbour?

Iago. Ay , madam. Des. I am not merry, but I do beguile -

the th ing I am, by seeming otherwise: Come, how wouldst thou p r a i s e me? (II . i .117-24)

And i n c o n t r a s t t o Othello she has a sens ib le a t t i t u d e

towards men, "nay we a u s t th ink / Men a r e not gods; " (III . iv .1kS-6) whereas Othel lo l i t e r a l l y and f i g u r a t i v e l y can

only see th ings i n e i t h e r black o r white. J u s t a s Roderigo

and Cassio become the dupes of Iago because of the bl indness

t o r e a l i t y inherent i n court.ly love , so Othello i s destroyed

i n p a r t by an ideal ism which prevents him from a t t a i n i n g a

balanced view of love.

Othe l lo l s blackness i s , i n a way, s;ymbolic o f t h e b l ind-

ness o f his ~ e r c e p t i o n . As he says , " c e r t a i n , men should be

what they seemtt (111. i i i . 1 3 2 ) . Consequently Desdemona i s

e i t h e r t h e whitest essence of c h a s t i t y or the b lackes t of

l u s t f u l d e v i l s . He cannot perceive goodness (whi te ) i n appar-

en t e v i l o r e v i l ( b l a c k ) i n apparent soodness. Nor does he

apprec ia te t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r phys ica l l u s t i n love . In t h i s

wag t h e r e c u r r i n g images of black and white f o r t i f y the play

by p a r a l l e l l i n g O t h e l l o l s percept ion and t h e bl indness of

ideal ism i n t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s , In t h e same way t h e images

r e i n f o r c e t h e white s ~ i ~ i t u a l ideal ism of t h e p l ay a s opposed

t o I a g o t s black world of animalism and real ism. 10 But t h e r e

a r e more i n t e r e s t i n g aspects of O t h e l l o f s colour than t h i s .

The quest ion of O t h e l l o l s colour has aroused much c r i t -

i c a l comment. Coleridge found i t d i f f i c u l t t o accept the

f a c t t h a t Desdemona could love a negro, "It would be something

monstrous t o conceive t h i s b e a u t i f u l Venetian g i r l f a l l i n g i n

love with a v e r i t a b l e negro, It would argue a disproport ion-

a t eness , a want of balance i n Desdemona, which Shakespeare 11

does not appear t o have i n the l e a s t contemplated. It Coler-

idge i s o f course f o r g e t t i n g t h a t Shakespeare knew enough

about what he was doing t o have t h i s occurrence shock he r

f a t h e r , Rrabantio, so much t h a t he d ied . We can, I suppose,

expla in t h i s marriage by saying t h a t Shakespeare wants u s t o

admire Desdemona f o r h e r bravery i n ignoring s o c i a l b a r r i e r s

and r a c i a l pre judice i n marrying the Moor. This may s u i t the

twentieth century more than i t does t h e s ix teen th . However,

a lady from Maryland unconsciously drops a h i n t a s t o a poss-

i b l e answer t o Shakespeare 1 s use of a black man a s a he ro ,

tt In s tudying t h e p lay o f O t h e l l o , I have always imagined i t s

he ro a whi te man. It i s t r u e the d r a m a t i s t p a i n t s him b l a c k ,

but t h i s shade does not s u i t t h e man. It i s a s t a g e decor-

a t i o n which my t a s t e d t s c a r d s ; a f a u l t of co lou r from an a r t -

i s t i c p o i n t of view. I have , t h e r e f o r e , a s I be fo re s t a t e d

i n my r ead ings o f t h i s p l a y , d ispensed wi th i t . Shakespeare

was t o o c o r r e c t a d e l i n e a t o r o f human n a t u r e t o have coloured

Othe l lo b l ack , i f he had pe r sona l ly acquainted h imse l f w i th

t he i d i o s y n c r a s i e s of t h e Afr ican r a c e . " 1 2 We might shrewdly

guess t h a t one o f t h e " idios ;yncracies o f t h e Afr ican r a c e "

which bothered Miss Pres ton was t h e i r supposed excess ive

v i r i l i t y . Even i f we d i d no t know t h a t t h i s b e l i e f was cur-

r e n t i n Shakespeare 's t ime we could we l l deduce i t from t h e

r e f e r e n c e s t o Othe l lo a s a " ~ ~ r b a r y h o r s e " o r Roder igo ts

d e s c r i p t i o n of Desdemona i n "the g r o s s c l a s p s of a l a s c i v i o u s

Moor.

We a l s o know t h a t t h e r e were negroes i n London a t l e a s t

f i v e g e a r s be fo re Othe l lo i s supposed t o have been w r i t t e n ,

n There i s however p o s i t l v e evidence t h a t Negroes were l i v i n g

i n London f i v e y e a r s be fo re t h e Court performance o f O the l lo

i n 1604. An assessment o f "S t raungers" i n t h e p a r i s h o f A l l

Hallows, Barking, Tower Ward, recorded under t h e da te 1 Oct-

ober 41 E l i z a b e t h 1599, which i s preserved i n t h e Publ ic

Record Of f f c e (~.179/146/390 ) shows t h e following: Cla re a

Negra a t Widdow S [ tokes7 x p o l l v i i j d MCajry a Negra a t

Richard Woodes p e r p o l l ~ i i j ~ . ' ~ ' 3 Eldred Jones p o i n t s o u t

t h a t i n E l izabe than t i m e s , t h e r e was an "almost automat ic

assoc ia t ion of Moors with sexua l i ty . . . 'l4 waterman' s

1555 Edi t ion of The Fardle of Facoins conteining the auncient

maners. customs and l a i v e s of the peoples enhabi t ing the two

p a r t e s of t h e e a r t h c a l l e d Affr icke and Asie r e f e r s t o the

Ic th iophagi , who, a f t e r t h e i r meals " f ~ l l e uppon t h e i r women,

even a s they coma t o hande without any choyse . . . "15 It i s

not s u r p r i s i n g then t h a t dark people were considered extremely

l u s t y and t h a t t h i s was, "what by t h e mid-sixteenth century

had become p a r t of popular l o r e , namely t h a t the nearer the

sun people l i v e d , t h e xore hot-blooded they tended t o be. d.6

It a l s o seems p e r t i n e n t t o ask why Shakespeare chose t o use a

black man a s h i s hero i n a plag whlch explores the na ture of

love and sexual jealousy. Apart from the answer t h a t h i s

source had a Moor a s the main cha rac te r and t h a t the e x o t i c

novel ty of f a r o f f p leces and people would be a t t r a c t i v e t o

an audience i t seems t o m e t h a t Shakespeare saw f a r g r e a t e r

p o t e n t i a l in Othel lo the Moor than t h i s .

I t i s my suggestion t h a t Othel lo i s a mature, i r o n i c

plag about love and sexua l i ty . To put it r a t h e r t o o simply,

Othel lo ' s colour and i t s a s soc ia t ion with v i r i l i t y , combined

with t h e many h i n t s dropped i n t h e s t r u c t u r e and language of

the p lay , a re ind ica t ions of Shakespearet s d e l i b e r a t e

c rea t ion of t h e paradoxical and cold ly i r o n i c s i t u a t i o n of a

supposedly v i r i l e man who cannot s a t i s f y h i s newly married

wife. The hero i s f u r t h e r handicapped i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n by

an i d e a l i s t i c outlook. Because of these f a c t o r s , O t h e l l o ' s

sexual inadequacy i s t h e b a s i s f o r h i s overwhelmingly

i r r a t i o n a l jealousy and t h i s insu f f i c i ency combined with bl ind

a l t r u i s m makes it much e a s f e r f o r him t o be l ieve Iago.

11 S t o l l l s argument, Othel lo be l i eves a person whom he

does not love o r r e a l l v know and has no r i g h t reason t o t r u s t ,

t o the point of disbel ieving, persons whom he loves and has

every reason t o t r u s t " 1 7 misses the poin t j u s t a s P1.H. Hidley

does. Hidley claims t h a t Othel lo has known Iago f o r a long

time and has seen proof of h i s honesty i n b a t t l e , 18

Othel lo ,

accordinq t o Rieley, has had only a b r i e f acquaintance with

Desdemona a.nd, "He has had no chance t o 'know her1 r e a l l y o r

otherwlae, and t h e r e f o r e has no reason t o t r u s t he r . "19 Both

w r i t e r s appear t o fo rge t t h a t O t h e l l o f s t r u s t o r mis t rus t of

Desdemona i s not based on reason but on sexual jealousy which

i s as i r r a t i o n a l an emotion as one can f i n d . It i s my conten-

t i o n t h a t Othel lo 1 s t . rust of Iago i s based on O t h e l l o l s sex-

u a l def ic iency and because of the f e e l i n g s aroused by t h i s

sense o f sexual i n f e r i o r i t y i t i s much e a s i e r f o r him t o th ink

t h a t Cassio has " s a t i s f i e d " Desdemona. I t i s important dram-

a t i c a l l y t h a t i n t h e conversation he ld between Iago and

Cassio i n Act I , Scene 3 , Iago f a i l s u t t e r l y t o br ing any

suspicion whatsoever about Desdemona i n t o Cass io l s mind,

Cas. She i s a most e x q u i s i t e lady. - IBQO. And I111 warrant h e r f u l l of game. Cas Indeed she i s a most f r e s h and d e l i c a t e -*

c r e a t u r e . Iago. What an eye she has! methinks it sounds

a par ley of ~ r o v o c a t i o n . Cas. An i n v i t f n g e y e , and ye t methinks -

r i g h t modest. (1.111.17-23)

h i s r e l a t i o n s w i th Bianca would make u s t h i n k t h a t d e s p i t e

h i s p r e t e n s i o n s and speech, he i s f a r l e s s removed from phys-

i c a l r e a l i t y than O the l lo . It cou ld be argued t h a t Cass io

h a s no reason t o suspec t Desdernona, bu t it i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o

no te t h a t he i s e a s i l y t r i c k e d by Iago i n t o d r i n k i n g t o o much.

Cass io we know i s s e x u a l l y s u f f i c i e n t . O the l lo we suspec t i s

n o t . Cassio r e j e c t s I a g o t s i n s i n u a t i o n s , O the l lo b u i l d s upon

them from h i s own s to rehouse o f f e e l i n g s of sexua l i n f e r i o r -

i t y . A c l o s e s tudy o f t h e t e x t r e v e a l s t h i s .

O t h e l l o l s s ~ e e c h e s be fo re t h e Duke have o f t e n been c i t e d

a s examples o f t h e n o b i l i t y o f h i s l ove f o r Desdemona. In

p a r t t hey a r e , bu t t h e r e i s a p l a i n s ta tement o f something

much more important h e r e a s we l l . In t h e s e l i n e s ,

. . . I t h e r e f o r e beg i t no t To p l e a s e t h e p a l a t e of my a p p e t i t e , Nor t o comply wi th h e a t , t h e young a f f e c t s - I n my d e f u n c t , and proDer s a t i s f a c t ion But t o be f r e e and bounteous o f h e r mind; , .

(1.ii1.261-5j

O the l lo appears t o b e say ing t h a t he i s no t r e q u e s t i n g Desde-

monals company on Cyprus f o r any o t h e r r ea son than a marr iage

o f t r u e minds. Yet the "young a f f e c t s i n my d e f u n c t " imp l i e s

t h a t t h i s i s about a l l the " s a t i s f a c t i o n " O the l lo can expec t .

It P a r t r i d g e p o i n t s ou t t h e t " a f f e c t s " means sexua l

d e s i r e 'lZ0 and t h e O.E.D. meaning o f "defunct" i s simply

tt having ceased t o l i v e , deceased , dead. " Shakespeare used

t h i s word i n a s i m i l a r sense i n Henry V , 1Td.i.line 21, "The

11 Organs, though defunc t and dead before . I t seems p o s s i b l e

t h a t O t h e l l o i s d e c l a r i n g h imse l f impotent . When we cons ide r

t h i s i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t Othe l lo speaks of having

been cap tu red , and of "some d i s t r e s s e d s t roke / That my youth

s u f f r ' d : " (1 . i l i .157-8) . It was a w e l l known s t o r y i n Eng-

l and t h a t t r a v e l l e r s cap tured abroad were l i k e l y t o be c a s t -

r a t e d . L.E. Pearson w r i t e s i n E l izabe thans a t Home concern-

i n g impediments t o marr iage , ". . . l a t e r , Gouge i n = Domesticall Dut ies added d e t a i l s about t h e impediment of

impotence. He s p e c i f i e d such k inds as f r i g i d i t y , an i ncu rab le

contag ious d i s e a s e , and c a s t r a t i o n a c c i d e n t a l o r p re sen t a t

b i r t h . The Mohammedan p r a c t i c e of c a s t r a t i n g C h r i s t i a n s

t aken a t sea o r i n enemy t e r r i t o r y was cause f o r one of t h e

t e r r o r s s u f f e r e d by Engl ish p a r e n t s when t h e i r sons t r a v e l l e d

abroad. Gouge had t h i s i n mind. I t 21 O the l lo we know i s a

C h r i s t i a n . Perhaps Shakespeare had t h i s i n mind.

A t any r a t e , t h e i rony o f t h e s i t u a t i o n i s ev iden t . Here

i s a negro , supposedly more v i r i l e t h a n an o rd ina ry man, mar-

r i e d t o a b e a u t f f u l young woman whom he cannot s a t i s f y phgsic-

a l l y , o r a t t h e very l e a s t , t h i n k s he cannot s a t i s f y .

O t h e l l o ' s mention o f "proper s a t i s f a c t i o n " i n t roduces t h i s

theme which i s l a t e r p layed upon by Iago, The word " s a t i s f a c -

t i o n " i t s e l f h a s t h e i m p l i c s t i o n o f t h e " s a t i n g of sexua l

d e s i r e . lt22

Apart from O t h e l l o l s own s ta tement concerning h i s v i r i l -

i t y , h i s a t t i t u d e towards h i s newly marr ied wife s t r i k e s a

d i s c o r d . He seems t o o w i l l i n g t o l eave Desdemona a t home

while he goes to Cyprus,

I crave f i t d i s p o s i t i o n f o r my w i f e , Due r e f e r e n c e o f p l a c e , and e x h i b i t i o n , With such accomodation and r e s o r t A s l e v e l s wi th h e r b reed ing .

(1 . i i i .236-9)

This seems s t r ange behaviour f o r a newly wed man. Othol lo

a l s o seems j u s t a l i t t l e t oo anxious t o prove t o t he Duke

t h a t he w i l l not l e t h i s marr iage i n t e r f e r e wi th h i s execut-

ion of t h e war. It i s allnost a s i f he i s avoid ing t h e

phys i ca l a s p e c t s of love . He speaks d e r o g a t o r i l y o f l ove ,

. . . no, when l i g h t - w i n g f d t o y s , And f e a t h e r t d Cupid, f o i l s wi th wanton d u l l n e s s Ny s p e c u l a t i v e and a c t i v e i n s t rumen t s , & a t my d i s p o r t s c o r r u p t and t a i n t my b u s i n e s s , . . .

(1 . i i i .268-71)

O t h e l l o t s a s s o c i a t i o n s of s ensua l l ove w i t h " l igh t -wingtd

t o g s " seems unusual and . h i s contempt f o r phys i ca l l ove seems

It I1 ev iden t i n h i s u s e o f t h e words " d i s p o r t s , c o r r u p t " and

" t a i n t . l f Z 3 Desdemona i s much more concerned about t h e marr-

i a g e i n i t s e n t i r e t y ,

. . . i f I be l e f t beh ind , A moth of peace, and he go t o war , The r i t e s f o r which I love him a r e b e r e f t me.

(1 . i i i .255-7)

The word " r i t e s " c l a s h e s wi th O t h e l l o l s p rev ious s t a t emen t s

concerning sensua l l ove . P a r t r i d g e p o i n t s ou t t he sexua l

imp l i cn t fons o f t h i s word,24 and no doubt t h i s i s involved.

But Desdemona i s probably cons ide r ing o t h e r ceremonial f a c e t s

of t h e marr iage a s we l l .

Again when t h e Duke o r d e r s O the l lo t o l eave f o r Cyprus

immediately, t h e c o n t r a s t i n Desdemonal s a t t i t u d e i s p l a i n l y

made,

.st hence l o r d ?

t o n i g h t . Duke. . . . you mu - Des. Tonight , my - Duke. This n i g h t - Othe l lo . W i t h a l l my

( I . i i i

O t h e l l o t s answer "with a l l my h e a r t " seems t o i n d i c a t e an

eagerness t o be s epa ra t ed from Desdemona on t h e i r wedding

n i g h t which cannot e a s i l y be expla ined a s simply a d e s i r e t o

obey commands. Rather it appears t h a t Othe l lo i s f e a r f u l of

sexua l r e l a t i o n s .

Shakespeare a l s o u ses s t r u c t u r e s u b t l y t o make h i s p o i n t

i n t h i s p l a y . Act I i s cons t ruc t ed so t h a t t h e love of 0 th -

e l l o and Desdemona i s balanced between t h e two conve r sa t ions

involv ing Iago and Roderigo. I n both o f t h e s e meetings

I a g o t s animal s e x u a l i t y i s s t r o n g l y conveyed. I n t h e f i r s t

meeting he employs g r o s s animal images t o i n c i t e Brabant io ,

I am one, s i r , t h a t comes t o t e l l you , your dauqh te r , and t h e Moor a r e now making t h e b e a s t with two backs. (I.i.115-7)

and i n t h e l a s t p a r t o f Act I , Iago r e c r e a t e s a c a r n a l mater-

i a l i s t i c atmosphere wi th t he i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e theme o f

buying l o v e , "put money i n your pu r se . " Where h e i s p r e s e n t ,

love i s "merely a l u s t of t h e blood. " Sandwiched i n between t h i s world of l u s t and an ima l i t y

i s t h e seemingly i n e f f e c t u a l if brave and i d e a l i s t i c l o v e o f

O the l lo and Desdemona. There a r e s i m i l a r examples o f t h i s

balance throughout t he p l ay . It i s a s i f Shakespeare i s

s t r u c t u r a l l y parodying t h e love between O t h e l l o and Desdemona.

In t h i s way and i n o t h e r s , a l t r u i s t i c love i s c r i t i c i s e d

from t h e o t h e r po le of animal l u s t .

The double t ime scheme a l s o has r e l evance t o t h i s r ead -

i ng . We a r e t o l d t h a t p r i o r t o t h e i r d e p a r t u r e t h e newly-

marr ied couple have only an h o u r ,

Come Desdemona , I have but an hour Of l o v e , o f worldly m a t t e r s , and d i r e c t i o n To mend wi th t h e e ; we must obey t h e t ime.

(1 . i i i .298-300)

and a p a r t from O t h e l l o l s unusua l eage rnes s t o l e a v e f o r

Cyprus immediately, i t i s a s t r a n g e coincidence t h a t Desde-

mona t r a v e l s t o Cyprus not wi th O t h e l l o , o r w i t h Cass io , b u t

w i th Iago . I t may be t h a t Shakespeare i s s e p a r a t i n g Cassio

from Desdemona so t h a t h e r c h a s t i t y w i l l be obvious from t h e

viewpoint o f time and o p p o r t u n i t y , bu t why s e p a r a t e h e r from

Othe l lo du r ing t h e voyage? I f she i s meant t o l e a v e a f t e r

O the l lo because of h e r packing o r some such domestic a f f a i r ,

why does Shakespeare have h e r a r r i v e be fo re O the l lo on Cyprus?

It may be t h a t Shakespeare i s merely u s i n g a d ramat ic t r i c k

t o b u i l d ut3 suspense i n t h e audience by p l a c i n g Desdernona i n

t h e hands of a c h a r a c t e r t h e audience a l r e a d y knows i s e v i l .

But t h i s s t r • ÷ . k e s me a s t o o deep A p lay f o r t r i c k s of t h a t

k ind . I must conclude t h a t Shakespeare i s d e l i b e r a t e l y

making Othe l lo avoid consummating t h e marr iage. I t i s a l s o

o f cou r se a chance f o r deep i rony , i n B r a b a n t i o ' s words,

Look t o h e r Moor, have a qu ick eye t o see : She h a s dece iv Id h e r f a t h e r , may do t h e e .

(1.111.292-3)

and O t h e l l o l s , "MY l i f e upon h e r f a i t h r ' ( I . i i i . 2 9 4 ) .

On t h e f i r s t n i g h t i n Cyprus, Shakespeare a p p l i e s t h e

s h o r t t ime scheme, mentioning t h e t ime d e l i b e r a t e l y i n sev-

e r a l p l a c e s . I n Act 11, Scene iii, we a r e t o l d t h a t t h e r e

i s t o be " f u l l l i b e r t g from t h i s p r e s e n t hour o f f i v e , till

t h e b e l l h a t h t o l f d e leven. " Within a space o f twenty odd

l i n e s it h a s become !'not g e t t e n o ' c l o c k " and O t h e l l o and Des-

demona go o f f t o bed. Within a ve- sho r t s t age time Othe l lo

r eappea r s wi th drawn sword followed soon a f t e r by Desdemona.

Within ano the r a e r y b r i e f s t a g e t ime , Iago remarks "by t h e

mass ' t i s morning" and a few l i n e s l a t e r t he g e n e r a l sends t h e

Clown t o g e t r i d of t h e music ians p l ay ing under h i s windows,

But , mas t e r s , h e r e ' s money f o r you, and t h e g e n e r a l s o l i k e s your music, t h a t he d e s i r e s you, o f a l l l o v e s , t o make no more no i se wi th i t .

(III.i.11-3)

The a s s o c i a t i o n by t h e Clown o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l music-making

on t h e morning a f t e r a wedding with s e x u a l i t y appears i n ,

Why, rrlasters, ha t your ins t ruments been a t Naples t h a t they speak i f t h e nose thus? (III . i .3-4)

In t h i s c o n t e x t , "nose" i s a s l ang word f o r p e n i s . 24 me

imp l i ca t ion i s t h a t t h e "noses" have caught venerea l d i s e a s e .

This was commonly known a s t h e Weopolitan d i s e a s e . ?'his

s l ang use of t h e word "noses" i n t h e sense of p e n i s i s echoed

s e v e r a l t imes by Othe l lo later i n the play . The Clown , a l s o

t a l k s o f " t a i l s , " ano ther c o l l o q u i a l E l izabe than term f o r

p e n i s . 25

k h i l e t h i s b r i e f scene may be simply f o r t h e groundl ings ,

i t has t h e e f f e c t o f surrounding O t h e l l o f s l ove f o r Desdemona

with t h e phys i ca l f a c t of love . It i s a l s o p a r t of t h e r a p i d

time scheme employed i n t he f i r s t n i g h t i n Cyprus, which i s

supposedly t h e f i r s t wedding n igh t t oo . O the l lo and Desde-

mona a r e d i s tu rbed by the brawl l a t e a t n i g h t and by the

musicians very e a r l y i n t h e morning. Shakespeare seems t o be

hurryin$? the f irst n igh t of t h e wedding, and i n t e r r u p t i n g it

on two occasions. Perhaps h i s reason i s t o drop a h i n t t h a t

t h e marriage had no c h ~ n c e t o be consummated. We a r e given

some proof of' t h i s l a t e r when Desdemona speaks t o Emilia about

the wedding shee ts .

However a t t h i s s t a g e , ( t h e beginning of Act 1111,

Othel lo seems t o have undergone a s u b t l e change even before

Iago begins t o poison h i s mind. It i s poss ib le t h a t O t h e l l o l s

sexual i n f e r i o r i t y shows i t s e l f i n h i s p rec ip i tous d ismissa l

of Cassio without a proper hearing. This a c t i o n occurs very

soon a f t e r he has l e f t t h e s tage with Desdemona. In the brawl

scene Othello appears t o have l o s t the s e l f - c o n t r o l and rnoder-

a t i o n which chs rac te r? sed h i s confronta t ion with Brabantio

and t h e Sena te . O t h e X l ~ f s se l f -assured speech t o Brabantio

when faced with v io lence ,

Keep up your b r i g h t swords, f o r the dew w i l l r u s t 'em; Good s i g n i o r , you s h a l l more command with y e a r s Than with your weapons. ( I . i i . 59 -60)

c o n t r a s t s most s i g n i f i c a n t l y with h i s own v io len t behaviour

on Cyprus, "now by heaven / My blood begins q s a f e r guides

t o r u l e " ( I I . i i i . 1 9 S - 8 ) . Othel lo seems glad a t the opportun-

i t y t o d isp lay h i s prowess a t arms,

. . . Zounds, i f I s t i r , O r do but l i f t t h i s arm, the b e s t of you S h a l l s ink i n my rebuke. ( I I . i i i . 1 8 8 - 9 0 )

This suggests the behaviour of a man welcoming t h e chance t o

prove himself adequate i n one f i e l d when h i s inadequacy i n

a n o t h e r i s bo the r ing him. The way i s now c l e a r f o r Iago t o

work on Othe l lo .

Iago h a s a l r e a d y r e n l i s e d t h e d i f f e r e n c e between Othel-

l o ' s p r o t e s t a t i o n s of love and h i s p h y s i c a l c a p a b f l i t i e s ,

H i s s ou l i s so u n f e t t e r f d t o h e r l o v e , That she may make, unmake, do what she l i s t , Even a s h e r a p p e t i t e s h a l l p l ay t h e god With h i s weak func t ion . (11.111.336-9)

Iago l s d e s c r i p t i o n o f O the l lo s "weak func t ion t1 adds more

weight t o t h e case . E l izabe than use of " func t ion" meant

" a c t i v i t y , hence v i r i l i t y o r potency. '126 he i m p l i c a t i o n

seems c l e a r l y t h a t O the l lo w i l l be unab le t o s a t i s f y Desdemona

p h y s i c a l l y because of h i s weak potency. There may a l s o have

been a n e a ~ l i e r hint about t h i s from Iago when he was t a l k i n g

t o Jesdomona about chsnging " the c o d ' s head f o r t h e salmon's

t a i l . " P e r t r i d g e ' s comments on t h i s l i n e a r e some h e l p ,

. . . a d i f f i c u l t p h r a s e , even when we remember t h a t "cod's head" probably r e f e r s t o codpiece and t h a t probably i t i s t h e r e f o r e = p e n i s ( t h e head o f t h e cod o r sc ro tum) , and t h a t "salmonf s t a i l " probably = pudend ( c f , f i s h q.v . , and see " t a i l , " 1, ) . A woman does n o t change, i . e . exchange, t h e former f o r t h e l a t t e r ; she exch- anges t h e l a t t e r f o r t h e former: t h e pun demands t h a t , "change . . . f o r " = "put . . . i n t h e p l ace o f , " hence " ~ u t . . . i n . " - - Occas iona l ly i t i s almost imposs ib le t o determine t h e e x a c t sense of Shakespeare ' s sexua l w i t t i c i s m -- but t h e s u b t l e t y and h i g h l y developed na tu re o f h i s s e x u a l i t y be ing i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e , we should be ignorant- -and s t u p i - - t o t h i n k t h a t t h e r e i s no sexua l w i t t i c i s m . 27

It m ~ g be p o s s i b l e t h a t Iago i s mocking Desdemona f o r accep t -

ing a bad ba rga in i n O the l lo . ?ha t i s , Iago may be h i n t i n g

t h a t O t h e l l o f s "cod head, " a s t.he appearance only o f g r e a t

v i r i l i t y , i s no b e t t e r t h a n a "salmonls t a i l , " o r female

g e n i t a l s t o Desdemona. The degree of c r e d i b i l i t y t o be placed

i n I a g o l s s t a t emen t s needs examinat ion.

It could be argued t h a t Iago cannot be be l i eved because

he h imse l f s u s p e c t s Othe l lo o f committing a d u l t e r y wi th

Emi l ia . However, I a g o l s main cause f o r h a t r e d i s h i s l o s s of

promotion. H i s o t h e r motive i s based pu re ly on rumour, a s he

. . . I h a t e t h e Moor, And i t i s thought abroad , t h a t ' t w i x t my s h e e t s He's done my o f f i c e ; I know no t i f ' t be t r u e , . . Yet I , f o r mere susp i c ton i n t h a t k i n d , w i l l do , a s i f f o r s u r e t y : . . . (1 . i i i .384-8)

E a r l i e r , he s ays o f h i m s e l f , "of t my j ea lousy / Shapes f a u l t s

t h a t a r e not ( I I I . I _ I . i . l S l - 2 ) . f i r t he r rno re , i n t h i s p l a y of

darkness , O t h e l l o , Roderigo, Emi l ia , Cass io and Desdemona a r e

a l l "b l ind . " I a g o l s mot ivat?ons may i n a way be obscure but

he i s t h e on ly one who s e e s through t h e outward appearances t o

t h e co ld r e a l i t y of a s i t u a t i o n . We can, I t h i n k , b e l i e v e

most o f what h e says f o r t h i s reason . Bes ides , t he word

11 h o n e s t " a s a p p l i e d t o Iago h a s l e s s o f moral ove r tones t han

over tones o f worldly wisdom. Honesty i n t h i s sense i s "per-

cep t ion" o r t h e a b i l i t y t o see through f acades . It i s t h i s

q u a l i t y i n Iaqo which O t h e l l o admires , and it i s t h i s a b i l i t g

which enab le s Iago t o work on O t h a l l o ' s s exua l impotence and

f i n a l l y d e s t r o y him.

Iago beg ins t o work on Othe l lo immediately a f t e r t h e

f i r s t d i s t u r b e d wedding n i g h t i n Cyprus. Sub t ly he i n s i n -

u a t e s suqge s t i o n s of d i shonour and cuckoldry ,

0, beware j ea lousy It i s t h e green-egld monster , which doth mock

That meat it feeds on. That cuckold l i v e s i n b l i s s , dho, c e r t a i n of h i s f a t e , loves not h i s wronger; .

(111.iii.169-72j

and what might be considered a s u b t l e innuendo,

Tbough i t be f i t t h a t Cassio have h i s p lace , For sure he f i l l s it up with g rea t a b i l i t y , . . .

( I I I . i i i . 2 5 0 - 1 )

which Othello appears t o echo,

I had r a t h e r be a t o a d , And l i v e upon t h e vapour i n a dungeon, Than keep a corner i n a th ing I love , For o t h e r s ' uses: . . . ( 1 I I . i i i , 2 7 4 - 7 )

In grandiloquent speech, Othel lo r e t r e a t s p s g c h o l o g i c a ~ l y

from t h e field of physical love i n t o t h e world of ideal ism,

the world o f t h e war r io r ,

0 now f o r ever Farewell the t r a n q u i l mind, fa rewel l content: Farewell the plumed t roop, and the b ig wars, That makes ambition v i r tue : . . . ( I I I . i i i . 3 5 3 - 6 )

But Iago p resses r e a l i t y i n on Othello, r epea t ing t h e need

f o r " s a t i s f a c t i o n , "

0 th . . . . would I were s a t i s f i e d ! - I a ~ o . I s e e , s i r , you a re e a t e n up with pass ion ,

I do repent me t h a t I put i t t o you, You would be s a t i s f i e d .

0th. - Would, nay, I w i l l . 1ap;o. And nay, b u t , how, how s a t i s f i e d , mg l o r d .

(111.iii.396-4-00)

The word " s a t i s f a c t i o n " o r "to satisf;y1* o f t e n has t h e i m p -

l i c a t i o n i n Shakespeare of' "the s a t i n g of sexual des i re . tr2 b

Iago cont inues I n t h i s manner, introducing the animal syn-

onyms f o r lechery , most probably using them i n c o n t r a s t with

Othe l lo l s inadequacy,

Where1 s s a t i s f a c t i o n ? I t i s impossible you should Yere they a s p r i m & a s goa t s

see t h i s , , a s hot a s monkeys,

As s a l t a s wolves, i n p r i d e ; and f o o l s as g ross A s ipnorance made drunk: but ye t I say , If imputation and s t rong circumstances, Which l ead d i r e c t l y t o the door of t r u t h , X i 1 1 g ive you s n t i s f a c t i o n , you may h a t t i

(111.iii -407-14)

The handkerchief , "spot ted with s t r awber r i e s , '' which a r e

symt~ols of l u s t , i s t o Othel lo nore a proof of Desdemonats

physical needs which Othel lo cannot s a t i s f y than a proof of

h e r a c t u a l g u i l t . Her moist hand i s aga in , I t h i n k , s i m i l a r

proof t o Othello of u n s a t i s f i e d sexual d e s i r e r a t h e r than

g u i l t . Desdemonats comment on Cassio, r e i t e r a t i n g a s it does

the concept of " s a t i s f a c t i o n " and "adequacy, t 1

Des. Come, come. - You'll never meet a more s u f f i c i e n t man, . . .

( I I I . i v . 8 8 )

i s i t s e l f an i n t o l e r a b l e i n s u l t t o Othe l lo ' s sense of sexual

inadequacy. Later when Iaqo speaks of Cassio aga in ,

For I w i l l make h i m t e l l the t a l e anew, Nhere, how, how o f t , how long ago, and when, He h a s , and i s again t o cope your wife.

(1v.i .84-6)

the word "cope" i s q u i t e important. Par t r idge makes note of

i t , "to dea l s a t i s f a c t o r i l y - - i n d e e d successf 'ullg with . . . i t = c o i t with ( a woman). "29 Iago i s again working on Othel lo

by r e i t e r a t i n g Cassiots sexual adequacy, the potency of t h e

tt proper man" which Othel lo knows and f e e l s he i s not . C a s s i o f s

v i r i l i t y again e n t e r s i n t o O t h e l l o l s mind when he i s i n

h id ing watching Iago t a l k t o Cassio. Othello says ,

I see t h a t - nose of yours , but not t h a t dog I s h a l l throw' t t o . ( IV. i . l i ~ O 1

Rid ley l s comment here again rrlisses the p o i n t , " s l i t t i n g o r

c u t t i n g of f t h e nose was a recognised form of punishment o r

revenge; b u t I do not s e e t h e p o i n t of O t h e l l o l s n o t s ee ing

t h e dog. '130 Othel l .o ls response t o t h e s i t u a t i o n i s no th ing

a s mi ld a s s l i t t i n g C a s s i o l s nose , "0th. p d v a n c i n g Iiow

s h a l l I murder him, Iago?" (IV.1.166). Besides t h e word

I1 nose" used h e r e i s comon El izabe than s l ang f o r pen i s . 31

Othe l lo i s t a l k i n g about emascu la t ing Cass io , and it i s s i g n i f -

i c a n t t h a t h i s revenge c e n t r e s on jea lousy of Cas s io ' s v i r i l -

i t y . O t h e l l o has mentioned "noset' p r e v i o u s l y i n , "noses,

e a r s and l i p s . I s f t p o s s i b l e ? --Confess?" ( IV. i .42) . The

s l ang meaning of "nose" we know, bu t " l i p s " and "ea r s " bo th

have p o s s i b l e sexua l c o n n o t a t i o n s , "ea rs t ' w i thn the i m p l i c a t -

i on of c o p u l a t i o n " and " l i p s , " " t o k i s s i n t i m a t e l y o r cognate

wi th L. labium." O t h e l l o ' s j ea lousy we have seen i s based on

the c o n v i c t i o n of h i s own inadequacy and h i s f e a r t h a t Cass io

has s e x u a l l y s a t i s f i e d h i s w i f e . Th is i s r e i n f o r c e d t o some

e x t e n t by O t h e l l o ' s d e s i r e t o emascula te Cass io , and i n h i s

p reoccupa t ion wi th t h e s l a n g word "noses. " But t h e r e seems

even more evidence t o suppor t t h e fact o f O t h e l l o ' s l o v e

be ing inadequate on t h e p h y s i c a l l e v e l .

As h a s been mentioned, t h e f irst wedding n i g h t on

Cyprus i s s u b j e c t e d t o a t e l e s c o p i n g of t ime and two i n t e r r u p -

t i o n s . Desdemona's comment t o Emi l ia ,

. . . nay we must t h i n k Fen a r e no t gods; Nor of them look f o r such observances A s f i t s t h e b r i d a l . ( I I I . i v . 1 4 s - 8 )

suppor t s t o some e x t e n t t h e t h e o r y t h a t t h e marr iage was no t

consummated. Desdemona i s excusing men a s capable of f r a i l t y

and t h e r e f o r e i gno r ing t h a t which i s customary f o r a wedding.

The O.E.D. d e f i n e s "observances ," a s "an a c t performed i n

accordance with p re sc r ibed usage ; customary r i t e o r ceremony,

an o b l i g a t o r v p r a c t i c e . " We know t h a t Desdemona was eage r t o

accompany Othe l lo t o Cvprus f o r t h e "observances , !I

. . . i f I be l e f t behind ,

A moth of peace , and he go t o war , The r i t e s f o r which I love h i m a r e b e r e f t me, . . .

( I . i i i . 2 S S - 7 )

an6 t h a t " r i t e s " i n c l u d e t h e sexua l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f a marr-

i age un ion . 32 It may w e l l be t h a t i n t h e passage c i t e d prev-

i o u s l y , Desdemona i s excus ing O t h e l l o ' s unwi l l i ngnes s o r

i n a b i l i t y t o consummate t h e mar r iage .

Fbrthermore when Desdemona o r d e r s Emi l i a , " p r i t h e e ,

t o n i g h t / Lay on m y bed o u r wedding s h e e t s ; remember, 11

( IV . i i . 107 ) Desdeaona h a s j u s t been accused by O t h e l l o of

be ing a "whore. " There seam t o be two r e a s o n s f o r Desdemona

t o make t h i s r e q u e s t . She may i n t end t o show Othe l lo t h a t

n i g h t t h e b lood-s ta ined proof of h e r v i r g i n i t y o f t h e prev-

i o u s n i g h t . Th is seems u n l i k e l y i n a woman o f Desdemonats

re f inement , and i n e f f e c t would prove l i t t l e . l k e a l t e r n a t -

i v e reason seems t o be t h a t Desdernona i s t r y i n g t o remind

O t h e l l o i n a feminine wag, by d i s p l a y i n g s p o t l e s s s h e e t s ,

t h a t she i s s t i l l a v i r g i n , t h a t O the l lo has no t y e t broken

h e r hymen and t h a t h i s a c c u s a t i o n s o f a d u l t e r y a r e t h e r e f o r e

p a t e n t l y f a l s e . It i s f a r more l i k e l y , cons ide r ing the k ind

o f woman Shakespeare h a s c r ea t ed i n Desdemona t h a t t h e l a t t e r

c a s e i s t r u e . That t h e wedding s h e e t s a r e important t o Des-

It demons i s mede p l a i n i n h e r use o f t h e word renember" a t t h e

end o f t h e l i n e . Emil ia makes i t p l a i n t h a t t hey have been

placed on t h e bed, "I have l a i d t hose s h e e t s you bade me on

t h e bed" ( I V . i i i . 2 2 ) . Desdenonats r e p l y i s a d r e a d f u l f o r e -

shadowing of e v e n t s t o come,

I f I do d i e b e f o r e t h e e , p r i t h e e shroud me In one o f t h o s e same s h e e t s . ( 1 ~ . i i i . 2 4 - S )

Shakespeare i s p repa r ing u s f o r t h e f i n a l consummation by

focus s ing our a t t e n t i o n on t h e b r i d a l bed.

Another d i f f i c u l t a s p e c t o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between

Othe l lo and Desdemona i s h i s command,

*Get you t o bed , o t t h e i n s t a n t I w i l l be r e t u r n ' d , f o r t h w i t h , d i s p a t c h your a t t e n d a n t t h e r e . . . look i t be done.

(1V.i i i .7-8)

Desdemona r e p e a t s t h i s t o Emi l i a ,

Ye h a t h comnanded me t o go t o bed , And bade m e t o d i smi s s you.

( 1 v . i i i . l3-4)

The s u r p r i s e i n k i l i a ' s r e p l y , " D i s m i s s m e ? " t e n d s t o sugg-

e s t t h a t h h i l i a i s accustomed t o s t a y i n g w i t h Desdemona. On

r a r e occas ions on t h e f i r s t n i g h t o f a wedding between P r in -

c e s , Kings o c c a s i o n a l l y s taged i n t h e bedchamber whi le t h e

marr iage was f ' u l f i l l e d . Apparently James I d id t h i s on one

occasion:

Attendance a t the El i zabe than n u p t i a l couch may seem shocking t o t h e p r e s e n t age , bu t it was o f t e n o f g r ave importance t o powerful f a m i l i e s seek ing t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e i r a l l i a n c e . When t h e son o f t h e great Essex was mar r ied t o Frances Howard be fo re he l e f t f o r t h e t o u r of t h e Continent t o complete h i s e d u c a t i o n , King James I and h i s queen were s o concerned about the completion o f t h e union t h a t t hey remained i n t h e b r i d a l chamber t i l l they were s u r e t h e marr iage had been consummated. This prac- t i c e had n o t been unusua l at a marr iage u n i t i n g two e r e a t f a m i l i e s . ? 3

It i s more probable t h a t gmi l i a f s s u r p r i s e on the second

n i g h t , on being d i smissed , i s meant t o i n d i c ~ t e t h a t she i s

used t o s l eep ing i n t h e same room a s Desdemona, a s h e r l ady-

i n -wa i t i ng , wi thout O the l lo being p r e s e n t . m i l i a t hen ,

knows well t h a t Desdemona i s " chas t e , " i n more than t h e sense

o f being t r u e t o h e r marr iage.

Shakespeare g i v e s u s one o t h e r p o s s i b l e h i n t t h a t Desde-

mona i s s t i l l a v i r g i n , and t h a t she b e l i e v e s t h e second

n igh t on Cyprus t o be i n t ended f o r t h e wedding n i g h t . Desde-

monals command t o a n i l i a , "Pr i thee unpin me ," may be a h i n t

o f her expec t a t i on . She r e p e a t s t h e r e q u e s t a few l i n e s

l a t e r ,

Emil S h a l l I f e t c h your nightgown? -' Des. - No, unpin me h e r e .

(1V. i i i .34)

A s an El izabe than b r i d e prepared h e r s e l f f o r t h e wedding bed,

she and the br idesmaids , ". , . took g r e a t ca re t o throw

away any p i n s she had worn dur ing t h e day: t h e s e meant bad

l u c k f o r t h e b r i d e o r a bridesmaid who kept one. "34 Perhaps

Desdemona i s e x e r c i s i n g such cau t ion be fo re what she supposes

w i l l be h e r wedding n i g h t .

Despi te Desdemonat s a t t empt s t o show h e r innocence

through t h e wedding s h e e t s , O t h e l l o t s e r o t i c jea lousy w i l l

l i s t e n t o no r ea son ,

That she wi th Cassio h a t h t he a c t o f shame A thousand t imes committed; . . .

(V. i i .212-3)

The "thousand t imes" i s p a t e n t l y imposs ib le , a g r o s s exagger-

a t i o n which r e f l e c t s O the l lo ' s deep sense of sexual

32

i n s e c u r i t y . E m i l i a ' s e a r l i e r q u e s t i o n s have po in t ed o u t

t h e p h y s i c a l i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h i s , "who keeps h e r company? / What p l a c e , what t ime , what form, what l i k e l i h o o d ? " ( 1 V . i i .

139-40) b u t O the l lo , Oorn between t h e two p o l e s of l o f t y

i d e a l s and sexua l i n f e r i o r i t y has l o s t a l l touch wi th r e a l i t y ,

and more b l i n d than e v e r , cannot s ee t h e obvious.

Act V i s r e p l e t e wi th t h e words " k i l l " and "die . I'

Deeds o f e v i l a r e done i n t h e darkness and it seems t h a t t h e

whi te t h r ead o f i d e a l i s m i s d i s i n t e g r a t i n g . The i r o n i c imp-

a c t of Iago e n t e r i n g w i t h a l i q h t upon t h e scene o f t h e

a t t empted a s s a s s i n a t i o n of Cassio conf i rms t h i s . It i s

important t o no te t h a t i n t h i s scene , Cassio i s symbol ica l ly

11 emascu la ted , f4y l e g i s c u t i n two'' (V.i.73). It i s a l s o

symbolic t h a t b e f o r e s u f f o c a t i n g Desdemona, O the l lo p u t s ou t

the " l i g h t " of' Desdemona, " ~ u t o u t t h e l i g h t , and then pu t

o u t t h e l i g h t " ( V . i i . 7 ) . The white t h r e a d of a l t r u i s t i c

l ove i s des t royed by t h e b lackness o f s e x u a l i t y .

But t h e main impact o f E l izabe than s l ang f o r " k i l l and

d i e " a s svnonyms f o r t h e sexua l a c t o c c u r s i n t h e scene where

O the l lo "kills" Desdemona , both l i t e r a l l y and f i g u r a t i v e l y .

O the l lo k i s s e s Desdemona be fo re ha " k i l l s " h i m s e l f .

I k i s s ' d t hee e r e I k i l l l d t h e e no way but t h i s

K i l l i n g myse l f , t o d i e upon a k i s s . F a l l s on t h e bed , and dies] -

(v . i i i . 359 -60 1

There i s no e scap ing t h e deep symbolism of t h i s . O the l lo

" s a t i s f i e s " Desdemona by s u f f o c a t i o n . In t h i s way, d e a t h and

t h e p h y s i c a l a c t of s e x u a l i t y become fused i n t o one,

S i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e r e i s no bloodshed. I n t h i s symbolic and

d r e a d f u l l y i r o n i c manner t h e marriage i s f i n a l l y consumrn-

ated--both Othe l lo and Desdernona "die t1 f i n a l l y on their

marr iage bed. The f r a g i l e g l a s s of a l t r u i s t i c l ove s h a t t e r s

on t he sheer f a c t o f s e x u a l i t y . The t r a g i c irony of the

i n s u f f i c i e n t man i s complete.

NOTES

This q u o t a t i o n and e l l o t h e r q u o t a t i o n s a r e t aken from O t h e l l o , Arden e d i t i o n , (ed . ) M.R. Ridley (London, 1966) .

One does no t h a v e t o "be l i eve" i n a r c h e t y p a l c r i t i c i s m t o see t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of s a g , t h e whale i n Moby Dick o r any o f t h e mu l t i t ud inous connec t ions which t h e co lour whi te h a s wi th D e i t i e s i n g e n e r a l .

3 I t seems more l o g i c a l t o accep t t h e &? r ead ing of Othel- l o ' s speech i n l i n e 392, . . . h e r name, t h a t was a s f r e s h

A s Dian ' s v i s a g e , i s now begr im'd , and b lack A s mine own f ace : . . .

t h a n t h e Arden r e a d i n g , . . . q name, t h a t was a s f r e s h A s Dian ls v i s a g e , i s now begr im'd , and black A s mine own f ace : . . .

The comparison i n t h e Arden e d i t i o n of O t h e l l o l s name t o a feminine Goddess o f C h a s t i t y seems s t r a n g e , j u s t a s i t seems u n l i k e l y f o r O the l lo t o r e l a t e t h e begriming of h i s name t o h i s f ace . Fhrtharmore, O the l lo i n t h i s con tex t i s t a l k i n g of Desdemonals honour not h i s own. Apart from t h a t , N.R. Hidl -

I t e g ' s r ea sons f o r l e av ing my name" i n t h e Arden e d i t i o n seem based upon i n t u i t i o n . They a r e a c t u a l l y c o n t r a d i c t e d by t he no te t h a t f o l l o w s , "I see l i t t l e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r accep t ing Q2's ' h e r n a m l a s most edd. have done. O the l lo i s maddened by h e r befoul lment of h i s own honour; it i s t h a t which w i l l not endure , and which on ly revenge w i l l c l e a r . But G 1 s r ead ing i s q u i t e t o l e r a b l e , and it i s t r u e t h a t l a t e r O the l lo does show h imse l f noved by t h e s t a i n on Desdemonals name a s we l l a s on h i s own. " ( p , 1 1 7 )

4 Lawrence J. Ross, " 'Marble, ' Crocodi le and 'Turbanld Turk i n Othe l lo , " P h i l o l o g i c a l Quar t e r a , XL (1966 ) .

5 I n some r e s p e c t s Rode r igo l s f a i l u r e t o ach ieve s a t i s f a c - t ion w i th Desdernona and h i s decep t ion by Iago mainly because of h i s b l i nd i d e a l i s m , i s an i r o n i c comment on O the l lo , who h imse l f f a i l s t o ach ieve t h e same t h i n g under s i m i l a r c i rcumstances .

C u r t i s Brown Watson, Shakes e a r e and t h e Renaissance Concept o f Honour (Prince-, p . 446. - -

7 i b i d . , p. 159.

? B , C a s t i g l i o n e , The Rook of t he Cour t i e r ondo don, 19281, P. 45.

NOTES ( c o n t . lo The r e c u r r i n g u s e of t h e dichotomous c o l o u r s o f b l a c k

and w h i t e , a n g e l s and an imals would s u g g e s t t h e pa radox of t h e human s e x u a l s i t u a t i o n a s s e e n in Sonnet 144.

l1 Quoted. i n O t h e l l o , Arden e d i t i o n , I n t r o d u c t i o n , p . liii.

l2 Mary P r e s t o n , S t u d i e s i n Shakespeare (Harford County, Maryland, 18691, p .71 quo ted i n O t h e l l o , N e i ~ Variorum e d i t i o n , ( e d . ) R.13. Furness (New York, 19631, p . 395.

W.E. M i l l e r , "Negroes i n Z l i z a b e t h a n England, " Notes and Q u e r i e s , V I I I ( A p r i l , 19611, p. 138.

14 E l d r e d J o n e s O t h e l l o l s Zountryrnen: E n g l i s h Renaissance Drama (London, 1965 ) , p . 71.

1s l a o t e d i n i b i d . , p . 8.

i b i d .

E.E. S t o l l , A r t and A r t i f i c e i n Shakespeare (Cambridge, England, 19341, P. 3.

lA - O t h e l l o , Arden edition, I n t r o d u c t i o n , p . l v i i .

1 9 i b i d .

20 E. P a r t r L d g e , S h a k e s p e a r e ' s 3awdg (London, 19611, p . 6 s .

21 L.E. P e a r s o n , E l i z a b e t h a n s a t Home ( S t a n f o r d , 1957 1, p. 300.

22 P a r t r i d g e , p . 182.

2 3 Stephen H. S h a p i r o , 'Othel lo s Desdemona , " L i t e r a t u r e and Psychology, X I V ( S p r i n g , 1964 1, p . 57 .

24 P a r t r i d g e , p . 152.

25 i b i d . , p . 159 . ( R i d l e p m i s s e s t h i s and consequen t ly the whole mean ing) .

26 i b i d . , p . 201.

27 i b i d . , p . 118.

2R i b i d . , pp. 85-6 .

29 i b i d . , p . 182 .

3 O ibid., p. 94 .

MOTES (cont . ) 31 -- Othel lo , Arden edition, p . 143.

32 P a r t r i d g e , p . 152.

33 Pearson , D . 359.

34 i b i d . , p . 358 .

A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Akrigg, G . P . V . Jacobean Pageant . Massachusetts: i larvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1963.

C a s t i g l i o n e , B . The Book of' t h e - Coupt ie r . London: J.M. & Sons, 1928.

J o n e s , E ldred . O t h e l l o l s Countrymen: The Afr ican i n Engliskl Henaissance Drama. London, 1965. -

Lewis, C.S. The Allegory o f Love. New York: Galaxy, 1966.

M i l l e r , W.E., "Negroes i n E l i zabe than Ehgland," Notes and Quer ies , V I I I ( A p r i l , 1961 1.

P a r t r i d g e , 6. Shakespeare ' s Bawdv. London, 1961.

Pearson , L.E. E l i zabe thans a t Home. S tanford : S t an fo rd Vn ive r s i t y P r e s s , 1957.

Ross, Lawrence J . , "llJlerble, ' ' C r o c o d i l e t and ITurban1d Turk1 i n g t h e l l o , " P h i l o l o g i c a l Qua r t e r ly , KL (1966 1.

Shakespeare , William. O the l lo . ( e d . ) H.H. Fu rnes s , N e w Variorum e d . , New YO-3.

- . Othe l lo . ( e d . ) M . R . R id ley , Arden Ed. London: Methuen & Go. L t d . , 1966.

Shapiro , btephen, " ~ t h e l l o s Desdemona, " L i t e r a t u r e and Y s y c h o l o g ~ , Vol. XIV ( S p r i n g , 1964 1.

S t o l l , 3.E. Art and A r t i f i c e i n Shakespeare. ivashington, DOC. : 2 o l G b i a U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1934.

Treve lgan , G.N. Engl i sh S o c i a l H i s to ry . London, 1961.

Watson, Curt is Brown. Shakespeare and t h e Renaissance Concept of Honour. P r ince ton U n i v e r s i t y , 1960,

PAPER 11.

ROBERT H E R R I C K ' S "TJNIFIED V I S I O N " AND I T S PLACE IN EARLY SEWTEENTH CENTURY POETRY

Any reader who wishes t o have a c l e a r conception of

seventeenth century poetry runs immediately i n t o d i f f i c u l t i e s .

Previous c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s i n t o var ious s t y l i s t i c o r h i s t o r i c a l

ca tegor ies face him with var ious "schools ," a l l of which a re

v a l i d t o only a small degree.

The term "Elizabethan," f o r example, i s sometimes used

t o include the period up u n t i l 1642 a s wel l a s E l i zabe th ' s

r e ign . Edward Luce-Smith's 1965 e d i t i o n of The Penmain Book

of Elizabethan Verse sees f i t t o exclude Wyatt and Surrey

and t o include Shakespeare, Spenser, Jonson and Donne. This

con t rovers i a l s e l e c t i o n i s j u s t i f i e d on the grounds t h a t the

word El izabethan i s no c r i t e r f - o n f o r s t y l e ; "In f a c t , t h e r e

i s no ho.nogeneous Elizabethan s t y l e . 'l It i s a l s o i n t e r e s t -

ing t h a t Herrick i s omitted conple te ly , though f o r reasons I

s h a l l t r y t o show l a t e r i n t h i s paper , he draws together i n t o

one p o e t i c s t y l e many of the inf luences pervading t h i s l a r g e r

e r a .

Another popular and t r a d i t i o n a l l i t e r a r y d i s t i n c t i o n

made about e a r l i e r seven teen th cen tu ry p o e t r y i s t o d i v i d e

t h e w r i t e r s i n t o supposedly c h a r a c t e r i s t i c groups such a s

"Met a ~ h y s i c a l , t r 01 z a v a l i e r " and " ~ u r i t a n " and t o dec ide t h a t

t h i s e r a ended wi th t h e "Augustan" age. while t h i s may be

u s e f u l it i s s i m p l i s t i c enough t o be g r o s s l y mis lead ing . 'l'he

d i s t i n c t i o n between "Cava l ie r" and etaph physical" becomes

d i f f i c u l t when we r e a l i s e t h a t most supposed "Caval ier r '

poe t s were q u i t e s t rong ly i n f luenced by Donne. S i r John

!I Suck l ing1 s poem, Out upon i t . I have l o v e d , "

Out upon i t . I have loved Three whole days t o g e t h e r And am l i k e t o love t h r e e more, If i t m o v e f a l r weather

tl h a s an obvious deb t t o Donne i n s a v , "Song, o r "Wornants

ConsDancv," no t n e r e l g i n t h e t one o f c y n i c a l l i b e r t i n i s m ,

bu t i n t he s t a r t l i n e opening l i n e and i t s dramat ic g e t con-

v e r s a t i o n a l vo i ce . Yet bo th Donne and Suckl ing i n t h i s i n s t -

ance look even f u r t h e r back t o J u v e n a l l s s a t i r i c comments on

women's constancv f o r t h e t r u e base o f t h e i r poems.

I n terms o f t h e " ~ u r i t a n " school o f p o e t r y , Mil ton

does no t seem t o form a f o c a l po in t f o r a d i s t i n c t i v e group

of' ~ o e t s , and Marve l l , whom we could sugges t i s perhaps i n

p o l i t i c a l sympathy, a " P u r l t a n , " combi-nes a "Caval ier" p o l i s h

wi th a deeplv "Metaphysical s e n s i b i l i t y . "' S i m i l a r l y , whi le

t h e term "Augustm" seems more u s e f u l i n de te rmin ing a p a r t i c -

u l a r k ind of p o e t i c , i t is important t o remember t h a t Drgden,

t h e most important f i q u r e i n t h e e s t ab l i shmen t o f Eng l i sh

neo-Class ic ism, wrote his f i r s t p o e t r y i n a d e r i v a t i v e

"Metaphysicalf ' s t y l e , and t h a t he was f o r some tilne a t l e a s t

a contemporary of both Marvel1 and Traherne , whose w r i t i n g s

con t inued t o show t o some e x t e n t t h e i n f l u e n c e o f Donne and

t h e seven teen th cen tu ry r e l i g i o u s v e r s e t r a d i t i o n .

The term "Metaphysical " s t y l e i s a l s o mis leading and

seems most a p p l i c a b l e i n i t s p l a i n e s t sense t o Donne. While

it does c h a r a c t e r i s e "the v i t a l , l i v i n g , t h i n k i n g and f e e l i n g

poet employing a l l of h i s ' u n i f i e d s e n s i b i l i t y , I " i n view of

t h e i n f l u e n c e of c o n t i n e n t a l t hough t , i t s a p p l i c a t i o n t o

r e l i g i o u s p o e t s l i k e Crashaw and Vaughan i s l e s s a c c u r a t e

than perhaps t h e t i t l e " X e d i t a t i v e p o e t s . "3

F'urther confus ion a r i s e s from t h e concep t ion of e a r l i e r

seven teen th-cen turv poe t ry as t h a t o f v a r i o u s s choo l s .

Though t h e In f luence of Donne and Jonson was very g r e a t , Dou-

g l a s Bush's c a u t i o n i s worth remembering, "The dichotomy i s

sound enouph t o be u s e f u l and f a l s e enough t o be troublesorne."lt

It i s p o s s i b l e t o make a v d i d d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e "s t rong

l i n e " o f Donne and t h e " p l a i n l i n e " o f Jonson b u t , a l though

t h e r e may be a c a s e f o r a rouah grouping o f p o e t s a long t h e s e

l i n e s , t h e most i m n o r t ~ n t a s p e c t o f a l l t h i s l a r g e degree o f

c r o s s - f e r t i l i s a t i o n which occur red between a l l t h e poe t s o f

t h i s age. Important t o o i s t h e r e a c t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l poe t s

t o t h e w r i t i n g s o f t h e i r con temporar ies , and a l s o t h e manner

i n which t h e y p e r s o n a l l y a s s i x i l e t e d t h e important p o e t i c

p r eceden t s o f t h e Renaissance t r a d i t i o n . Even those p o e t s

g r e a t l y i n f luenced by Spenser f e l t t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l and

s p i r i t u a l ferment o f t h e l a s t s t a g e s o f t h e Renaissance and

broke t o some e x t e n t w i t h S p e n s e r l s s e r e n e , c o n t r o l l e d s t y l e

and inco rpo ra t ed some of t h e r e s t l e s s d e s i r e to d e a l d i r e c t l y

Donne and Herbe r t , f o r example, b u i l t new, s t r o n g e r

forms upon t h e t r a d i t i o n a l sonnet and madrigal i n o r d e r t o

e x p r e s s an individual r e l i a n c e on l i v i n g exper ience . Jonson

and Yer r lck moved towards a d i f f e r e n t mod i f i ca t i on of t h e

i n h e r i t e d Renaissance t r a d i t i o n which, though s t i l l p e r s o n a l ,

b u i l t a s t r i c t e r g e t r e f i n e d c l a s s i c i s m i n t o t h e i r poe t ry . If

i t i s p o s s l b l e a t a l l t o g e n e r ~ l i s e about post-Rennaissance

poe t ry be fo re Mil ton and Myden it i s i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l qua l -

i t y of t h e p a r t f c u l a r p o e t l s r e a c t i o n t o those i n f l u e n c e s

which h e had i n h e r i t e d , and t o t hose i n f l u e n c e s which surroun-

ded him d ~ ~ r i n g h i s writ ino; l i f e . A l l o f them were i n f luenced

by t h e i r contemporar ies t o some e x t e n t . In common t o o , they

had an age which was g r e a t l y aware o f t h e pa radox ica l and

complex n a t u r e o f r e a l expe r i ence , and t hey u t i l i s e d t h e

p o e t i c weapon of i n t e l l i g e n c e o r " w i t f f i n t h e i r a t t emp t s a t

coming t o g r i p s wi th i t . I n " w i t , " bo th deeply s e r i o u s and

l i g h t l y f r i v o l o u s , i s con ta ined t h e s ensua l and s t r i k i n g

"concet t i smo" of Zrashaw, t h e epigrams and nea t ph ra s ing of

Jonson and Be r r l ck , and t h e paradoxes , i n t e l l e c t u a l i ngenu i t -

i e s and puns of Donne and Herber t . I t was, "a whole mode of

v i s i o n i n which i n d i v i d u ~ l emotional and s p i r i t u a l exper ience

i s viewed i n t h e l i g h t of i n f i n i t e and t o t a l r e a l i t y , and i s

judged and measured wi thout be ing r e j e c t e d . 6

It i s i n t h i s c a p a c i t y t o keep i n hand an a l l i n c l u s i v e

t o t a l i t y of v i s i o n , developed from an a s s i m i l a t i o n o f pas t

t r a d i t i o n s , in f luenced by t h e work of contemporary p o e t s ,

modified by an i r o n i c " w i t , " and y e t uniquely i n d i v i d u a l ,

which p l a c e s Robert Herr ick s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n t h i s age.

Some f a c t s about H e r r i c k ' s l i f e a r e important f o r a f u l l

unders tanding of h i s p o s i t i o n i n t h e con tex t o f seventeen th

c e n t u r y poe t ry . He was born i n 1591 i n London, t h e son of a

goldsmith who i s rumoured t o have committed su i c ide i n 1592.

From 1607 u n t i l 1613 Herr ick was app ren t i ced t o h i s wealthy

u n c l e , S i r William Herr lck , a prosperous London goldsmith . 6

I n 1613 Her r ick l e f t London f o r Cambridge where he took

h i s B.A. i n 1617 and h i s M.A. i n 1620. Between 1617 and 1629

i t seems l i k e l y t h a t he l i v e d i n London, a s s o c i a t i n g wi th Ben

Jonson and "The Tribe o f Ben. If7

He was ordained i n 1623 and i n 1627 went a s pe r sona l

c h a p l a i n t o t h e Duke of Buckingham on t h e exped i t i on t o t h e

i s l a n d of Rhe'. I n 1629 Herr ick became t h e v i c a r of Dean P r i o r

i n t h e d iocese o f Exe te r where he remained u n t i l he was tu rned

ou t by the P u r i t a n s i n 1647.' Apparently t h e y e a r s between

1647 and t h e Res to ra t ion when he r e tu rned t o Dean P r i o r , were

spen t mainly i n on don .9 Hesper ides , which included t h e

Noble Numbers, was publ i shed i n 1648.

Perhaps t h e t h r e e most important a s p e c t s of t h i s b r i e f

b i o g r a p h i c a l n o t e a r e Re r r i ck l s a t t endance a t Cambridge, h i s

a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h Jonson and t h e c o u r t i e r s and w i t s who ga the r -

ed around t h i s famous f i g u r e , and t h e many g e a r s h e spen t a t

t h e country v i ca rage of Dean P r i o r wi th h i s f a i t h f u l

a j

housekeeper, Prue, and asso r t ed animals including a p i g he i s

repor ted t o have taught t o dr ink out of a tankard. 10

&om h i s Years of study a t Cambridge came the inf luence

of t h e ancient Roman w r i t e r , Anacreon, Catu l lus , Horace, Tib-

u l l u s , Propert i u s , Ovid, and M a r t i a l , r e in fo rced , no doubt, by

t h e inf luence of the learned Ben Jonson.

The extent of t h i s dual inf luence on Herr ick1s verse has 11

been thoroughly explored by Aiken, among o t h e r s , and i t i s

obviously outsl.de t h e scope of t h i s paper t o dea l i n any

g r e a t d e t a i l with p a r t i c u l a r r e fe rences . However,

It i s evident t h a t the English poet was thorouqhlg conversant with the work of a l l the Augustan E l e g i s t s , Influence of each i n d i v i d u a l , a s wel l a s t r a d i t i o n s of the school a s a whole, mag be t r a c e d i n Herr ick ' s l i n e s . As t o t h e r e l a t i v e importance of the inf luence of t h e r e spec t ive E l e g i s t s: one hundred t h i r t g - f o u r Lat in p a r a l l e l s a r e c i t e d i n t h i s chap te r ; of these seventy-three a re from Tibu l lus , t h i r t g - e i g h t from Propert i u s seventeen from Ovid, and s i x from Catul lus . 12

The preponderance of t h e inf luence of Tibul lus on Herrick may

wel l be due t o t h e i r common i n t e r e s t i n country l i f e , 1 3 and

i n p a r t t o Herr ick ' s own assoc ia t ions with the p a s t o r a l l i f e

i n Dean P r i o r . In Her r i ck ' s To l i v e mer r i ly and t o t r u s t t o

Good Verses, Tibul lus takes pr ide of p lace i n t h e l i s t of

g rea t Roman w r i t e r s t o whom he i s dr inking t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

t o a s t . In f a c t , Herrick u t i l i s e s a t r a n s l a t i o n from Ovidls

Amores concernlng Tibul lus t o develop the poem,

Behold, Tibul lus l i e s Here b u r n t , whose small r e t u r n Of ashes , scarce s u f f i c e To f i l l a l i t t l e Urne.

In t h e f i n a l l i n e s , Herrick r e i t e r a t e s t h e c l a z s i c a l t e n e t

t h a t ,

. . . onely Numbers sweet , With e n d l e s s l i f e a r e c rownfa . 14

This poem con ta ins s e v e r a l r e f e r e n c e s t o 0vid15 and Piart-

i a l and i t s d i d a c t i c n a t u r e i s wel l i n t h e c l a s s i c a l t r a d i t i o n .

However, it would be i n c o r r e c t t o g ive c r e d i t t o anyone

e l s e bu t Ben Jonson f o r t h e dominant in f luence i n H e r r i c k 1 s

poe t ry . Followina Jonsonl s l e a d , H e r r i c k ' s poems d i s p l a y

t h e "ageless v i r t u e s o f c l a r i t y , u n i t y , svrnrnetry, and propor-

t ions . d 6

Genera l ly speaking, Herr ick fo l lows Jonsonls l e a d i n t h e

r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e w r i t i n g s of t h e Pe t ra rchan l y r i c i s t s o f

E l izabe than l3ngland.l7 Both Jonson and Herr ick d i f f e r from

Donne i n t h e i r p r e fe rence f o r t h e r e s t r a i n e d c l a s s i c a l phrase

and p o s t u r e r a t h e r than t h e u se o f c o l l o q u i a l language and

s t a r t l i n g images. Another i m ~ o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e i s t h e i r

s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y : while Donne i s engaging i n t he v i o l e n t and

e x c i t i n g p roces s of se l f -examinat i o n and a n a l y s i s , Jonson and

Herr ick assume an urbane self-knowledge, and consequently t h e

p o s i t i o n o r poe t - t eache r . Like Jonson, Herrick t r e a t e d the

a n c i e n t s a s g u i d e l i n e s and incorpora ted t h e i r wisdom and

craf tsmanship i n t o h i s p o e t r y , whi le r e t a i n i n g those c h a r a c t e r -

i s t i c t r a i t s which a r e e s s e n t i a l l y h i s own. Among them w e

could l i s t t h e f u s i o n of c l a s s i c a l l e a r n i n g and Engl i sh folk-

l o r e , t h e f u s i o n of pagan and Christian e t h i c s , a f a n c i f u l

l y r i c t a l e n t , a de l i cacy o f touch and a r i c h n e s s of d i c t i o n ,

and a d e l i g h t i n sp r ing and youth. A l l of t h e s e a r e a s s imi -

l a t e d i n t o one u n i f i e d v i s i o n of t he r e l a t i o n s h i p between Man,

Nature and the Seasons. Yet t h e manner i n which Uerr ick

went about d e s c r i b i n g t h i s u n i f i e d v i s i o n owes a l a r g e deb t

t o J o n s o n t s i n f l u e n c e .

It i s of some s i g n i f i c a n c e t o o , t h a t "while d e r r i c k

p r a i s e d very few Gngl ish p o e t s , he bestowed a number of t r i b -

u t e s on Jonson. "18 "It i s no t d i f f i c u l t t o s e e t h a t i t was

J o n s o n f s p recep t and example t h a t l e d Herrick t o t h e study

and i m i t a t i o n o f t h e Sreek ~ n d Roman l y r i c , t h a t t aught him

him s t r u c t u r a l form and p r e c i s i o n of s t y l e , and t h a t i n s p i r e d

h i m w i t h h l s f a s t i d i o u s sense o f a r t i s t i c t r ea tmen t . 9 He

e x p r e s s e s h i s a l l e g i a n c e t o the Master i n H i s P rayer t o Ben

Jonson,

-&en I a ir'erse s h a l l make, Know I have p r a i d t h e e , For o l d i l e l i g ions sake S a i n t Ben t o a i d e me . . .

Here, "Saint Een" i s a t y p i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n of c l a s s i c a l and

r e l i g i o u s t hough t , a s i s h i s r e f e r e n c e t o Jonson as t h e " r a r e

~ r c h - p o e t " i n TJnon Ben Jonson. Epigram.

I n An Ode f o r H l m , H e r r i c k f s vene ra t i on o f Jonson a s a

t e a c h e r and gu ide i s s t a t e d unmistakably ,

My Ben O r come agen: O r send t o u s

Thy. w i t s g r e a t over -p lus B u t t e a c h us y e t Wisely t o husband i t . . . .

Although both p o e t s owe t h e i r p o e t i c s t a n d a r d s t o a l a r g e r

t r a d i t i o n ,20 Herr icks epigrams r e f l e c t the Jonsonian concept

of' poe t ry a s e s s e n t i a l l y e t h i c a l . Xost of them a re d i d a c t i c

i n one form o r a n o t h e r , p reach ing modera t ion ,

Let Moderation on t hy pas s ions wa i t e Tho loves t o o much, t oo much t h e l ov d w i l l h a t e .

and accep tance o f o n e ' s l o t ,

Who wi th a l i t t l e cannot be c o n t e n t , Endures an e v e r l a s t i n g punishment.

They promote a s o p h i s t i c a t e d , r e s t r a i n e d a t t i t u d e towards l i f e ,

T i s no d i scomfor t i n t h e world t o f a l l , When t h e g r e a t Crack no t c ru shes one, bu t a l l

and d e l i g h t i n t h e p i t h y comment, s t a t e d p l a i n l y ,

L i t t l e you a r e ; f o r Womans sake be proud; For m;y sake nex t , ( though l i t t l e ) be n o t loud.

and sometimes bawdy,

Scobble f o r Whoredom whips h i s w i f e ; and c r y e s , H e ' l l s12t h e r nose ; But b l u b b l r i n g , she r e p l y e s , Good S i r , make no more c u t s i l t h l o u t w a r d s k i n , One s l i t ' s enough t o l e t Adul t rg in.21

Again, whi le t h e c s rpe diem theme has I t s r o o t s i n a

l a r g e r t r a d i t t o n , Jonsonl s Song t o C e l i a , while d r ama t i ca l l y

i r o n i c , has i t s c o u n t e r p a r t s i n H e r r i c k ' s To t h e V i r g i n s , t o

make much of timc, Gether y e Rosebud-s whi le ye mag,

Old T i m e i s s t i l l a f l g i n g And t h i s same f lower t h a t smi l e s t oday ,

Tomorrow w i l l be dg ingeZ2

And a l though C a t u l l u s i s t h e base f o r J o n s o n l s ---* To t h e same

K i s s e , and sco re up weal thy summer On my l i p s , t h u s ha rd ly sundred, 'dhile you b r e a t h . F i r s t g i v e a hundred, Then a thousand, t hen ano ther Hundred, t hen u n t o t h e t o t h e r Adde a thousand, and so more . . . 23

Herr ick s To Antbea, works upon t h e same theme,

Give m e a k i s s e , and t o t h a t k i s s 6 a s c o r e ; Then t o t h a t twenty , adde an hundred more; A thousand t o t h a t hundred; so k i s s e on, To make t h a t thousand up a m i l l i o n .

Treble t h a t m i l l i o n , and when t h a t i s done, Let's k i s s e a f r e s h , a s when we f i r s t begun.

Perhaps a c l o s e r r e l a t i o n s h i p between t he two p o e t s i s

seen i n Jonson 's The Houre-glasse ,

Doe b u t cons ide r t h i s smal l d u s t , Xere running i n t he Glasse .

By Atomes movld; Could you be l eeve , t h a t t h i s

The body was Of one t h a t l o v t d ?

And i n h i s Mistris f lame, p l a y i n g l i k e a f l y e , Turnfd t o c i n d e r s by her eye? Yes; and i n dea th a s l i f e u n b l e s t ,

To have e x p r e s t , Even a shes of l o v e r s f i n d no r e s t .

and H e r r i c k ' s The Houre-gla s s e ,

That. Houre-a lasse , which t h e r e ye see With Xater f i l l t d , ( S i r s , c r e d i t me) The humour was, ( a s I have r e a d ) But l o v e r s t e a r s u n c h r i s t a l l e d . which, a s t hey drop by drop doe passe From t h e upper t o t h e unde r -g l a s se , Do i n a t r i c k l i n g manner t e l l , (Bv many a w a t r i e s y l l a b l e 1 That l o v e r s t e a r s i n l i f e - t i m e shed, Do r e s t l e s s run when t h e y a r e dead.

Both poems work on t h e same b a s i c image, bu t where H e r r i c k ' s

f i g u r e i s t h e more f a n c i f u l , and even l e s s s e r i o u s , Jonsonls

poem aims Tore a t t h e moral l e s s o n t o be drawn from t h e s i t -

u a t i o n . While H e r r i c k ' s d i c t i o n i n ,

'&ich, a s t h e y drop by drop doe pas se From t h e upper t o t h e unde r -g l a s se

i s perhaps more succes s fu l i n c r e a t i n g t h e impress ion of t e a r s

d ropping , and h i s l i n e s move, i n g e n e r a l , more smoothly t han

J o n s o n f s , H e r r i c k ' s poem h a s l e s s of t h e weight of i n t e l l e c t u a l

and e t h i c a l e a r n e s t n e s s seen i n t h e Jonson poem. 24

In i k r r i c k l s The C h r i s t i a n M i l i t a n t , we f i n d t h e same

s u f f i c i e n c y ,

That weanes one face ( l i k e heaven) and never showes A change, when Fortune e i t h e r comes, o r goes: That keepas h i s own s t r o n g gua rd , i n t h e desp igh t O f what can h u r t by day, o r harme by n i g h t : That t a k e s and r e d e l i v e r s every s t r o a k e O f Chance, ( a s made up a l l of r o c k , and oake: ) ' h a t s i g h s a t o t h e r s dea th ; smi l e s a t h i s own

a s w e do i n J o n s o n l s , To t h e World,

No, I doe know, t h a t I was borne To age , m i s fo r tune , s i c k n e s s e , g r i e f e . B u t I w i l l bnare t h e s e , wi th t h a t s c g n e , A s s h a l l no t need t h y f a l s e r e l i e f s .

Both of t h e s e poems ap-oeal t o an i d e a l o f human d i g n i t y

and c i v i l i s e d behaviour which I s t h e i r l egacy from t h e urban-

i t y of t h e c l a s s i c a l w r i t e r s . But whereas t h i s " tone" a long

w i t h a r e f i n e d and p l a i n s t y l e i s t h e dominant f e a t u r e o f Jon-

s o n ' s work, Herr ick b u i l t w o n t h i s ba se a d i s t i n c t i v e l y i n d i v -

i d u a l t a l e n t , l y r i c a l , sensuous , b e a u t i f u l and y e t i nco rpo ra t - i n g a g r e a t d e a l o f thought .

Kni le i t i s p o i n t l e s s t o undervalue t h e wea l th o f assim-

i l a t e d c l a s s i c i s m i n Her r j . ckfs ve r se , it is u s e f u l t o remember

t h a t t h e s e i d e ~ s were modif ied by t h e a t t i t u d e s o f a r a t i o n a l

Church of Ehgland cler,gyman o f t h e t ime , and expanded t o

i n c l u d e t h e Engl i sh c o u n t q s i d e and man s p e c u l i a r r e l a t i o n -

s h i p w i t h t h i s n a t u r a l world. In t h i s r e g a r d , Herr ick l o o k s

back t o Spenser and t h e p a s t o r a l t r a d i t i o n . H i s poet ry incor -

p o r a t e s t h e f o l k - l o r e o f t h e Engl ish coun t rys ide and t h e pagan

r i t u a l s upon which t h e y a re based , moulding and modifying i t

t o h i s own i n d i v i d u a l p o e t i c t a l e n t .

811 of t he poems i n Xesperides demonstra te t h i s t h r e e - i n -

one concep t ion of t h e world. In t he numerous f lower poems,

f o r example, t.he f l ower s e x i s t ss symbols of t h e connect ion

between l i f e and t ime , between beauty and decay and between

b i r t h and d e a t h i n t h e l i f e c y c l e o f n a t u r e ,

In ano the r s e n s e , t h i s viewpoint i s a deepened conscious-

ne s s of t h e c w p e diem - theme. It i s a sy s t ema t i c phi losophy

which i nvo lves a wider awareness of t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of " e a t ,

d r ink and be merry f o r tomorrow we d i e . " Yet , f o r a l l t h i s ,

i i e r r f c k t s approach t o t h i s "v i s ion" i s a simple one. A s bl-

l i n s a g s , "Herrick makes h i s approach t o t h e a b s t r a c t and

s u p e r n a t u r a l through t h e n a t u r a l and commonplace. "26 In

A Medi t a t i on f o r H i s K i s t r e s s e , t h e f l o w e r s , l i k e young women

a r e s u b j e c t t o n a t u r e ' s raw d e s t r u c t i v e powers,

You a r e a l o v e l y Ju ly - f lower , Yet one rude wind, o r r u f f l i n g shower, ' d i l l f o r c e you hence , (and i n a n hou re )

You a r e a s p a r k l i n g Rose i t th ' bud , Y e t l o s t , e r e t h a t chas t f l e s h and blood Can shew where vou o r grew, o r s tood .

A s co~mnonplace o b j e c t s , t h e r f Ju ly- f lowers" and t.he " ~ o s e If

r e f l e c t t h e l a r g e r world view and an awareness of t he "natur-

a l n e s s " o f d e a t h . - The f l ower s a r e not "v ic t ims of t h e n a t u r a l

c y c i e ; t .he i r f a l l i n g t o e a r t h i s a s necessary a s t h e i r f l o u r -

i s h i n g . t127 Yet t h e poem i s a l s o an a f f i r m a t i o n of l i f e , of

t h e va lue o f l o v e l i n e s s and t h e beau ty of f l e s h .

There i s , i n most of t h e poems i n Hesper ides , an under-

l y i n g t e n s i o n between the p h y s i c a l i n e v i t a b i l i t y of dea th and

t h e a f f i r m a t i o n of e x i s t e n c e i n d r i n k i n g , f r i e n d s h i p , n a t u r a l 28

b e a u t y , l o v e , s e n s u a l f t g and o f t h e r i t u a l s which a t t e n d

t h e s e p o s i t i v e l i f e - v a l u e s . I n t h i s way t h e r e e x i s t s s

themat ic p a t t e r n o f u n i t y w i t h i n Hesper ides .

Xalton i s q u i t e i n c o r r e c t when he says t h a t , I' . . . t h e

14etaphgsJ c a l manner i s beyond Herrick Powers o f ima&ina t ion , "

and t h a t " ~ e r r i c k i s s poet o f a charmingly f a n c l f u l bu t

s imple s e n s i b i l i t y . "29 Nerr ick s thought i s o f t en d i s t i l l e d ,

and t h e su r f ace l e v e l i s mis lead ing . He o f t e n u s e s one word,

l i k e " l i que fac t i on ' ' i n ,

\ken a s i n s i l k s my ,Jul ia goes Then, t hen (me t h i n k s ) how swee t ly f lowes That l i q u e f a c t i o n of h e r c l o t h e s

t o imply a wealth of meaning.

In t h i s poem J u l i a ' s c l o t h e s merge l i q u i d l y wi th h e r

body a n d h e r sensua l movements, f l u i d l i k e t hose o f a f i s h , -3 0

a t t r a c t t h e poe t Is eye . However, i n t h e nex t s t a n z a ,

Next when I c a s t mine eyes and s e e That b rave V ib ra t i on each way f r e e ; 0 how t h a t g l i t t e r i n g t a k e t h :ne.

t h e p o e t , u s i n g f i s h i n g terminology, " ca s t mine eyes , " i s

i r o n i c a l l y t aken o r hooked by t h e v i b r a t i n g , g l i t t e r i n g l u r e

3 1 of J u l i a ' s body. - The submerged metaphor makes t h e poem much

more involved t h a n i t s s imple s u r f a c e appearance. Also, i n

Upon E l e c t r a t s T e a r e s ,

Upon h e r cheekes she wept, a n d from t h e s e showers Snrang up a sweet Na t iv i t y o f f l ower s ,

Her r ick employs one word, ''I4a.t i v i t ~ , " w i t h a l l i t s a s s o c i a -

t i v e wea l th , t o t rans form a simple s t a t emen t i n t o one w i th

s t a r t l i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s . Even a s imple epigram,

P u t r e f a c t i o n i s t h e end Of a l l t h a t Nature doth entend

c a r r i e s cons ide rab l e weight . Apart from t h a t , t h e g r e a t

p o e t i c t a l e n t which produces such b e a u t i f u l l y l impid and

simple l y r i c s a s , 20 the Virg ins t o make much of 'i'ime, and

To 3af f o d i l s ,

F'aire D a f f a d i l l s , we weep t o see You h a s t e away so soone:

AS -yet the e a r l y - r i s i n g Sun Has n o t a t t a i n e d h i s Noone.

S t a y , s t a y , U n t i l t h e h a s t i n g day

Has run But t o t h e Even-song

And having w a y 'd t o g e t h e r , we ' d i l l goe w i th you a long.

w i t h t h e i r i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e t r a n s i e n c e o f l i f e i s no t t h e

work o f a slight o o e t . A s ~ u s ~ r o v e ~ ~ and ~ i 1 b e 1 - t ~ ~ have poin-

t e d o u t , Her r ick i n h e r i t s a u n i f i e d v i s i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n -

s h i p between God, man and t h e n a t u r a l world. Although " tha t

v i s i o n i s p r e s e n t c h i e f l y i n sugges t ion and overtone"34 i n

e s sence It i s t h e same v i s i o n a s Donne's: t h a t h i e r a r c h i c a l

cosmology i n h e r i t e d from t h e middle ages which expouneed t h e

i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p of a l l t h i n g s . I n t h i s meeieval , ph i lo s -

o p h i c a l s e n s e , Her r ick i s a "'Metaphysical. 11

In The Argument of h i s Rook, Xerr ick i s not merely ca ta -

l ogu ing those o b j e c t s of h i s p o e t i c a t t e n t i o n i n Hesper ides .

tf A s Musgrove p o i n t s ou t : There i s d e l i b e r a t e p rog re s s ion in

t h i s poem; i t 1s i t s e l f a microcosm. "3.5 The poem moves from 7

t h e n a t u r a l t h i n g s , "I s i n g of Brooks, o f Blossomes, B i rds and

Bowers: " t o t h e very seasons which Control t h e l i f e Cycle o f - t h e o b j e c t s i n q u e s t i o n , "of A p r i l , May, of June, and Ju ly-

f I f lowers . The poem t h e n moves t o Man's c e l e b r a t i o n s of t he I L

seasona l l i f e - c y c l e , "I s i n g of May-poles, I iock-car ts , *ass-

a i l s , Wakes," which i nc lude t h e c e l e b r a t i o n of' Sp r ing , "May-

Q O ~ ~ S , " t h e Barvest-home, "Hock-carts ," t h e f e s t i v e d r i n k i n g

c e l e b r a t i n g a s u c c e s s f u l g e a r , and t h e h i n t of t h e l a s t c e r e -

mony o f t h e season a n d of l i f e i t s e l f ~ n ~ ~ w a k e s . 11

Following t h i s , t he nex t l i n e c e l e b r a t e s human r egene r -

a t i o n , and t h e ceremonies which accompany i t , "Of Bride-grooms ,

B r i d e s , and of t h e i r R r i d a l l - c a k e s . " The poem t h e n e n l a r g e s

i t s microcosmic scope t o i nc lude human emot ions , ' ' ~ou t ' n , " and

It "Love. The "clennlv- 'v j~ntonesse" i s a l s o impor tan t . A t f i r s t

s i g h t i t appears a c o n t r a d i c t i o n . E s s e n t i a l l y though, Eierrick

i s implvl.ng t h a t seustxal L o v e i s n a t u r a l and t h e r e f o r e

" c l ean . " We encounte r more of t h i s apparen t paradox i n l a t e r

poems l i k e Corinna. Next a r e t h e l i f e - g i v i n g dews and r a i n s

of t h e p h g s l c a l heavens , and t h e balms, o i l s , s p i c e s and

ambergr is which s p b o l i s e t h e s p i r i t u a l world. The l i n e ,

"I s i n g of Times t r a n s h i f t i n g , ; and I w r i t e " i s p a r t i c u l a r l y

impor tan t . It imp l i e s t h e u n i v e r s a l ana logy , t h e " p a r a l l e l s

and correspondences between men s l i v e s , d a i l y and annual

e v e n t s , and t h e church c a l e n d a r , on t h e one hand , and un ive r -

s a l h i s t o r y and t h e d i v i n e s t o r y on t h e o t h e r . ' 36 The poem

t h e n moves on t o d i s c u s s t h e beginning of t h i n g s , symbolised

- i n the "Hoses" and " L i l l i e s , " the rea lm o f t h e imaginat ion, a s

i n t h e f a i r l e s , "The Court. of Mab, and of the F a i r i e - ~ i n g " and

it concludes on a C h r i s t i a n no t e by w r i t i n g of " d e l l , and

s i n g i n g , " O f Heaven, and [hoping t o have i t a f t e r a l l . " Thus the poem i n microcosm e x p l a i n s t h e sub j ec t -ma t t e r of

:

H e s ~ e r i d e s . ' - i e r r i c k t s f i e l d w i l l be t h e whole of e x i s t e n c e .

Ne c o u l d , I suppose , be s u r p r i s e d l i k e 15oorman a t t h i s

seemingly unor thodox un ion of pagan and C h r i s t i a n b e l i e f s ,

" . . . t h e r e was i n H e r r i c k a c u r i o u s s t r a i n o f p a e m i s m

which a c c o r d s none t o o w e l l w i t h h i s d u t i e s a s a C h r i s t i a n

3 r i e s t ,"37 y e t H e r r i c k accornodstes b o t h s e t s o f b e l i e f s i n

many poems w i t h no s e n s e o f t h e i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y of t h e two,

j u s t a s he i n t e r m i n g l e s t h e i d e a l and t h e r e a l w i t h o u t any

a.pparent d e g r e e o f i n c o n g r u i t y . T h i s c o n s i s t e n t a n a l o g i s i n g

i s a g a i n seen i n Oor inna ' s go ing a Msying, where t h e c a r p 8

diem theme i s g i v e n a s p e c i f i c a l l y E n g l i s h s e t t i n g , and r e - - l a t e d , i m p l i c i t l y , t o t h e l i f e - c y c l e . 38 S c h o l a r s h i p h a s poin-

t e d o u t t h ~ t t h i s poem h a s i t s base i n many t r a d i t i o n s , t h e

r t i n v i t . a t ion- to - love , " t h e " p a s t o r a l , " and t h e cereinonial

poem. 3q The poem s u g g e s t s h a s t e and i t s opening l i n e s ,

Get u p , g e t u p , f o r shame, t h e Blooming Morne TJpon h e r wings p r e s e n t s t h e god unshorne

a r e r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e s t a r t l i n g and c o l l o q u i a l opening of

many of Donne's poems. I n o t h e r wags i t reminds t h e r e a d e r o f

t h o s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e "metaphys ica l " poem i n i t s d i s -

p l a y o f s e r i o u s " w i t , " i t s a r g u m e n t a t i v e q u a l i t y and i t s

d r a m a t i c p r e s e n t f i t i o n o f l i f e , l o v e and death. However, t h e

r e a l s u c c e s s o f t h e poem comes from t h e b r i l l i a n t manner i n

which H e r r i c k b l e n d s d i v e r s e t r a d i t i o n a l e l ements w i t h contem-

p o r a r y though t ~ n d p o e t i c p r a c t i c e and y e t s tamps t h e poem

w i t h h i s own a r t t s t i c i n d i v i d u a l i t y .

The f i r s t two l i n e s , f o r example, b a l a n c e t h e d r a m a t i c ,

Donnean open-lnp; w i t h a S p e n s e r i a n i d e a l i s e d p e r s o n n i f i c e t i o n ,

"The Blooming Morne," and a c l a s s i c a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the

sun god Apollo , "the god unshorne. " Corinna i s exhorted not only t o enjoy the p a r t i c u l a r

f e s t i v i t y but t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n l i f e and i n the joys of

youth. Consequently, 11 . . . t i s s i n , / Nay, profanat ion

t o keep in . '

Mag Day, o r i g i n a l l y a pagan f e s t i v a l , has become a l s o a

r e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e , " . . . t he Birds have Mattens seyd, / And

sung t h e i r t h a n k f u l l mmnes: . . ." Corinna i s , "To come

f o r t h , l i k e the Spring-time, f r e sh and greene;" f o r l i k e a l l

c r e a t u r e s she must p a r t i c i p a t e in the l i f e - c y c l e , "Corinna,

l i k e them, ( t h e "budding" boys and g i r l s ) i s sub jec t t o na t -

u r e , and t o the claims of n a t u r e ; and t h e season of spring-

t ime cannot , and ought no t , t o be denied. 1140 Although the

poem i s e s s e n t i a l l y a joyous one, t h e r e i s i n the background

t h e h i n t of m o r t a l i t y , r e in fo rc ing t h e necess i ty f o r has te ,

even i n t h i s %armless f o l l i e , "

Come l e t u s Roe, while we a r e i n our prime; And t ake t h e harmless f o l l i e o f t h e time.

We s h a l l grow old apace and d i e Before we know our l i b e r t y . Our l i f e i s s h o r t ; and our dayes run As f a s t away a s do ' s t h e Sunne: . . .

Again i n t h i s poem Herrick i n t e r r e l a t e s n a t u r a l t h i n g s and

- t h e i r counterpar ts i n t h e human sphere i n s ceremonial t r i b -

u t e t o l i f e i t s e l f . The flowers weep and genuf lec t , t he b i r d s

sag matins , and t h e lfbogsu and " ~ i r l s " a r e themselves "budding - flowers. " I n t h i s poem and i n many o t h e r s , " ~ e r r i c k ~ s view

of nature i s a sacramental one, j u s t a s G.M. Hopkinsf was. 1 1 4 1 k. k

It d i f f e r s s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n t h a t Herrick fuses t h e c l a s s i c a l

t r a d i t i o n of t h e buco l i c w i t h Engl i sh f o l k - l o r e i n a t o t a l

apprehension of God a s r e v e a l e d i n a l l a s p e c t s of e x i s t e n c e .

It i s r e l i g i o u s , t h e n , i n FI manner p e c u l i a r t o Herr ick and

I n To a Bed o f T u l i p s , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e flow-

e r s and t h e v i r g i n s i s s t a t e d as " s i s t e r - h o o d s , " ar;d i n - Funera l R i t e of the Rose, t h e dying r o s e i s s a n c t i f i e d by t h e

" ~ o l g S i s t e r s " who s i n g a " sacred Dirge . ~t

I n The Crue l1 Maid, Herr ick a s s o c i a t e s t h e f lowers with

innocence, and youth which must decay,

The L i l l i e w i l l no t long endure; Nor t h e Snow cont inue pure: The Rose, t h e V i o l e t , one day See , both t h e s e Lady-flowers decay: And you must f a d e , a s w e l l as t hey .

I n t h e s e Doems and ~ t h o r s , ~ " Herrick appea r s t o be h i n t i n g of

a d i v i n e analogy between f l ower s and youth . Th is d iv ine r e l -

a t i o n s h i p i s made a l i t t l e c l e a r e r i n , A Christmas C a r o l l ,

sung t o t h e King i n t h e Presence - a t h h i t e - H a l l , h e r e i j e r r i ck

w r i t e s ,

Ne s e e H i m come, a n d know him o u r s , Who wi th I I t s sunsh ine , and H i s showers, Tunes a l l the ~ a t i e n t ground t o f lowers .

and i n t h e e;>igram, Virgin W a q ,

To work a wonder, God would have h e r shown, A t once , a Bud, and y e t a Rose fu l l -b lowne .

Y e t t h e s e remain h i n t s of a l a r g e r o r d e r , and alt.hough

we might agree wi th Nusgrove t h r t "Because t h e phys i ca l world

i s no t merely the p h y s i c a l world, because it i s i n t e r p e n e t r a -

t e d by o t h e r forms of l i f e , because a p l a n t i s a l s o a. g i r l

I ~ n d a s t a r and s jewel and sometimes C h r i s t t h e

i imagina t ive sugges t i ons o f t h e p o e t r y ( e x c e ~ t i n those poems

which do no t c la im t o be more t h a n t h e t r i v i a o f a mundane

day ) pos se s s a r i c h n e s s , a mul t ip1 ic i t ;y o f wea l th which both

f a s c i n a t e s and i l l u m i n ~ t e s , "44 i t would be a m i s t a ~ e t o t r y

and r e a d Herrick

11 s e r i o u s " poet t

had an i n h e r i t e d

t h e d i v i n e whole

a myst ic . The

Eumbers w i l l no t

"un i f i ed v i s i o n 7 '

l i k e X l l l i a m Blake. That h e was 6 more

hsn many c r i t i c s have thought , and t h a t he

t 'tnedieval" o r "ne t aphys i ca l " concept ion o f

o f c r e a t i o n seems obvious . Yet he w h s no t

n a t u r e of t h e ma jo r i t y o f poems i n h i s Noble

support t h i s c a s e , a l though i n t h e poems t h i s

i s appa ren t .

Another importent a spec t of k I e r r i ck l s work i s t h e concep-

t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h l p between Nature and A r t . It i s an

a e s t h e t i c and p h i l o s o ~ h i c unde r s t an6 ing which informs much of

h i s p o e t r y .

I n t h e background of h i s work e x i s t s an or thodox accep-

t a n c e of t h e " f a l l e n " s t a t e of t he world . For Her r ick , t h e r e

were two t h i n g s t o he accep ted from t h i s s t a t e . He i s assured

of e t e r n a l l i f e a s a p e r f e c t l i f e , a.nd h e i s a l s o a b l e t o

c r e a t e a ~ e r f e c t world o u t of t h e f lawed un ive r se through h i s

p o e t r y . I n h i s p a s t o r a l p o e t r y ,

There i s hope i n t h e c y c l e of n a t u r e and i n poe t rg . The meadows mag d i e b u t t hey a r e born again; t h e f a i r y l and may f a d e , but t h e poem t h a t c o n t a i n s it may endure . The Sacred Grove r e f l e c t s a lo~orld in f l u x , b u t is i t s e l f -- s t a t i c - a world where Ea ture ca be h e i g h t - ened and made permanent by A r t . $

Ksture and A r t t h e n must c o e x f s t , A r t a s t h e q u a l i f y i n g

c o n t r o l over t h e w i l d e r exces se s of Nature . I n t h i s manner

A r t becomes t h e p e r f e c t i o n of Nature , i n terms o f human

be ings a s w e l l a s t h e whole p h y s i c a l world. 'I'hus "Dean-bourn"

i s t o I ler r ick t h e rudeness and ''warty i n c i v i l i t y " of i h t u r e

unmodified by A r t . It .Is meant a l s o t o imply t h e ljevonshire

people . Y e t , of cou r se , i t i s not p o s s i b l e f o r A r t t o e x i s t

wi thout Nature .

In Del ight in Disorder t h e a e s t h e t i c p r i n c i p l e i s c l a r i -

f l e d . On t h e s u r f a c e t h i s i s a simple poem get. i r n ~ l i e d i n ,

A sweet d i s o r d e r i n t h e d r e s s Kindles in c l o t 3 e s a wantonness A lawn about t h e ohoulders thrown Intro a f i n e d i s t r a c t i o n

i s a compromise between complete A r t and complete Nature.

This i s , o f cou r se , t y p i c a l o f ' d e r r i ck ' s d e s i r e f o r moderation

i n a l l t h i n g s . The "sweet d i s o r d e r " i s a c a r e f u l l y c u l t i v a t e d

e f f e c t where Nature o r c o r n ~ l e t e nea tnes s i s made more a t t r a c -

t i v e by a s t u d l e d a r t f u l n e s s . S i m i l a r l y , t h e " f i ne d i s t r a c -

t i o n " of "A lawn about t h e shou lde r s " i s a c a r e f u l l y achieved

improvement by A r t upon Na tu re , o r t h e n a t u r a l s t r a i g h t f o r -

ward. manner o f wearing a s c a r f . F i n a l l y , Her r ick s t a t e s t h a t ,

. . . 8 w i l d c l v i l - i t y Do more bewitch m e , than when a r t Is t o o p r e c j s e i n every p a r t .

The "wild c i v i l i t y " i s t h a t combination o f Nature and A r t ,

s u p e r i o r t o "rudeness" as w e l l a s t o p r e c i s e A r t , which l e a d s

t o a p e r f e c t e d World. This a e s t h e t i c p r i n c i p l e o f moderation

i s c a r r i e d over i n t o h i s Noble Numbers, and accounts perahaps

i n p a r t f o r t h e i r l a c k of fe rvour and cons idered s i m p l i c i t y .

The amiable f 'usion of c l a s s i c a l and C h r i s t i a n b e l i e f s

seen i n Hesperides i s cont inued i n H e r r i c k ' s Sable Eumbers.

Despi te t h e i m p l i c i t r e j e c t i o n of H i s P r a p r ,

For t hose my unbapt ized m i m e s , Lu'rit i n my wi ld unhallowed Times; For every s en t ence , c l a u s e and word, T h a t ' s no t i n l a i d w i t h Thee, (my Lord) Forgive me God, and b l o t each l i n e Out o f my Book, t h a t i s no t t h i n e ,

he probably wro te h i s r e l i g i o u s v e r s e con tem~oraneous ly wi th

h i s s e c u l a r poems. Many o f t h e poems l a c k t h e v i t a l i t y o f

Hesperides and o f t e n appear a s p o e t i c f o r m a l i t i e s . Plany o f

t hen a r e d i d a c t i c epigrams, summing up n e a t l y , a homely

Christ i s n t r u t h ,

God i s Jehovan C a l l f d ; which name of H i s Impl ies o r Essence, o r t h e H e t .hnt Is .

3 i s r e l i g i o u s f a i t h seeins s i n g u l a ~ l y conp lacen t . In J-&

L i t a n i e , t o t h e Xolg S p i r i t , Herr ick can joke about t h e

Doctor,

'&en t h e a r t l e s s Doctor s e e s No one hope, hu t of h i s Fees And h i s s k i l l r uns on t h e l e e s ;

Sweet S p i r i t comfort me.

and h i s a b i l i t y ,

When h i s Po t ion and h i s P i l l , H i s , o r none , o r l i t t l e s k i l l , Meet f o r no th ing , b u t t o k i l l ;

Sweet S p i r i t comfort me. -

and a l though he w r i t e s of "Fur ies i n a shoule" t h e "Tempter"

pursu ing him, and "flame a n d h e l l i s h c r i e s " t h e r e i s l i t t l e I=

of t h e imrned iacv o f r e l i -g ious exper ience of o t h e r r e l i g i o u s

poe t s o f t h i s age. 47 k c 3 e r r i c k , o f c o u r s e , had acqua in tance w i th o t h e r

devo t iona l v e r s e , and t h e p roces s o f t h i s c r o s s - f e r t i l i s a t ion

common i n t h i s age i s o v e r t . In To Finde God, i ier r ick empl-

oys t he l ' imposs ib i l i t g theme" assuming t h e r o l e o f a Chr i s t -

i a n nle taphysic ian,

Weigh me t h e F i r e ; o r , c a n s t thou f i n d A way t o meRsure out t h e Wind; D i s t i ngu i sh a l l t hose Floods t h a t a r e Mixt i n t h a t w s t r i e Thea te r ;

and u s i n g t h e imposs ib i . l i t g o f measuring t h e f o u r e lements ,

f i r e , a i r , wa te r , and e a r t h , t o b u i l d up t o the i m p o s s i b i l i t y

o f any comprehension of' t h e Almighty,

This i f thou c a n s t ; then show me H i m That r i d e s t h e g l o r i o u s Cherubim.

In Upon Time, t h e r e i s p o s s i b l y a t r a c e o f George H e r b e r t ' s

i n f l u e n c e , and i n The Summe and t h e S a t i s f a c t i o ~ , H e r r i c ~

u s e s t h e common f ' isure o f t h e debt p a i d by C h r i s t ,

Ch r i s t having p a i d , I no th ing owe: For , t h i s 3.s s u r e , t h e Debt i s dead By l aw , t h e Bond once c a n c e l l e d .

The u s e o f l e g a l terminology, d e b t s , and the t o l l i n g b e l l i s

common t o t he devo t iona l v e r s e of bo th Donne and Herber t .

In The Bellman, Herr ick employs t h e s e ter r rs i n h i s own simple

b u t e f f e c t i v e s t y l e ,

k i t h rqy l a n t e r n , and my l i g h t , And t h e t i n k l i n g of t h e b e l l , %nus I walk, and t h i s I t e l l : Death and d r e a d f u l n e s s c e l l on To the g e n e r a l s e s s i o n ; To whose dismal b a r , w e t h e r e A l l accounts must come t o c l e a r . Scores of s i n s we've made here many, Wiped ou t few, God knows, i f any. Rise ye d e b t o r s t h e n , and f a l l To make payment, whi le I c a l l .

Her r ick a l s o t r i e s h i s hand a t a poem shaped i n t h e form

o f a c r o s s , bu t h e has l i t t l e of H e r b e r t ' s a b i l i t y i n t h i s

k ind o f work. However, j u s t a s Ze rbe r t i n t h e Super l iminare

i n t r o d u c e s t h e c l a s s i c a l w ~ r n i n g of "procul p r o f a n i e s t ," I I Avoid, Profanenesse ; come no t he re : , I' Her r ick , i n Another

New-Yeeres ' ; i f t , o r S o n ~ f o r t h e 2 i rcumcis ion does tile same, - ------- 9

Hence, hence prophane, and none appears With any th ing u n h ~ l l o g e d , he re : . . .

I n t h e beginning of The Temple, 3 e r b e r t employs t h e

P e r i r r h a n t e r i u m , o r t h e r i t u a l s p r i n k l i n g o r c l e a n s i n g wi th

wate r of t h e Greel&s and Zomans. Herr ick a l s o i n c o r p a r a t e s

t h i s supposedly pagan r i t u a l i n t h e f i r s t Kew-Yeeres G i f t ,

C s s t Holv Xate r a l l about And have a c a r e no f i r e goes ou t But 'cense the porch , and p l ace throughout .

Although i t would be d i f f i c u l t t o e s t i m a t e t h e importance

of X e r b e r t l s The Temple on 9 e r r i c k t s $ i s fu'oble Numbers, t h e i r

common ground i n t h e unadorned l y r i c s t y l e and t h e s i m p l i c i t y

of t h e i r fsciths sugges t s a s t r o n g c o m p a t i b i l i t y . However, i t

i s u n l i k e l g t h a t t hey moved i n t h e same l i t e r a r y c i r c l e s .

i i e r r i ck I s connect i o n s wi th London, den Jonson and Devons'nire

a r e q u i t e d i s t a n t p h g s i c a l l v and s o c i a l l y from Herber t and

Cambridge, Nicholas F e r r a r and L i t t l e Gidding.

Perhaps t h e most e f f e c t 1 ve of Herr ick s s impler -poem

i n H3.s Noble Numbers, i s h i s calm s ta tement of f a i t h i n 9

Creed,

I do b e l i e v e , t h a t d i e I must, And be returnld from out my dus t : I do b e l i e v e , t h a t when I r i s e , C h r i s t I s h a l l s e e , wi th t h e s e same eyes: I do b e l i e v e , t h a t I must come, Nf th o t h e r s , t o t h e d r e a d f u l Doome: I do b e l i e v e , t h e bad must goe

From t h e n c e , t o e v e r l a s t i n g woe: I do b e l i e v e , t h e good, and I , S h a l l l i v e wi th H i m e t e r n a l l y : I do b e l i e v e , I s h a l l i n h e r i t Heaven, by C h r i s t s a e r c i e , n o t my m e r i t ; I do b e l i e v e , t h e One i n Three , And Three i n ~ e r f e c t U n i t i e s L a s t l y , t h a t J e s u s i s a Deed of G i f t from God: And h e r e s mv Creed.

Yet t h e s i m p l i c i t v o f t h i s poem i s somewhat mis lead ing . It

i s unwise t o assume t h a t Y e r r l c k f s r e l i g i o u s poetry i s on ly

n a i v e , s i m p l i s t i c o r m o t i o n a l l y c h i l d l i k e . I n L f ' i n d e ?a, we cRn see evidence of metaohysical thought , and i n other

poems t h e f u s i o n of c l a s s i c a l pagan and S h r i s t i a n b e l i e f s s i m -

i l a r t o t hose found i n H e r b e r t ' s work. His Noble Numbers a r e

n o t on ly u n i f i e d by a s t y l e and mode o f thought which i s

u n i q u e l p H e r r i c k l s , but bg t h e unde r ly ing theme o f the q u e s t

f o r (God, a s exempl i f i ed i n God not t o be comprehended,

' T i s hard t o f i n d e God, bu t t o comprehend H i m , a s He i s , i s l abour wi thout end.

Yet i t i s t r u - t h a t E e r r i c k l s r e l i g i o u s v e r s e has none o f

t h e p a s s i o n a t e i n t e n s i t y o f Donne, o r t h e emot ional and sens-

u a l f e rvou r o f Crashaw. Nor does i t have t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l

apprehension of Herbert o r t h e myst ic ism of Yaughan. 10

Her r i ck , God was no t a vengefu l Yahweh, o r a Supreme Being

t h a t one s t r u g g l e d t o pe rce ive i n i n t e l l e c t u a l terms but an

accep ted f a c t p r e s e n t i n everyday terms and commonplace

a c t i v i t i e s . Th is i s b e s t seen i n _U Thanksgiving t o God f o r

H i s Housz, where ,sod i s p r e s e n t i n s a t i s f y i n g and p rov id ing

t h e minut iae of e x i s t e n c e . It i s a pe r sona l Prayer of thanks-

g i v i n g , a convent iona l C h r i s t i a n e x e r c i s e y e t it i n c o r p o r a t e s

t h e 3 p i c l ~ r e a n i d e a l o" few needs a n ? m d e s t wsnt p r o v i d i n g

t h e s e l f - s u f f T c i e n c y o f f reedom, 48

Lord, Thou h a s g i v e n me a c e l l d h e r e i n t o dwel l

A l i t t l e h o u s e , whose humble r o o f I s w e a t h e r - p r o o f ;

Under t h e s o a r s o f which I l i e Both s o f t a n d d r y ;

The humble buco1i.c s e t t i n g and t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n with God's

p r o v i s i o n s i s rnnrked. God i s a l s o a p r o t e c t o r through t h e

n i g h t ,

'Where Thou, m v cchavber f o r t o w a r d , Hast s e t a q u a r d

O f harmlese t h o u ~ h t s , t o watch and keep Me whi le I s l e e p .

and H e r r i c k r e t u r n s t n e s e b l e s s i n g s wi t h C h r i s t t a n h u m i l i t y

and h o s p f t a l i t y t o t h e p o o r ,

Low i s my porch , a s i s my f a t e , Both v o i d of s t a t e ;

And y e t t h e t h r e s h o l d o f my door I s worn by t h e poor

hho t h i t h e r come ~ n d f r e e l y g e t .

H e r r i c k ' s f a i t h assumes t h a t a l l t h i n g s a r e b l e s s i n g s from God,

and shows t h e modesty o f h i s r e q u e s t s i n a l i s t of s imple wares ,

Like a s my p a r l o r , s o my h a l l And k i t c h e n ' s s m a l l

A l i t t l e b u t t e r y , and t h e r e i n A l i t t l e b i n ,

Which keeps my l i t t l e l o a f o f b read TJnchipped , u n f l e a d ;

Yet God e i v e s n o t on ly p h v s l c a l and spirituel s a t i s f a c t i o n b u t

t h e d e l i g h t o f b e i n q a l i v e ,

' T i s Thou t h a t crowns my g l i t t e r i n g h e a r t h With g u i l t l e s s m i r t h ,

And q u ' s t me w a s s a i l bowls t o d r i n k , Sp iced t o t h e b r i n k .

It i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o r e l a t e t h i s concept i n a r e l i g i o u s

Poem t o H e r r i c k ' s a f f i r m a t i o n of l i f e a s expressed i n

Hesper ides . The r e l i g i o u s and t h e s e c u l a r , i t appea r s , i n t e r -

l ock i n a l l h i s p o e t r y i n a ceremonial t r i b u t e t o God who i s

t h e essence of l i f e . The poem moves next i n t o a p a s t o r a l s e t t -

i n g , an? t h e i m p l i c a t i o n of s ea sona l renewal i s s t r o n g ,

Lord, ' t i s 'L'hv plenty-dropping hand That soi-1s my l a n d ,

And g i v l s t me, f o r my bushe l sown, Twice t e n f o r one;

Thou mak ' s t my teeming hens t o l a y Her egg each day;

Bes ides my h e a l t h f u l ewes t o b e a r Me twins each g e a r

F i n a l l y , Herrick concludes t h a t i n r e t u r n f o r t h e s e many b l e s s -

i n g s he must , " render f o r my p a r t / A t h a n k f u l h e a r t . "

I t 1s t h i s combination of Neo-Epicurean concepts o f t h e

good l i f e wi th t h e sense o f man's u l t l m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p wi th

God through t h e seasons which art i c u l a r i s e s H e r r i c k ' s poe t ry .

R i t u a l and ceremonv f o r Herr ick a r e i n t e g r a l wi th r e l i g i o u s

f e e l i n g and consequent ly Cor inna t s -- a n g a Maying i s a r e l i g -

i o u s noem, differing only i n degree from those o f h i s Noble

Numbers. Together t h e n , Hesnerides and Noble Numbers c o n s t i t -

u t e a t o t a l p o i n t of view i n which d i v e r s e and appa ren t ly con-

f l i c t i n g ph i lo soph ie s and s t y l e s a r e melded i n t o a n u n i f i e d

v i s i o n . It i s u n f o r t u n a t e t h ~ t many c r i t i c s have f a i l e d t o

r e a l i s e t h e consistency of H e r r i c k ' s v i s i o n of l i f e , b u t , a s +

T.S. E l i o t s a g s , we tend t o

. . . p r a i s e a p o e t , upon those a s p e c t s o f h i s work i n which he l e a s t resembles anyone e l s e . I n t h e s e a s ~ e c t s o r p s r t s of h i s work we pre tend t,o f i n d w h ~ t i s i n d i v i d u a l , what i s t h e p e c u l i a r essence of t h e man. We dwell w i th s a t i s f a c t i o n upon t h e poet f s d i f f e r e n c e f rom h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s ,

e s ~ e c i a l l g h i s immediate p r edeces so r s . 49

To approach Herr ick from t h i s c r i t i c a l viewpoint i s t o miss

t h e most important a s s e t of h i s p o e t r y , h i s c e p a c i t g t o l e a r n

from, a s s i m i l a t e , qnd r e c r e a t e i n h i s own terms and i n r e f e r -

ence t o h i s tixe:: t h e i n p o r t a n t f r u i t s o f t h e pas t c u l t u r e .

As T . S . E l i o t s a g s , i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t "we s h a l l o f t e n f i n d

t h a t not on lv t h e b e s t , but t h e most i n d i v i d u a l p a r t s of h i s

work may be those i n which t h e dead p o e t s , h i s a n c e s t o r s ,

a s s e r t t h e i r immor ta l i ty most v igo rous ly . 115 0

H e r r i c k ' s poe t ry then r e f l e c t s R measured i n t e l l e c t u a l

and emot ional a t t i t u d e t o t h e complex f o r c e s which were i n

vogue durfnp; hLs l i f e t i m e . L i f e and a r t a r e fused i n an assim-

i l a t ion of R e n a i s s ~ n c e humanism, C h r i s t i a n d o c t r i n e and meta-

~ h v s i c s , f o l k - l o r e and c 7 8 s s i c a l l i t e r a t u r e . Yet a l l a r e

touched wi th t h e i n d i v j d u a l t a l e n t which c o n t r o l l e d pnd u t i l -

i s e d t h i s v a r i e t y o f c o n t r a s t i n g f o r c e s i n t o p o e t r g which was

someti~nes o f t h e h i g h e s t o r d e r .

NOTES

The P e n g ~ ~ i n Book -- o f E l i z a b e t h a n V e r s e , e d . , Edward Luce-Smith ( P e n g u i n , 1065 ) , p . 11.

S e v e n t e e n t h ? c n t ; ~ r y P r o s e a n d ---- P o e t r y , s e l e c t e d nnd e d i t e 4 , A . N . W i t h e r s ~ o o n a n d F.J . ' iarnke ( N e w Yor'x, 1963), P . 707.

I a m ref err in^ h e r e t o Lou i s M 8 r t a 1 s work, The P o n t r v o f M e d i t a t i o n ( Y a l e , 1062).

I! D. Bush, a l i s h L i t e r a t u r e i n t h e E a r l i e r S e v e n t e e n t h ---- Centu rg (New York , 19621, p . 104.

5 ' d i the r spoon a n d Warnke, p . 709.

Bush, p . 115'.

i b i d .

' i b i d .

' i b i d .

li p. Aiken , T%e I n f l u e n c e o f t h e L a t i n E l e g i - t s . . . 1 6 W - - t I c u l a r ~ f e r e n c e t o Rober t I i e r r i c k (Orono,

The 'Jom l e t e Poems o f l t obe r t R e r r i c k , ed., J . Max P a t r i c k ?? -- (Anchor , 1 9 3- 115. A13 o t h e r p o e t r y q u o t a t i o n s w i l l be t a k e n from t h i s ecli.t i o r ~ .

This t r a d i t i o n a l n o t i o n o f p o e t r y a s t h e o n l y t h i n g which e n d u r e s i s r e p e a t e d i n H i s P a e t r i e h i s l i l l a ~ ,

Behold t h i s l i v l c g s t o n e I r e a r e f o r m e , Ne ' r t o be thrown Downe, e n v i o u s Time by t h e e .

and o t h e r poems. It assumes corisidt.rtible impor tance i n H e s p e r i d e s .

' 5 V e r r i c k puns on O o i d l s n a n e , Nsso. F o r o t h e r r e f e r e n c e s , s e e J . Nax P a t r i c k , p . 116.

16 Rush, p . 111.

NOTES ( c o n t .

IR Bush, p. 115.

2o The enigrsms a r e probably based 3c those o f M a r t i a l .

dl c f . tTonson's On Out.

22 One i n p o r t a n t d l f f o r enca between the two poems i s t h e manner i n wl-iich Herrick r e l a t e s youth t n Sp r ing and f l o w e r ' s . Thls will be d e a l t with l a t e r .

2 3 Reri Jonson, eC., .Tohn A o l l ~ n d e r ( L s u r e l , 1961). P . 50.

24 Jonson l s l i n e s t r u c t u r e may w e l l be employed for this purpose .

'5 Ben .ionson, op. c i t . , p . 1\9.

2R "clennly-wnntonesse" see s e c t i o n on The Argument of His Book. --

29 Geoffrey Walton, " ~ h e Cava l i e r P c ~ t n , " i n F'rom D o n n e t o Marvel.1, n d . Hori-s Ford ( P e l i c a n , 19621, p . 164.

30 "Fish" i n t h e s e t imes had many sexua l over tones such a s female g e n i t a l s , n l o o s e woman, n t c . , s e e E. P a r t r i d g e , Shake- sDea re l s Bawdy, N.Y., 1060. Perhaps t h e poem r e f e r s t o t ' i ~ a t t r a c t i o n o f J u l i a ' s f l u i d i t y i n t h e f u l l e s t sense . In Jor inna t h e r e a r e 8130 sexual ove r tones . -

R o l l i n , p . 87.

32 S . Musgrove, - The TJniverse o f Robert He r r i ck , Auckland Un ive r s i t y Col lege , B u l l e t i n Fo. 38, ~ e r i e ; l i , ~ o ~ . Musgrove does , I t h i n k o v e r s t a t e h i s c a s e , b u t h i s p o i n t i s wel l made.

I I A. G i l b e r t , Robert HerrlcZ on Lea th , " 14 .L.%. , V (1944 )

~ u s h , op. c i t , , p . 118.

Nusqrove, op. c i t . , p. 5 .

The Complete Po-, p. 11.

Moorman, p. 156.

EOTES ( con t . ) 18 ' 3 0 t h Cleanth Brooks i n The Well J roupht Urn, and S .

Musgrove i n The TTniverse o f ---9 Robert Her r ick g ive much more d e t a i l e d exn lana t ions than t h e scoDe o f t h i s p a p e r can a f f o r d .

39 H o l l i n , op. c i t . , p. ? h e

'lo Cleanth Brooks, The Well Wrought Urn ex York, 1947), P * 71 .

42 - On J u l l . a l s Recovery, f o r example.

43 Musgrove i s r e f e r r i n g he re t o t h e "Hose of Sharon, from To H i s Sav iou r , a Chi ld ; a P re sen t by a Ch i ld , -- -

Go n r e t t v c h i l d . and bea re t h i s Flower TI& thy'' l i t t . 7 . e ' ~ a v i o u r ; And t e l l H i m by t h a t Bud now blown He i s t h e Rose of Sharon known . . .

h4 Musgrove, p . 31.

45 I n some unys he i s c l o s e r t o Nno-Stoicism bu t t h i s p h i l o s - ophy i s Informed by C h r j s t i a n humanism an(> ampl i f i ed by t h e a f f i r m a t ion of natural . ism. Moderation 3 s ~ e r h a 7 s t h e s i n g l e most importsnt t e x e t of h i s ~ h i l o s o p h y .

' l h R o l l i n , pp. 171-2.

'17 It i s of i n t e r e s t c e rn ing Her r i ck ' s it r e l i g i o u s v e r s e i n h i s d e r r i c k ' s , His Anthem, t r i p a r t i t e s t r u c t u r e , cou r se , t h e s e a r e t r a d

perhaps t h a t , a p a r t from an a s i d e co anyf' on page 1 3 7 , Martz i gno re s E e r r i book, The Poetry o f F e d i t a t i o n , a l t h t o Chri.st on t h e Crossg, ha s a d i s t i --

a s h a s A n Oct,e, o r Psalme, t o God. O f i t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s not n e c e s s a r i l y

r e l i a n t upon medi t a t ive t r a d i t i o n s .

4R R o l l i n , p. 7b.

'' T.S. E l i o t , Se l ec t ed Prose (Penguin, 1 9 5 5 ) , p . 22 .

50 i b i d . , p . 22 .

A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPW

Aiken, P . , The I n f l u e n c e o f t h e L a t i n --- E l e g i s t s . . . -- 1600-1650, w i t h p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e t o Rober t H e r r i c k , Orono, Maine, - - -- 1932.

Bust-, Douglas , Zrg l i sh L i t e r a t u r e ---- i n t h e E a r l i e r S e v e n t e e n t h -- C e n t u r x , New York , 1 9 6 2 . --

Brooks , C l e a n t h . 'llhe :.jell Wrought -- Urn 9 N e w York, 1 9 b 7 .

E l i o t , T . S . , S e l e c t e d P r o s e , Pengu in , 1955.

G i l b e r t , A. , "i iobert I i e r r i c k on h e a t h " M.L .k . , V , 19411.

H o l l a n d e r , J o h n , ed . , F3en Jonson , L a u r e l , 1961.

Luce-Smith, Edward, e d . , The Penguin Book o f E l i z a b e t h a n Verse Pengu in , 1965 . -- 9

M a r t z , L o u i s , The P o e t r v o f M e d i t a t i o n , Y a l e , 1.962.

Max P a t r i c k , J . , The Complete Poems o f Rober tT- fe r r i c k , m c h o r , 1963.

Xoorman, F.W. , Robert H e r r i c k , London, 1919.

Musgrove , S . , The 1Jnlverse o f Rober t H e r r i c k , Auckland 1Jniversi . ty Z o l l e g e , Bull-et i n ~ o x 3 8 , S e r i e s 4 , 1950.

P a r t r i d g e , E r i c , Shakespea re --- ' s Bawdx, New York , 196C.

Rober t 3 e r r i c k New York, 1966. R o l l i n , H o ~ e r B., , I t

h s l t o n , G e o f f r e y , "The C a v a l i e r P o e t s , i n From donne t o Marvel1 e d . B o r i s F o r d , P e n g u i n , 1962 . --'

k i t h e r s p o o n , A.P l . , and jv'arnke, F.J . , s e l e c t e d and e d . , S e v e n t e e n t h Centurv P r o s e a n ? Poet= , Mew York, 1963. - c--

PAPER 111.

PATRICK W H I T E ' S FOUR PLUS I N T H E LIGHT OF H I S NOVELS:

SOME STRUCTURAL PROBLEMS

It may come a s a s u r p r i s e t o some people, t h a t Pa t r i ck

White, bes t known as a n o v e l i s t , and with such successes i n

t h i s f i e l d as Voss, The Tree of Man and The Aunt's S t o r y ,

should turn h i s a t t e n t i o n t o wr i t ing plays. The reasons for

t h i s a r e open t o specula t ion . Perhaps t h e dramatic a r t appear-

ed a s a chal lenge - a new kind of c r e a t i v e d i s c i p l i n e i n which

he could express more r e a d i l y h i s a r t i s t i c d r ive .

However, from a l l accounts he has been cons tant ly i n t e r e s -

t ed i n t h e t h e a t r e , f o r he was w r i t i n g revue sketches f o r a

shor t time i n pre-war London f o r Herbert ~ a r j e o n . ' Also of

s ign i f i cance i s the f a c t t h a t The Ham Funeral was w r i t t e n in

1947, a t an e a r l y s tage i n White's careep a s a wr i te r . ' It i s ,

then , l e s s s u r p r i s i n g t h a t they were w r i t t e n than t h a t they a r e

a s successfu l a s they a re i f we consider t h e absolu te au thor i ty

which a w r i t e r has i n terms of a novel and t h e more o b j e c t i v e

c o n t r o l , by comparison, which a playwright must exerc ise over

The main c r i t i c a l problem i n approaching White's p lays

seems t o concentrate i n the area of s t r u c t u r e . It appears

t h a t t h e p lays have conf'used some c r i t i c s because of t h r e e

important and i n t e r r e l a t e d d i f f i c u l t i e s . F i r s t of a l l , the

informing philosophy of the plays i s one which i s very c lose

t o the Absurdist c o n c e ~ t i o n of t h e human condit ion. Most of

h i s novels a r e a l s o concerned with an e x i s t e n t i a l viewpoint

and these b e l i e f s e n t e r i n t o the p lays . However it seems t h a t

'dhite i s content t o use a modified "formula" play t o convey

these ideas. A t h i r d and f u r t h e r complication a r i s e s from

t h e f a c t t h a t White t h e n o v e l i s t i n unwi l l ing t o change t o t a l l y

i n t o 'dhite t h e playwright. Because of t h i s , some aspects of

h i s a r t i s t i c p o s i t i o n as a nove l i s t e n t e r i n t o t h e dramatic

form of the p lays .

There a r e occasions i n a l l of t h e Four plays3 by Pa t r i ck

White where i t i s poss ib le t o sense t h a t the c rea to r i s loa th

t o l e t h i s c r e a t i o n l i v e of i t s own accord. In f a c t , Xhite i s

opposed t o t h e d i rec to r -o r i en ted p lays which carve a plag t o

s u i t a p a r t i c u l a r product ion, "1t i s no s e c r e t t h a t he (White)

i s more r e l u c t a n t than most w r i t e r s f o r t h e t h e a t r e t o a l t e r

a p lay s c r i p t once i t has achieved a form with which he i s

s a t i s f i e d . " 4

In h i s novels a s i n h i s p lays , White i s deeply concerned

with s t r u c t u r e . Par t of t h e uncomfortable nature of White's

l a t e r novels i s the impress ion i s t i c manner i n which he s h i f t s

suddenly, bu i ld ing i n what appears a t f i r s t t o be a s e r i e s of

d i s j o i n t e d parts. This i s l a rge ly a r e s u l t of h i s keen

awareness of t h e fragmentary and inchoate na tu re of ex is tence

and of the i r r a t i o n a l un ive r se i n which man l i v e s . The

r e a d e r , a s the audience, must cons tant ly make the e f f o r t t o

r e l a t e and i n t e r p r e t the fragments i n t o the broad o u t l i n e of

t h e whole. I n the l a t e novels , White demands an inc reas ing ,

s e n s i t i v e a t t e n t i o n from h i s r eaders , and i n h i s p lays , i n

p a r t i c u l a r , The Ham Funeral , t h e audience must be prepared

t o accept movements i n and out of var ious moods. The scene

with t h e two o ld l a d i e s i s a case i n p o i n t . a h i l e I t may be

c l a s s i f i e d a s an i n t e r l u d e and bea r s some vague r e l a t i o n t o

t h e r e s t of t h e play i n t h e r e fe rence t o t h e dead f o e t u s , it

i s more d i s t r a c t i n g than advantageous t o t h e plag a s a whole.

It i s an excursion, it seems i n t o the philosophy of the

t h e a t r e of t h e absurd which draws t h e a u d ~ e n c e f o r a b r i e f

moment i n t o something c lose t o t h e i r r a t i o n a l humour and

horror of an e x i s t e n t i a l universe .

Rut although the plag i s concerned with t h e Young Man's

r e a l i s a t i o n of h i s a l i e n a t i o n , t h e t o t a l context of t h i s b r i e f

scene i s wi th in a p lay which approximates na tura l i sm a t many

po in t s . The audience i s drawn i n t o an i r r a t i o n a l world and

then re turned t o a p lay which f o r t h e most p a r t r e l i e s on the

s tandard p r a c t i c e s of the well-made p l a g . The switch would,

I t h i n k , confuse most audlences, because t h i s demand f o r

c r i t i c a l viewing depends f o r i t s success on a h ighly s o ~ h i s t -

i c a t e d audience. It i s p l a i n t h a t 'khite be l i eves i n the a r t -

i s t i c i n t e g r i t y of t h e p l a y ' s s t r u c t u r e .

He i s q u i t e ready t o a d j u s t l i n e s t h a t a c t o r s f i n d d i f f i c u l t y i n speaking, o r t o make small adjustments t o t h e flow of a scene; but he r e s i s t s f i rmly any attempt by a producer t o make d r a s t i c c u t s o r rearrangements. White does not see t h e a c t u a l wr i t ing of p lays a s a cooperative t a s k , though he i s c l e a r l y f a sc in - a t e d , a s any t r u e playwright must be , by t h e mechanics of t r a n s a t i n g wr i t t en words i n t o speech and a c t i o n . 3

This , of course, i s a fundamental problem, but t h i s tech-

nique obaiouslg l e g i s l a t e s aga ins t the b e s t poss ib le chances

f o r a p l a y ' s success i n t h e t h e a t e r . In the prologue t o The

Ham F'uneral, t h e Young Man t e l l s us t h a t the play i s "a piece 6 about e e l s , " and i f t h e audience d id not recognise t h a t t h i s

i s one of White's f a v o r i t e images of l i f e , of t h e b l i n d ,

phys ica l , t w i s t i n g and in ter twining of humanity i n a search

of a purpose, we could search i n vain throughout the r e s t of

the p lay f o r i t s s ign i f i cance . There i s a l s o something q u i t e

se l f -consc ious lg defensive about t h e Young Mnnls s t e r n pro-

nouncement t o t h e audience concerning t h e p lay . robab ably a

number of you a r e wondering by now whether t h i s i s your kind

of p lay . I am s o r r y t o have t o announce the management won't

refund any money. You must simply s i t it o u t , and see whether

you c a n ' t recognize some of the forms t h a t w i l l squirm before

you i n t h i s mad, muddy mess of eels . ' ' (p. 15) .

I f it i s an attempt a t "a l i ena t ion" i n the s t y l e of the

prologue t o B r e c h t l s The Caucasian Chalk C i r c l e , it has l i m -

i t e d success. The audience i s committed t o fol low t h e a c t i o n

through t h e focus of %he Young Man, and h i s comments on

aspec t s of the situation detach him i n pa r t from the s i t u a t i o n ,

while t h e audience remains l a r g e l y subjec t t o t h e Young Man's

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . In one sense t h e Young Man i s t h e nove l i s t

weighing t h e events f o r the audience and debating t h e i r

impl ica t ions . Yet i n o t h e r ways he i s obviously an u n r e l i a b l e

l e a d e r f o r an audience t o follow. His aes the t i c i sm, f o r

example, seems forced ,

'&en I was a bog, I mooned about i n a garden. I t r i e d t o f i t words t o the sounds of na ture and the shape of l i l a c s , ( p . 21)

in c o n t r a s t with the l and lady ' s c o l l o q u i a l re ference t o him

on the next l i n e a s having "a screw loose. ' ' A t yet another

po in t e a r l y i n the p lay , the Young Man asks himself , "Am I

t h e chorus t o t h i s p lay?" (p. 28) Unfortunately f o r t h e

audience, h i s answers not only f a i l t o c l a r i f y h i s s i t u a t i o n

but o f f e r y e t another d i f f i c u l t r e fe rence , "NO one ever

cursed the chorus. Serpents only s l i t h e r from the sea t o

s t r a n g l e those who a r e b i g enough." (p. 28). , u n l e s s t h e

audience grasps the f a c t t h a t t h i s p lay i s a dramatic attempt

a t a Kunstlerroman i n which t h e theme i s t h e s t rugg le of t h e

a r t i s t f o r h i s self-hood. Most of t h e Young Man's longer

speeches a r e an attempt t o exp la in himself t o t h e audience,

and while t h e play has some aspec t s of dramatic na tura l i sm, it

i s c l e a r t h a t White in tends us t o leave the na tura l i sm and

l i s t e n t o t h i s d u a l i t y of t h e main cha rac te r . The audience i s

asked t o l i s t e n t o t h e Young Man as both chorus and a r t i s t i c

viewpoint, commenting a t one time on t h e meaning of the p lay ,

and a t another time d i r e c t i n g our emotional responses towards

h i s a r t i s t i c development. The r e s u l t i s somewhat confusing.

Furthermore, t o a l a r g e degree, t h e p lay i s not "dramatic" in

the sense t h a t t h e cha rac te r s a r e engaged with each o the r i n

a c l a s h of motive with motive, but "dramatic" i n the exis tence

of a r e l a t i o n s h i p between the Young Man and t h e audience. A t

t imes even t h i s i s tenuous. The p lag i s more l i k e a novel i n

t h a t t h e tens ion and the a c t i o n tend t o be i n t e r n a l i s e d within

the Young Man. But ins t ead of dramatising t h i s i n t e r n a l

a c t i o n , White tends t o r e l y too much upon t h e Young Wants

s o l i l o q u i e s t o communicate t h i s c o n f l i c t .

As a p lay , Tbe Ham Funeral has a f f i n i t i e s with the form

of a novel. Wagne Booth p o i n t s out t h a t the novel seeks

11 rea l i sm of i n a world i n which r e a l i t y i s be-

11 coming more and more ambiguous, r e l a t i v i s t i c , and mobile. 119

Consequently, it s a c r i f i c e s "something of the rea l i sm of

assessment of o t h e r genres . "lo P a r t i c u l a r l y i n drama, t h i s

ambiguity needs s i m p l i f i c a t i o n .

Some of the d i f f i c u l t y i n following t h e g i s t of The Ham

Funeral i s a r e s u l t of t h i s novel i s t -dramat is t ambivalence i n

t h e author . The p l a y ' s complications and apparent paradoxes

a r e those of a nove l i s t who has not g e t developed t h e r e f i n -

ing process n e c e s s a q f o r drama. As Wagne Booth says,

A plag i s l i k e l y t o d e ~ e n d f o r i t s success on a consensus e s t ab l i shed imnediately and with- out r e f l e c t i o n : without some s o r t of commun- i t y gathered toge the r i n one s p o t , t h e t h e a t r e cannot su rv ive , and even the most d i s tu rb ing p lays a r e almost always b u i l t upon e a s i l y grasped, commonly accepted norms, i n con t ras t with t h e complex and t roub l ing values of much f i c t i o n . What i s more, any un in ten t iona l ambigui t ies t h e playWright may leave on h i s play a r e t o some ex ten t removed by a good pro- duct ion; each d i r e c t o r imposes h i s in te rp re - t a t i o n by de f in ing , with h i s unnumerable

devices of product ion, the p o t e n t i a l l y ambiguous elements. 11

White, a s has been noted, o b j e c t s t o the in te r fe rence of

a producer. IJnfortunatelg The Ham f ine r81 c e r t a i n l y s u f f e r s -7

from a s u r f e i t of ambigui t ies .

It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h e c lose r e l a t i o n s h i p s

between The Ham Funeral v is -a-v is White's development a s an

a r t i s t , and James Joyce Is comments on t h e r e l a t i o n of an a r t -

i s t t o h i s m a t e r i a l s , a s expounded by Stephen i n P o r t r a i t of

the A r t i s t a s a Young Man. I n the l y r i c , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s

immediate, The simplest verba l ges tu re u t t e r e d by a man,

"more conscious of t h e i n s t a n t of emotion than of himself a s

f e e l i n g emotion. " " The s implest e p i c a l form i s seen emerging

out of l y r i c a l l i t e r a t u r e when the a r t i s t prolongs and broods

upon himself a s t h e cent re of an e p i c a l event . 1 8 1 3

For Stephen Dedalus, i f no t Joyce, the dramatic form " i s

reached when the pe r sona l i ty of the a r t i s t , having passed i n t o

the n a r r a t i o n , a r r i v e s a t t h e s tage where "the v i t a l i t y which

has flowed and eddied round each person f i l l s every person

with such v i t a l fo rce t h a t he or she assumes a proper and

in tang ib le a e s t h e t i c l i f e . 1 1 1 4 The a r t i s t ' s pe r sona l i ty i s

"impersonalisedt' and " re f ines i t s e l f out of ex is tence . 1115

Despite t h e p o a s i b i l i t g t h a t Joyce was employing a

degree of i rony i n g iv ing t h e s e a e s t h e t i c p r i n c i p l e s t o 16

Stephen Dedalus, t h e genera l po in t , I th ink , holds t r u e .

White may not have, a t the time of w r i t i n g The Ham Funeral ,

a r r ived a t t h a t s t age of a r t i s t i c development necessary f o r

c r e a t i n g a p lay i n complete and unadulterated dramatic form.

While i t i s necessary i n a l l l i t e r a t u r e t h a t a w r i t e r avoid

t h e f a m i l i a r and r e g e t i t i v e p a t t e r n of a supposed genre ,

the t o t a l l y novel form will be u n i n t e l l i g i b l e - i s indeed unthinkable. The genre r ep resen t s , so t o speak, a sum of a e s t h e t i c devices a t hand, a v a i l a b l e t o t h e w r i t e r , and already i n t e l l i g i b l e t o the r eader (audience 1. The good w r i t e r p a r t l y conforms t o e genre a s it e x i s t s , p a r t l y s t r e t c h e s i t . I?

'uJhitels p lays represent t h i s s t rugg le t o un i fy form and

context .

A nove l i s t en te r ing t h e f i e l d of drama must make c e r t a i n

r a d i c a l changes i n h i s approach. He faces the problem of a

l i m i t a t i o n of time and space, f o r although a novel can order

and i n t e g r a t e vast a reas of experience, s implifying problems

of communication by modifying comments, a play must work with-

out the a u t h o r ' s over t presence. It must f i n d "short c u t s t o

the imagination i n order t o e x i s t . White faced t h i s prob-

lem i n h i s adapta t ion of A Cheery Soul and h i s so lu t ions were

not always e f f e c t i v e .

In a p lay , t h e dramat is t must employ a more d i r e c t sens i -

b i l i t y because he does not have the opportuni ty f o r l e i s u r e l y

expos i t ion or a nhi losophica l d e s c r i p t i o n of a s t a t e of cons-

c iousness . The p lay must grow from t h e ground up and t h e

s t a t e of consciousness must come a l i v e on the s tage . ?he

economy of t h i s dramatic v i t a l i t y i s of g r e a t importance i n

t h a t a cha rac te r i s "dramatized impulse" r a t h e r than "a doss-

i e r o f observed f a c t . "19 I f t h e ~ e i s one key def ic iency i n

White I s plays it i s i n t h i s a rea .

Perhaps one of the reasons i s t h a t t o a l a r g e extent he

i s moving phi losophica l ly towards t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e Theatre

of the Absurd without being a b l e t o break through the super-

s t r u c t u r e of n a t u r a l i s t t h e a t r e . As h i s novels, h i s plays

a r e deeply concerned with an e x i s t e n t f a 1 universe wi th in which

n e i t h e r l o g i c , nor t h e i n t e l l e c t o r emotions w l l l p r e v a i l .

Yet t h e p lays r e ly l a r g e l y upon n a t u r a l i s t i c conventions,

with a few i m a ~ i n a t i v e t r i c k s t o convey t h e dominant theme of

an absurd human condi t ion . In a sense they examine new prob-

lems with old techniques - t h e new wine cannot be contained

i n t h e old b o t t l e s .

There i s some evidence t o show t h a t k h i t e was aware of

the d i f f i c u l t i e s he was fac ing i n The Ham Funeral . I n the

programme no tes on i t s f i r s t production i n 1961, Nhite w r i t e s ,

11 It i s not a n a t u r a l i s t i c p l a y . The ch ie f problem was how t o

pro jec t a h ighly i n t r o s p e c t i v e cha rac te r on the s t age without do This i s d i f f i c u l t y enough when impeding dramatic progress .

t h e p l a y l a r g e l y depends upon the Young Man f o r i t s success.

His r o l e i s a complex one demanding t h e dramatic p resen ta t ion

of a somewhat p r i g g i s h , embryonic a e s t h e t e . With t h a t r o l e

come a l l t he dangers involved of a l i e n a t i n g t h e audience ' s

smpa thy f o r him. White's s o l u t i o n s ,

I have t r i e d t o overcome t h i s , p a r t l y through the c o n f l i c t between The Young Man and those human symbols M r . and Mrs. Lusty, the f i g u r e s i n the basement with whom he w r e s t l e s i n h i s a t tempt t o come t o terms with l i f e , p a r t l y through the dialogues between t h e Young Man 21 and h i s anima, the G i r l i n the room oppos i te .

need examination. The p l a y ' s s t ag ing i s some help. Physic-

a l l v , the Young Man moves between t h e upper l e v e l s on the

s t a g e , r ep resen t ing the I d e a l , and t h e lower l e v e l o r base-

ment, represent ing the animal and i n s t i n c t u a l . The t ens ion

wi th in t h e Young Man i s thus s p a t i a l l y p a r a l l e l l e d by t h e

phvsl.cal appearance of the s t age . The G i r l i n t h e upper l e v e l ,

a s Jungian "soul-image" or "anima" and t h e Young Man c a r r y on

a conversat ion, it i s t r u e , but t h e i r dialogue i s a discuss-

ion of " ideas, " and d ive r se ones a t t h a t .

A t o t h e r t imes it seems t h a t White i s seduced by t h e

f i n e t u r n of phrase , the "poet ic" o r " l i t e r a r y " s ta tement ,

t o the detriment of the dramatic immediacy of the p lay .

G i r l . . . t h e bough raps out t h e answer on - the window. It i s even i n the basement . . . . where t h e l s n d l o r d t s t e e t h have l e f t t h e i r b i t e i n t h e s t a l e c r u s t , and po ta to pee l ings a r e o r a c l e s t o those who l e a r n how t o read them. ( p . 3 2 )

Fourth Rela t ive . . t h e n e t t l e i s s i l e n t t h a t screeched i n the g r i t t y wind. ( p . 5 9 ) .

The audience would, I t h i n k , understandably, l o s e i t s way i n

these l a r g e l y metaphysical s ta tements ,

Young Man. Once I almost wrote a p lay , i n which t h e s i t u a t i o n s were too s u b t l e t o express .

G i r l . ( i r o n i c a l ) But t h e a t t i t u d e s were your - own, and would have given you endless p leasure . ( P . 5 5 )

Yet t h e g i r l , o r a l t e r - e ~ o , fo rces the Young Man back

down t o t h e basement, t o t h e r e a l i t y of l i f e and i t s bas ic

d r ives .

Young Man ( t o G i r l ) You, too! You're forc ing me back t o

t h e dead l and lo rd . . . t y i n g them t o m e . . . l i k e a g r e a t

weight. (p . 55-61 A t t h i s s t age , t h e Young Man i a not pre-

pared t o stand alone i n a universe which he i n incapable of

comprehending.

The moral educa t ion of t h e Young Man must c r e a t e i n him

a new awa-reness of t he l i f e around him. White a t t empt s t o do

t h i s by b u i l d i n g t e n s i o n between t h e Young Man's a r t i s t i c

p r e t e n s i o n s and h i s avowed iqnorance of l i f e , "The answer i s

e i t h e r tremendously s imple , o r tremendously involved. But

e i t h e r way, i t something I s t i l l f a i l t o g rasp ." ( p . 21 )

The "answer" i s not wit ,hin t he realms o f t h e Jungian

I' soul-imaget ' t o answer, bu t i n t he i n t u i t i v e unders tanding of

t h e l a n d l o r d . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e l a n d l o r d i s p a r t o f t h e

lower a n i m a l i t g , y e t t r anscends t h i s by h i s i n t u i t i v e under-

s t and ing of i t s n a t u r e . But even h e r e ' White de taches t h e

Young Man from t h e p l a y , f o r t h e Young Man's cotments e x i s t

bo th f o r himself and t h e audience.

Young Man Is t h i s a t ragedy? O r i s it two f a t people i n a basement t u r n i n g on each o t h e r ? (P. 27)

In t h i s scene t h e land lady i s t a l k i n g t o W i l l Lusty bu t

he i s t a l k i n g t o no one i n p a r t i c u l a r , and t h e Young Man, l i k e

a chorus o r a novelist-commentator, sneaks a t odds wi th bo th

t h e o t h e r s .

Landlady I can t a s t e t h e whelks! I can hea r t h e f l a r e s ! You can see r i g h t i n s i d e of a person by t h e l i g h t of ace ty l ene f l a r e s .

Landlord I s i t ' h e r e , I am con ten t . L i f e , a t l a s t , i s wherever a man tappens t o be. This louse i s l i f e . I watch i t f i l l wi th l i g h t , a n ' darken. These a r e my days and n i g h t s . The s o l i d 'house s p r e a d i n ' above my head. Only once i n a whi le I remember t h e naked bod ie s . . . Knott ing t o g e t h e r . . . k i l l i n g themselves . . and one another . . . Bloody deluded!

Youn Man He's a s e n s i t i v e b e a s t , t h i s l and- i n s 1 e h i s unde rc lo thes and I d i s l i k e d him. lord*

I l o a t h e d him. I was almost a f r a i d . Perhaps t h i s i s why. (P. 2 7 )

Also i n t h l s s e c t i o n important a s p e c t s o f the c h a r a c t e r s '

d i f f e r e n t a t t i t u d e s towards l i f e a r e brought out c l e a r l y ;

Alma Lus ty ' s p h y s i c a l i t y , W i l l L u s t y ' s con ten ted and i n t u i t -

i v e myst ic ism, and t h e Young Man's sh r ink ing se l f -concern .

liven though t h e l a n d l o r d g i v e s t h e answer t o t h e Young

Man's q u e s t i o n s ,

Landlord ( l augh ing i n h i s t h r o a t , speaking not p a r t i c u l a r l y t o h i s w i f e , spread ing h i s hand on t h e t a b l e - t o p ) This t a b l e i s l o v e . . i f you can g e t t o know it . . . (p . 27 )22

It i s on ly a f t e r t h e l a n d l o r d ' s d e a t h t h a t t h e Young Man r e a l -

i s e s h l s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o unders tand f o r h imse l f .

Youn Man ( a p p a l l e d ) It depends on me! ( i n rev*&(p. 3 6 )

From t h i s po in t i n t he p l ay t h e l a n d l a d y ' s p h y s i c a l i t y i s

accen tua t ed . The r e l a t i v e s who a t t e n d t h e ham f u n e r a l a r e

s t r a n g e i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c c r e a t u r e s , f igments , a s White s ays ,

"of t h e conscience wi th i t s m u l t i p l e forebodings . lt2j 1n one

sense t hey a r e remin iscen t of t he k inds o f type f i g u r e prev-

a l e n t i n t h e t h e a t r e of t h e Absurd. They e n l a r g e upon Alma

L u s t y ' s p a s t and r e i n f o r c e W i l l Lus ty ' s b e l i e f t h a t "a human

b e i n 1 must purge ' irnself of ' i s own e v i l . I' ( p . 49 ) The

Young Man i n s e n t e n t i o u s and t h e l a n d l a d y ' s moods and out-

b u r s t s i s o l a t e h e r from t h e unders tanding of e i t h e r t h e r e l a t -

i v e s o r t h e Young Man. Paradoxica l ly t h e Young Man becomes

f o r Alma Lusty a l t e r n a t e l y h e r p a s t l o v e r and h e r dead son.

Her l ove f o r bo th of t h e s e p r o j e c t i o n s i s uniformly phys i ca l .

Motivated by an i n n a t e d r i v e f o r r ep roduc t ion which she m i s -

u n d e r s t ~ n d s a s " love , " Alma Lusty unwi t t i ng ly f o r c e s upon t h e

meaningless cycle of b i r t h , copulat ion and death t o which he

i s subjec t .

During the l and lady ' s desnerate at tempts t o communicate

1 t with t h e Young Man through t h e f l e s h , h i s c ry o f , I saw

your f a c e , " (p . 6 3 ) repeated t h r e e t imes i s i n d i c a t i v e of h i s

r e a l i s a t i o n t h a t he personal ly i s involved i n t h e physical

world, and t h a t , ". . . f o r t h e f i r s t time, one face emerges

from the crowd. Now, f o r the f i r s t time he cannot p lay the

onlooker but i s a c t u a l l y involved i n ano the r ' s needs. ais

c ry i s t h a t of an invaded ~ e l f h o o d . ' ~ ~ Also implied i s the

Young Man's r e a l i s a t i o n of feminine sexua l l tg . "I saw your

face. It was h o r r i b l e ! " - (p . 6 3 )

After t h e Young Man's sexual encounter with t h e landlady,

he r e j e c t s t h e f l e s h a s inadequate, but h i s s p i r i k a l v i rg in-

i t y has been l o s t and as the g i r l t e l l s him, "on many fu tu re

occasions y o u ' l l wres t le with t h e f i g u r e s i n t h e basement

It . . . (p. 69) In understanding and forg iv ing Mrs. Lusty, the

Young Man f u r t h e r r e a l i s e s tha t h i s poe t i c philosophy of

self-concern i n the form of the g i r l must be faced. Breaking

down the G i r l ' s door, he f i n d s only a spray of l i l a c , t h e

l a s t remnant of "the pa le e x q u i s i t e ve r ses of adolescence t t

( p . 7 0 ) .

However, a t t h i s important dramatic p o i n t , the audience

i s again ca l l ed upon t o l i s t e n t o a sol i loquoy by t he Young

Man which examines the s i t u a t i o n i n N a r c i s s i s t i c terms,

thereby l o s i n g some of the impact previously made. The

commentator in t rudes . The appearance next of the r e a l G i r l ,

t h a t i s , P h y l l i s P i t h e r , the p a l e , c a t a r r h a l and r e a l inhab-

i t a n t of the G i r l ' s room then switches t h e audience back t o

t h e main t r a i n of the p l a y ' s thought. The Young Man, now

com3assionate, and with some understanding of h i s own a l i e n -

a t i o n i s prepared t o leave. Scenes 9 and 1 0 , i n which the

Young Mnn l eaves , have an impressive and d e l i c a t e touch,

The Young Man i s coaposed , and the cha rac te r of Mrs. Lusty

comes t o l i f e on t h e s tage with g r e a t v i t a l i t y . It i s chur l -

i s h and a l i t t l e p u r i t a n n i c a l t o suggest t h a t , " I f N r s . Lusty,

s lobbering among h e r cockroaches, r ep resen t s the l i f e t h e

Young Man i s requi red t o accept , what, one wants t o p r o t e s t ,

i s t h e r e t o r e v e r e , why should anyone want i t on these

terms p ,125

White i s simply s t a t i n g t h a t the f l e s h i s merely the

f l e s h , a l l u r i n g or h o r r i b l e , and must be accepted f o r i t s e l f .

Mrs. Lusty 's l i f e does have a q u a l i t y of love and warmth,

es t ranged a s i t i s i n an impersonal and p o i n t l e s s ex i s t ence ,

and i t i s important t h a t she i s n o t , l i k e the Rela t ives and

the G i r l , a symbolic f i g u r e . m i t e ' s poin t i s p rec i se ly

t h a t the f l e s h i s not symbolic and t o argue a s Thelma Herring

does,

A t a purely symbolic l e v e l one cannot impeach the moral t h a t the Young Man must come t o terms with t h e f l e s h ; but a t a symbolic l e v e l one would expect t h e f l e s h t o be made a l i t t l e more a l l u r i n g , 26

i s t o miss the point e n t i r e l y .

However, t h i s i s one of the d i f f i c u l t i e s of zhe Ham

Funeral which seems t o demand study r a t h e r than performance.

Although the s e t v i s u a l l y p resen t s the d i f fe rence between t h e

r a r e f i e d atmosphere of the upper l a y e r s and t h e hot under-

growth of t h e lower l a g e r s t h e r e i s a danger t h a t t h e main

pro tagonis t w i l l not succeed i n developing s u f f i c i e n t tens ion

between the two i n any meaningful dramatic manner o the r than

i n wordy self-contemplation and commentary. Of course, t h e

p lay i s Dart17 about the p re ten t ious speech of the embryonic

p o e t , and Xhite a t t imes c o n t r a s t s t h e Young M m l s speech

with one of h i s e a r t h i e r cha rac te r s i n order t o d e f l a t e the

Young Man's pseudo-prophetic commentaries. But the f a u l t

rema i n s .

In The Season a t .- - S a r s a p a r i l l a , . - t h e nove l i s t s t i l l

remains i n the play i n t h e cha rac te r of Hog, t h e schoolteacher.

He i s an art ist-manque trapped i n t h e Procustean bed of sub-

urban mediocrity and embittered by i t . The absurd i ty of

ex is tence i n "Sarsapar i l l a " pervades the whole play and i s

l ightened by no m a r k of understanding o r h i n t of change.

Despite h i s phi losophic viewpoint, t h e play i s s t r u c t u r a l l y

"well-made. " A 1 1 of the o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s a re given n a t u r a l -

i s t i c speech, but Roy i n t e r r u p t s t h e a c t i o n too f requent ly t o

a c t a s the mouthpiece of t h e author ,

The comments of the schoolteacher become t h e i n t e r r u p t i o n with the r e s u l t t h a t we tend t o wince whenever he comes forward t o address t h e audience. White has h e r e , I think, under- estimated h i s audience o r perhaps h i s own powers of n a t u r a l i s t i c expos i t ion , f o r each of t h e schoolteacher s d i r e c t comments appear redundant : they t e l l u s what we have already understood with p e r f e c t c l a r i t y from the act ion.27

Like t h e Young Man, he i s p a r t chorus, p a r t novelist-commen-

t a t o r , r e f l e c t i n g on t h e commonplace a c t i v i t i e s of t h e t h r e e

f a m i l i e s , ''as a t eacher , a shadowy p a r t i c i p a n t i n them, a s

an a r t i s t a n d observer; and a s a young man a f f e c t e d by them. 1128

Yet Xhite i s too much of an a r t i s t t o leave ROY merely

a s a chronic commentator, s tanding "against the proscenium

a rch in h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a t t i t u d e f o r observing. I' (p . 173)

The school teacher ' s pre tens ions a r e i r o n i c a l l y exposed i n

h i s a t t i t u d e and behaviour concerning J u l i a ' s death. Ju l i a

p inpoin ts h i s c h a r a c t e r ,

,Tulia ( c o l d l y ) I have never given myself. Any more than you have ventured down , . . off the fence . . . i n t o l i f e . (p . 144)

He too belongs t o t h i s mediocre s e t t i n g of s t i f l e d emotions.

The b e s t he can o f f e r i n terms of personal involvement i s

money.

( c a l l i n g ) J u l i a ! I f you ' re shor t i n any was . . . . (P. 144)

With t h e r e s t of h i s c h a r a c t e r s , White succeeds b r i l l -

i a n t l y i n captur ing t h e t e p i d and p o i n t l e s s nature of Aust-

r a l i a n lower middle-class ex is tence . Wen Judy Pogson, the

p leasant young g i r l who s t u d i e s t h e v i o l i n a t the conservat-

orium, l a c k s t he courage t o s t r i v e f o r excel lence and her

pseudo- in te l lec tua l i sm f a l l s e a s i l y i n t o a promise of mundan-

i t y with Roy t h e p o s t a l c l e r k , who br ings volumes of Gibbon

a s cour t ing g i f t s . The th ree households a r e immersed i n

"the deadly aphorism of mediocrity by which S a r s a p a r i l l a n s

r u l e t h e i r l i v e s . ~ ~ 9 , Niceness, "Well t h a t ' s t h e way i t i s

( s e n t e n t i o u s ) G i r l 'va go t t o l e a r n t o be n i c e , t hen t h e y

marry some n i c e man. And have a l o t of l i t t l e b a b i e s , I'

(p . 124) norma l i t y , " I ' v e never known anybody who wasn ' t nor-

mal. Without t h e y were r e a l d i l l s , " ( p . 88) and a hundred

o t h e r mind le s s , s t i f l i n g p l a t i t u d e s which form t h e mediocre

f a b r i c of t h i s s o c i e t y . The p h i l o s o p h i c a l s t e p from t h i s

p l a y t o Wait ina f o r Godot seems minimal. S t r u c t u r a l l y , t h e

d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two p l a y s is enormous.

A s i n t h e o t h e r p l a y s , t h e s e t i s a l s o impor tan t . i ih i t e

employs t h e t h r e e houses s i d e by s i d e , and t h e i r i n h a b i t a n t s ,

a s a commentary on each o t h e r . Mavis t "dumb cow" f e r t i l i t y

c o n t r a s t s w i th Nola ' s f r u s t . r a t e d s t e r i l i t y , t h e n i g h t s o i l

ba l ances Rosedale , y e t e s s e n t i a l l y a l l t h e i n h a b i t a n t s l i v e

p u r p o s e l e s s l y . The women, t rapped i n t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l

houses , chorus t h e i r enslavement i n a manner which r e v e a l s

t h e i r c h a r a c t e r , a s we l l a s t h e i r mutual estrangement.

Mavis - Food, food . . , G e r t i e . . . food i s always t h e q u e s t i o n . . . Nola . . meals t o shove i n f r o n t of men - G e r t i e S t e a k , chops , chops , s t e a k , . . - Nola Meat Is a must f o r men . . wi th t h e j u i c e --

running ou t . . and a n i c e p i ece o f f a t t o g e t t h e i r tongues around.

Mavis Eggs a r e l i v e r y i n t h e end. G e r t i e I always sag: Educate them i n d a i n t i -

n e s s A n i c e s p a g h e t t i on t o a s t . O r beans . A l l t h i s meat! Da in t ine s s pays . . .

Whereas i n The Ham Funera l - s t a g e space i s used t o suPP-

lement p h y s i c a l l y t h e i n n e r confusion of t h e Young Man, i n

The Season a t S a r s a p a r i l l a , t h e t h r e e s e t s a r e on t h e same - l e v e l of me ~ n i n g l e s s e x i s t e n c e .

P a r a l l e l l i n g t h e emasculated emotions and eviscerated

n a t u r a l rhythms of t h e human be ings i n S a r s a p a r i l l a , i s t h e

background of r e a l n a t u r e i n t h e form of t h e b i t c h and i t s

a t t e n d a n t dogs. I n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t of t h e p l ay ,

' & i t e l s s a t i r e i s d i r e c t e d l a r g e l y a t ( f i r l i e Pogson and t h e

f r i g i d conformity which she imposes on l i f e . But Mavis, t o o ,

concurs wi th t h i s when she , " takes young Pippg i n hand, swath-

i ng h e r i n q u i r i n g mind i n S a r s a p a r i l l a n c o t t o n wool: '-Big

g i ~ l s don ' t t a l k about t h i n g s l i k e that. '" ( p , 123 ) 30

Although s u c c e s s f u l i n p a i n t i n g a broad p i c t u r e of t h i s

s o c i e t y and i t s t y p i c a l a t t i t u d e s , t h e a c t u a l focus of t h e

p l ay i s a l i t t l e confus ing . It seems t o l o s e something i n

i n t e n s i t y by i t s distribution of e f f e c t s over so many charac-

t e r s . A novel could conce ivab ly handle t h i s many i n a spec-

trum o f human e x i s t e n c e . The p lay spends i t s v i t a l i t y on

d i v e r s e p o i n t s . We could perhaps s e e Nola Bogle a s t h e touch-

s tone t o t h e whole p l ay though no t Roy Ch i ld s , whose r o l e a s

a commentat,or de t aches h i m from t h e a c t i o n . However, t h e

c h a r a c t e r who draws most o f t h e t h r e a d s t o g e t h e r i s Pippy.

It i s she who r e a l i s e s White ' s main theme, t h a t l i f e i s po in t -

l e s s s u b j e c t i o n t o oppress ive cont5-nuitg.

( n u r s i n g h e r head ) But i t s gunna beg in a g a i n . Cl ive and G i r l i e look a t h e r a g h a s t ) -

Clive and G i r l i e ( t o g e t h e r ) khen? Pippg In s i x months time G i r l i e (a lmost c r v i n g ) But it shou ldn ' t be

allowed ! Every s ix months. For eve r and eve r .

(P .

S i g n i f i c a n t l y , Pippy i s t h e on ly c h a r a c t e r who moves from

one house t o a n o t h e r ,

Unlike Roy, who necessary exper ience has embi t t e r ed ,

Pippg b r i n g s an innocence t o h e r obse rva t ions which removes

a l l b i t t e r n e s s from h e r f i r s t exper ience of White 's concep-

t i o n o f t h e " ~ i f e , Force. 'I Dramat ica l ly , she r e l a t e s t h e

t i t l e of t h e p l a g , t 'Seasonrt . . . , t o t h e p u r s u i t of t he

b i t c h by t he pack of dogs, and i t s human c o u n t e r p a r t s i n t h e

t h r e e houses , Mrs. Pogson c r e a t e s an a r t i f i c i a l f ~ c a d e of

?I n i c e n e s s " a g a i n s t t h e " ~ i f e Force , " which i s des t royed i n

Pippy by h e r obse rva t ion of Nola Boyle and Rowley Masson

behaving wi th animal s e x u a l i t y . However, even Mrs. Knott ' s

baby does n o t r e i n t e g r a t e f o r Pippy, a u n i v e r s e which s i g n i -

f i e s chaos.

I n t h e b i r t h o f Mavis1 c h i l d t h e n a t u r a l world i n t r u d e s

i n t o t h e s t e r i l i t y o f S a r s a p a r i l l a . Hut , a p a r t from Pippy

and Nola Boyle the r e s t of S a r s a p a r i l l a s e e s t h e b i r t h i n

terms o f "n iceness . " hhe ther t h e r e i s "acceptance and a s su r -

ance "31 about t h e c o n t i n u i t y of l i f e end whether t h e p l a y i s

s " c e l e b r a t ion"31 of t h i s c o n t i n u i t y i s deba t ab l e . P i p p y t s

s ta tement "Over, and o v e r , and over . For e v e r , and e v e r , and

e v e r . That I s n a tu re ! " (p . 1 7 6 ) r e v e a l s an unders tanding of

l a r g e r p r o p o r t i o n s t han s imply t h e b i t c h ' s season o f h e a t , o r

t h e c h i l d ' s b i r t h . Here, White i s r e f e r r i n g t o t h e t e r r i b l e

ener-gy of his concept ion of t h e l i f e f o r c e which consumes as

i t c r e a t e s . It i s r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e c h a r ~ c t e r o f A l m a Lusty

o f The Ham Funeral which, p a r a d o x i c a l l y , d e s t r o y s i n i t s d r i v e

t o f u l f i l i t s e l f . 32

I n The Season a t S a r s a p a r i l l a , Nola Boyle, l i k e A l m a

Lus ty , i s a. f r u s t r a t e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of White's "Life

Force , " middle aged and c h i l d l e s s . Her a d u l t e r y wi th Rowley

Masson i s t h e c e n t r a l a c t ion o f t h e p l a y bu t i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e

i s n o t immediately c l e a r . It would perhaps be s i m p l i s t i c t o

equa te Nola wi th t h e b i t c h , and Kowley Masson wi th t h e dogs

whose r e s n o n s i b i l i t i e s end wi th t he s exua l a c t , b u t t h e r e l a -

t i o n s h i p seems l o g i c a l . Nola Boyle s t a n d s a p a r t from t h e

o t h e r women i n t h e p l a y i n t h a t her s exua l responses a r e more

ak in t o t h a t of t h e n a t u r s l world. G i r l i e , Judy and Mavis

a r e e n t i r e l y S a r s a p a r i l l a n , and J u l i a ' s S a r s a p a r i l l a n g u i l t

l e a d s h e r t o k i l l h e r s e l f because of h e r pregnancy. Nola ' s

q u i l t i s t h a t o f S a r s a p a r i l l a bu t h e r exp lana t ion of i t ,

( A f t e r a pause , choking, running he r hands down h e r f l a n k s ) . I t ' s t h i s b l a s t e d body. I t ' s pu t t o g e t h e r wrong. I f your h i p s w a s t o work d i f f e r e n t . . . o r t h e r e w e r e t i t none o f t h o s e p u l s e s i n your t h r o a t ( look- i ng up a t t h e Pogson house, b i t t e r l y ) I b e t some women a r e n ' t a l l t h a t good. They j u s t haven ' t g o t t h e k ind o f g l ands i t t a k e s t o make a person go t o t h e pack. ( p , 150)

l e a d s away from t h e suburban hypermora l i ty t o an unders tand-

ing of i n d i v i d u a l s e n s u a l i t y , of t h e demands of t h e f l e s h i n

o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e Rosedale mora l i t y of G i r l i e Pogson.

'nlhite emphasises t h i s p o i n t by coun te rpo i s ing t h e seduc-

t i o n i n t h e Boyle household wi th t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e b i t c h

and t h e pack under the Pogson house. Nola, l i k e t h e b i t c h ,

"has never r e a l l y l i k e d men. She on ly needed them." (p . 1 2 8 )

S i m i l a r l y , Nola and t h e b i t c h a r e t r apped p h y s i c a l l y by t h e

i nna t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e i r n a t u r a l s e x u a l i t y ,

Nola Are you going t o g e t o u t of E r n i e ' s -- house t o n i g h t ?

Pippyts comments follow immediately and r e l a t e t o both the

b i t c h and Nola,

Pippy (watching a c t i v i t i e s under Pogson house) It happened then . , . She's a l l . . . caught up . . . ( p . 128)

The i n e v i t a b i l i t y of t h i s s i t u a t i o n i s made qu i t e point-

edly. J u s t as t h e b i t c h cannot o r w i l l not escape from the

dogs, n e i t h e r has Nola t h e w i l l t o r e s i s t t h e physical pres-

ence of Masson.

Rowleg Xasson appears s u p e r f i c i a l l v t o be a s a t i r i c a l

c a r i c a t u r e of t h e Aust ra l ian "d igger ," and h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p

with Ernie , t h e sent imental rubbish of 4 u s t r a l i a n "mateship."

I I White exposes h i s shallowness and t h e facade of t h i s mate-

sh ip" r e l a t i o n s h i p , but he goes a l i t t l e f u r t h e r , a s soc ia t ing

33 Masson with t h e pack of dogs, a s i r r e s p o n s i b l e and s e l f i s h

sexua l i ty . While Masson i s a f r e e agen t , with no t i e s w i t h

Sa r sapar i l l an suburbia , i r o n i c a l l y , he has not r e a l t i e s with

l i f e i t s e l f .

Nola, on the o ther hand, i s bese t by a s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e

honesty which Masson cannot under s t and. She leaves obvious

evidence of t h e i r adu l t e ry f o r Ernie t o f ind upon h i s r e t u r n

from h i s n i g h t - s o i l job. Iowever, h r n i e , l i k e W i l l Lusty,

has l e a r n t t o accept t h e mutual hopelessness of t h e i r s i t u a -

t i o n . However t h e play does not suggest t h a t t h e r e w i l l be

a s i g n i f i c a n t a l t e r a t i o n i n e i t h e r of these two charac te r s .

The dialogue between the t h r e e cha rac te r s facing each

o t h e r t h e nex t morning i s b r i l l i a n t . Here b h i t e t h e n o v e l i s t

i s t h e equa l of P i n t e r i n producing t h e few numbed common-

p l a c e s which i l l u s t r a t e t h e unspoken and deep emotions

involved. The dramat ic eloquence of t h i s scene i s as tounding .

It moves from n a t u r a l i s m t o i n d i v i d u a l r e v e r i e and back with

g r e a t ease . It i s perhaps h e r e , a g a i n s t t h e background of

o t h e r S a r s a p a r i l l a n inadequac ies , t h a t White I s main p o i n t i s

made i n t h i s p l a y . Tha t i s , t h a t humanity i s u t t e r l y s u b j e c t

t o t h e i nescapab le , impersonal c y c l i c p rocesses of l i v i n g

which have t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r d e s t r u c t i o n i n i t s d r i v e f o r

c r e a t i o n . Nor i s t h e r e any escape from it behind f acades , o r

by p h y s i c a l l y de tach ing onese l f from it. A s Roy s a y s , a t t h e

end o f t h e p l a y , 'you c a n ' t shed your sk in . . . even i f i t

i t c h e s l i k e h e l l ! ( p . 1 7 7 ) .

In A Cheery Soul , White f o r s a k e s f o r t h e f i r s t t ime t h e

n o v e l i s t commentator a s a c h a r a c t e r , b u t he i s rep laced by

va r ious groups of people and choruses who comment. Developed

a s t h i s plrzy i s , from t h e sho r t s t o r y i n The Burnt Ones, 34

t h e p l a y employs t h e s e choruses a s a s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h e i n t e r -

n a l monologues which dominate t h e corresponding p a r t s of t h e

s t o r g . But i n t h e p l a v t hey a r e more i n c a n t a t o r y than r e f l e c -

t i v e and more t e c h n i c a l j ugg le rg t h a n o rgan ic .

While t h e s h o r t s t o r g succeeds i n developing t h e p a s t

c o n f l i c t between Miss Docker and Miss L i l l i e , i n a s e r i e s o f

l e a p s i n t o t h e memories of bo th c h a r a c t e r s , t h e p l a y ' s a t t empt

11 l a c k s i t s depth. Although t h e chorus ques t ions and comments

on t h e s taged f lashback of Nrs. L i l l i e ' s i t cannot

do t h e job of t h e a u t h o r . A s Burrows s a y s , "The p r i o r e x i s -

t e n c e of t h e s t o r y accounts f o r t h e s e dev i ce s . It does no t

j u s t i f y them. 1136

But t h e r e i s a major d ramat ic f a u l t i n t h i s p l ag which

d e r i v e s from t h e s t o r g . 'dhile we can a c c e ~ t t h e movement

from t h e Cus t ance l s house i n t h e s h o r t s t o r y , i t s drarnatiza-

t i o n s p l i t s t h e p l a y s t r u c t u r a l l y i n t o two p a r t s . Although

Act I i s impor tan t , pe rhaps , i n e s t a b l i s h i n g Miss Docker on

t h e s t a g e , t h e audience must be confused t o see t h e l a s t of

t h e Custances a f t e r Act I i s completed. The manner i n which

Act I ends , would. a l s o t end t o make t h e audience s e e i t as a

t o t a l i t y , such i s t h e f i n a l i t y of t h e Cus t ance l s r e j e c t i o n

of Miss Docker.

The fo l lowing Acts cons t i - t u t e v i r t u a l l y a n o t h e r p l ag .

The n a t u r a l i s m of t h e F i r s t Act d i s s o l v e s i n t o express ion ism

i n which t h e p re sen t and t he p ~ s t i n t e r t w i n e w i th f a c t and

f a n t a s y . Much of t h i s i s confus ing because of an inadequate

e x p o s i t i o n i n t h e beginning. Rut t h e s w i f t change a f t e r one

a c t of n a t u r a l i s t i c drama i n t o a s t r a n g e mixture o f dream,

f a n t a s y and r e a l i t y would confuse an aud ience . b ' h i t e l s

r ea sons a r e p l a i n . He was t r y i n g t o r e c r e a t e d r a m a t i c a l l y

t h e p a s t h i s t o r y o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between Miss Docker and

Miss L i l l i e . I n t h e s h o r t s t o r g t h i s was p o s s i b l e . Attempt-

i ng t o do the same t h i n g i n t h e same sequence a s a p l a y , White

does not succeed. The d i f f e r e n c e i s no t simply between t h e

s t o r g and t h e p l a y . This p a r t i c u l a r s e c t i o n o f A Cheery

Soul p i n p o i n t s t h e d i f f e r e n t approach necessary f o r drama. -

There a r e o t h e r a s p e c t s o f t h e s t o r y which g a i n from v i s u a l

d ramat ic p r e s e n t a t i o n .

I n Act I , Miss Docker i s seen a s a f u l l e r " m i l i t a n t

v t r t u e " than she i s i n t h e s t o r y . The mutton shanks i n the

s t o r y merely t e s t i f y t o Miss Docker 's c h a r i t y , bu t i n t h e

p l a y t h e d ia logue t w i s t s t h e con tex t around t o where Miss

Docker i s implying t h a t Mrs. Custance i s u n c h a r i t a b l e . Mrs.

Custanca r e a l i s e s much e a r l i e r t h e degree o f i n t r u s i o n which

Miss Docker r e p r e s e n t s . The l a s t scene a l s o g a i n s i n impact

from i t s s t a g e p r e s e n t a t i o n , though t h e forms of t h e chorus

t end t o get i n t h e way, d i s t r a c t i n g t h e audience t o some deg-

r e e from Miss Docker l s f i n a l h u m i l i a t i o n .

Despi te a11 t h i s , t h e p l ay i s not a s bad a s Argyle would

have u s b e l i e v e . 37 Although i t s s u r f a c e i s comic, i t s deeper

v i s i o n i s i r o n i c a l l y dark . S u p e r f i c i a l l y , Miss Docker exemp-

l i f i e s t h e s i n of t h e dogooder whose " m i l i t a n t v i r t u e " ( p .

2 5 8 ) l e a d s h e r t o d e s t r o y v i c t i m a f t e r v i c t im . She i s t h e

embodiment o f t h e e x t e r n a l s o f c h a r i t y wi thout i t s s p i r i t and

i s t h u s d e s t r u c t i v e . She i s i ncapab le of t r u e c h a r i t y , i n

t h e G h r i s t i a n s ense , because she h a s never exper ienced love

h e r s e l f . Nor h a s i t e v e r crossed h e r mind t h a t t h e r e c i p -

i e n t s of l o v e must be w i l l i n g , "I could b r e a t h e l o v e i n t o

t h e dead . , . i f t hey wars only w i l l i n g . . . ". ( P . 2 6 0 )

There i s s i n i s t e r ~ o t e n t i a l i n Miss Docker d e s p i t e t h e

humor which a t t e n d s h e r . She i s symbolic of a ~ h r i s t i a n i t y

which h a s l o s t c o n t a c t w i t h s p i r i t u a l l i f e and h a s s u b s t i t u t e d

t h e G i r l i e Pogson, S a r s a p a r i l l a n concep ts of s e l f i s h goodaesJe

The Custances escape h e r w i th minor wounds, bu t we a r e shown

h e r destructive power i n t h e Old Ladies Home, and i n t h e

d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e s i n c e r e , s t r u g g l i n g young clergyman, M r .

Wakeman. I n t h e Church s cene , t h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n of rW.

Wakeman1 s "if I am s h o r t l y t o be judged, 0 Lord, I' w i th M i s s

Docker 's "If I am about t o judge, 0 l o r d , " ( p . 255) r e v e a l s

Miss Docker's t e r r i f y i n g l a c k of self-knowledge of he r t o t a l

l a c k o f deep compassionate unders tanding. Although much o f

t h i s scene i s a parody of a r e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e , and amusing,

Miss Docker dominates it wi th he r t e r r i f y i n g s e l f -

r i gh t eousnes s . She i s a c r e a t u r e o f s u r f a c e s and e x t e r n a l

t r a p p i n g s who i s so b l i nded b y good works t h a t she f a i l s t o

s ee t h a t she i s s p t r i t u a l l y dead. I n t h i s sense she i s a

sympathet ic c h a r a c t e r . She i s a s l o s t a s o u l a s t h e people

she d e s t r o y s . But she p e r p e t r a t e s h o r r o r s . Even when hake-

man d e s p e r a t e l y a t t emp t s t o save Miss Docker, and t h u s him-

s e l f , h e r i n t e r r u p t i o n s a r e about t h e e x t e r n a l s b u t never the-

l e s s d e s t r o y t h e i n t r i n s i c and s p i r i t u a l . I n many ways, &

Cheery Soul f a a modern Mora l i ty p l a y , wi th a theme of the s i n

of s u p e r f i c i a l l o v e .

M r . Wakeman1s symbolic murder a t Miss Docker 's hands can

b e ex t remely s u c c e s s f u l a l though t h e r e seems a

good l i k e l i h o o d of i t s degenera t ing i n t o melodrama o r even

f a r c e . But d e s p i t e Mrs. Wakeman1s a c c u s a t i o n s , "Miss Docker,

you have k i l l e d m y s a i n t . ( w i t h an e f f o r t ) Only t ime w i l l

show whether you have k i l l e d my God a s w e l l , '' ( p . 260 1. Miss

Docker 1s only confused by t h e i n a b i l i t y of t h o s e around h e r

t o see h e r r i g h t e o u s n e s s . While h e r employment o f u s e f u l

knowledge on how t o p o l i s h a c a r , how t o manage p l a n t s , c o l d s ,

and rosebushes , a n d how t o nurse s i c k people i s comic, t h e r e

a r e s e r i o u s i m p l i c a t i o n s i n t h e manner i n which she e a r n e s t l y

pursues h e r good works. It i s p o s s i b l e t o s ee i n h e r t h e

symbolic f o r c e o f a malevolent u n i v e r s e . Ph i lan thropy wi th-

out c h a r i t v i s d e s t r u c t i o n . In t h e end she i s judged f o r

t h i s . Onlv i n t h e l a s t scene when she ex tends h e r h e l p t o a

dog and i s r e j e c t e d does she beg in t o s e e t h a t she h a s been

judged. A s t h e swagman says when Miss Docker a s k s h i m xhg a

dog should wet h e r l e g , hat's somethun you should of asked

t h e dawg." (p . 263) Despite h e r r e c o g n i t i o n of judgment,

Miss Docker, broken but not de s t royed , g i v e s a s h i l l i n g t o a

Swaqgie, and c a r r i e s on.

I n Night on a Bald Mountain, White moves away from t h e

exper imenta t ion of' A Cheery Soul i n t o a more n a t u r a l i s t i c

ve in . Again, however, t h e r e i s an i n h e r e n t t e n s i o n between

oh i lo soph ic con ten t and dramat ic form. H i s c h a r a c t e r s a r e

t rapped incommunicado - i n a m e ~ n i n g l e s s u n i v e r s e y e t t h e i r

s u f f e r i n g i s po r t r ayed i n t e rms o f something c l o s e t o a

tt formula" p l a y . A s i n t h e o t h e r p l a y s , White employs two

l e v e l s on t h e s t a g e a s a commentary on each o t h e r . I n Act One,

Sword and Denis a r e on t h e lower l e v e l , and Sword i s r e j e c t i n g

w i t h cold f e r o c i t y t h e p o e t r y s e n t him by a d o l e s c e n t s i n t h e

hope o f h i s warm human unders tand ing . A t t h e same t ime , on

t h e h iqher l e v e l Miriam, by c o n t r a s t , i s t r y i n g t o c r e a t e a

werT humn r e l a t i o n s h i p with S t e l l a . The p h y s i c a l s i t u a t i o n

he igh tens t h e dramat ic t e n s i o n between Sword and Miriam, and

emphasises t h e p o s i t i v e c h a r a c t e r o f S t e l l a , i n r e l a t i o n t o

t h e dea4 l o s t s o u l s which surround h e r . I n t h i s p l a y , White

i s a b l e t o ge t by without employing much of t h e n o v e l i s t -

commentator who k e ~ t i n t e r f e r i n g wi th h i s o t h e r p l a y s , though

Craig and Mrs. S ib l ev a c t a t t imes i n t h i s c a p a c i t y . The i r

importance o therwise i s minimal.

Th i s p l a y a l s o emphasises t h e Absurd i s t t e n e t o f t h e

inadequacy of language a s a means o f human communication. I n

t h e o t h e r p l a y s language has f a i l e d t o b reak through t h e ba r -

r i e r s o f i n d i v i d u a l i s o l a t i o n . In Night on a Bald Mountain

White demonstra tes t h e c a p a c i t y o f language t o d e s t r o y .

I r o n i c a l l y , it i s Sword, t h e P ro fe s so r of Eng l i sh who performs

t h i s f u n c t i o n .

The c o n f l i c t o f t h e p l a v r evo lves around t h e anguished

mar r iage of Miriam t o Hugo Sword. Sword's name i s symbolic

o f h i s p r e c i s e r a t i o n a l i s m and cold c a l l o u s n e s s . He i s a

f r u s t r a t e d poe t and l i k e most of 'White's i n t e l l e c t u a l s , a

s t e r i l e and d e s t r u c t i v e f o r c e . I n Sword, K h i t e l s s a t i r e i s

almost S w i f t i a n . The p l ay examines i n r e t r o s p e c t t h e prog-

r e s s o f t h e i r mar r iage , which Sword's p u r i t a n i c a l a s c e t i c i s m

h a s t u rned i n t o mutual sadism. Miriam r e t a i n s a r e s i d u e o f

h e r once warm and p a s s i o n a t e n a t u r e .

In t h e scene where Miriam g r a s p s h e r husband ' s hand i n

a p l e ~ f o r compassion h i s r e j e c t i o n of h e r i s s i n g u l a r l y

cold-blooded,

Sword You a re ove r - exc i t i ng y o u r s e l f , Mj-riam,

(goes toward d o o r ) You a r e a t your b e s t when you a r e l e s s e x c i t e d .

and h i s l a s t ques t i on i s h o r r i f y i n g i r o n i c .

( a t t h e doo r ) I s t h e r e any th ing you need? Miriam ( d e s p e r a t e l y ) No. ( p . 299

Both Sword and Nlriam g ra sp a t S t e l l a , t h e i r h i r e d n u r s e ,

i n an a t tempt t o thaw t h e i r f r i g i d i t y i n h e r human warmth. A s

h e r name sugges t s she i s of t h e s t a r s , of t h e i d e a l i s t i c world

from which t h e Swords have f a l l e n . For bo th of them she rep-

r e s e n t s a n o t h e r chance. The i r a t t emp t s t o warm themselves a t

h e r flame of l i f e a r e unsuccess fu l and Sword i n f r u s t r a t i o n

a t h i s r e j e c t i o n of h e r , employs t h e u l t i m a t e weapon of

r a t i o n a l a b s t r a c t i o n on h e r a t tachment t o h e r f a t h e r , d i r t y i n g

i t wi th h i s own p u r i t a n d i s g u s t of s e x u a l i t y .

But d e s p i t e t h e h i n t s about h e r dea th i n the f i r s t scene ,

and t h e more s u b t l e a l l u s i o n s i n h e r dreams, t h e i n c e s t mot i f

seems i n s u f f i c i e n t l y developed. It i s d i f f i c u l t t o accep t

t h e mo t iva t i on f o r S t e l l a ' s death . A f t e r e s t a b l i s h i n g h e r a s

a warm v e t e n i n e n t l g s e n s i b l e g i r l i n h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s wi th

a l l t h e c h a r a c t e r s , White appears t o manipu la te h e r f a l l over

t h e c l i f f . Xera t h e d i v f s i o n w i th in t h e p l ay between t h e

~ h i l o s o p h i c a l conception of a malevolent un ive r se and t h e

demands of n a t u r a l i s t i c s t r u c t u r e cone i n t o open c o n f l i c t .

Despi te h e r obvious r e v u l s i o n a t Sword's pe rve r s ion of

h e r love f o r h e r f a t h e r , h e r s u i c i d e j a r s f o r ,

S t e l l a i s a s a c r i f i . c e , t r u e , b u t t h e p l a y f a i l s t o convince one o f t he need f o r sac- r i f i c e . The gods , l i k e t h e p i t . , a r e i n su f - f i c i e n t l y o f fended , even by a l a t e sugges t - ion of psycholog ice l i n c e s t .39

The Sword's dec i s ion t o t r y a g a i n a f t e r t h e i r " s a c r i f i c e "

of an innocent a l s o l a c k s c o n v i c t i o n , d e s p i t e White's a t t e m p t s

t o convey t h e i r a t t a inment of self-knowledge.

On t h e pe r iphe ry of t h i s main c o n f l i c t , and e n t e r i n g i t

a s a c o n t r a s t t o t h e sterility wi th in t h e house i s one of

I t White I s " i l l u m i n a t i , t he o l d goat-woman, IWss quodl ing.

Her presence i s o f cons ide rab l e importance t o t h e impact of

t h e p l a y . Like Arthur Brown i n The S o l i d Mandala h h i t e

a s s o c i a t e s her w i th t h e t o t a l i t y and wholeness o f marbles and

a p p l e s . These r e p r e s e n t h e r i n t u i t i v e unders tand ing of l i f e .

I n some wags t h i s p l a y moves c l o s e r t o t.he themes of h h i t e 1 s

nove ls , wi th i t s r e f e r e n c e s t o "White's h i g h l y i d i o s y n c r a t i c

myst ic ism of t h e commonplace, 'l4' i t s % ~ t h i c t l s o u l s , (Sword

and Voss have some s i m i l a r i t i e s ) , and i t s d e p i c t i o n of p a r t l y -

g ro tesque bu t q u i n t e s s e n t i a l 7 human c h a r a c t e r s l i k e Miss

Quodlinq, whose e x i s t e n c e c l o s e t o n a t u r e becomes a dominant

theme in White 's work.

Miss Quodling beg ins t h e p l a y i n an impress ive aubade,

w r i t t e n i n language which c a p t u r e s t h e c o l l o q u i a l r i c h n e s s

and v i t a l i t v of A u s t r a l i a n s ~ e e c h ,

Mornun . . . I love i t even when it s k i n s ge r ! O h y e s , it can h u r t ! . . . . ' h e n t h e i c e c rackes underfoot . . and t h e sc rub t e a r s t h e scabs o f f y e r knuckles . . and t h e s p i d e r ' s webs a r e spun aga in . . f i r s t o f a l l . . . out o f dew . . . i t s t o remind t h a t l i f e beg ins a t dawn. Bald Mountain! (D. 2 7 2 )

Her r e j e c t i o n of c i v i l i z e d l i f e i s complete ,

I n t h e end you c a n ' t t r u s t a n y t h i n ' b u t g o a t s and s i l e n c e ( p . 272)

and i n t h e l i q h t of t h e s o p h i s t i c a t e d savagery and dry ster-

i l Z t y found i n Sword's house , Miss Quodling convinces comp-

l e t e l y . Yet h e r s t r u c t u r a l r e l a t i o n t o the p l a y i s mainly

thelrlatic. She e x i s t s a s a commentator o n t h e main a c t i o n , and

bscause o f t h i s , she i s y e t ano ther example of h h i t e u s i n g

q u e s i - f i c t i o n a l t e chn iques i n o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h a phi losoph-

i c a l b a s i s f o r t h e ~ l a v .

S t e l l a i s d i r e c t l v involved i n t h e a c t i o n o f t h e play.

She i s ano ther one of White ' s t ' i l l u m i n a t i , t ' who, l i k e h i l l

Lusty , f o r example, s e e s i n t o t h e i n t r i n s i c n a t u r e of t h i n g s .

"Oh t a b l e - - c h a i r , f o r i n s t a n c e . O r t h a t jug. Even t h e ug ly

t h i n g s have a k ind of t r u t h i f you look a t them long enought'

( p . 329). But she h a s no t y e t s u f f e r e d enough t o have a r r i v e d

a t t h e s t a g e of Miss Q u o d l i n g l s knowledge of l i f e . Miss 4uod-

l i n g r ecogn i se s i n S t e l l a a k indred s o u l , "You're good.

You're k ind . You ' re a s good a s a sound a p p l e . But some-

body' s qunna c u t i n t o = as su re a s s u r e . " (0. 275 ) 'ibe

symuolic s f q n i f i c ~ t n c e of "cu t" i s , of cou r se , t h e Swords, bu t

on a l a r g e r p l a n e , it Is t h e warning o f one t o whom s u f f e r i n g

h a s bequeathed unders tand ing . S t e l l a has g e t t o l e a r n t h i s .

h'hite ba l ances Miss quodl ing and he r r e j e c t i o n o f l i f e

wi th S t e l l a ' s unsuccess fu l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n i t . In t h e end,

t h e p l a y p o i n t s gr imly t o the f a c t t h s t n e i t h e r i s o l a t i o n nor

innocent p a r t i c i p a t i o n can prevent t h e s u f f e r i n g and des t ruc -

t i o n brought about by humanity 1 s inescapab le sub j ec t ion t o

expe r i ence i n an absurd u n i v e r s e . S t e l l a k i l l s h e r s e l f , and

even T.45 s s 2uod l ing1s s t rongho ld i s invaded, f o r h e r beloved

g o a t Dolores d i e s t h e same wag.

The theme of White 's p o e t i c v i s i o n i s d i sp l ayed i n a l l

f o u r p l a y s . Nhite i s concerned wi th t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s c o n t a c t

wi th exper ience and wi th t h e r e s u l t s of s u f f e r i n g . He s e e s

man a s a l o s t be ing s ea rch ing f o r a r a p p o r t wi th h imse l f and

t h e u n i v e r s e , faced wi th t h e implacable and unavoidable

n e c e s s i t y o f d e a l i n g wi th an impersonal c y c l i c p roces s of

which he i s a p a r t .

White ' s concep t ion of t h e inadequacy o f language i n com-

municat ing meaningfu l ly , a s exempl i f i ed i n Sword, t h e Young

Man, M r . Wakeman, Miss Docker, and Miss Quodl ing , seems t o

p l a c e him p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y w i t h t h e Absu rd i s t s . H i s d e p i c t ion

o f a u n i v e r s e where h i s c h a r a c t e r s l i v e p o i n t l e s s l i v e s i n

s u f f e r i n g a l s o adds f o r c e t o t h i s argument. I f i n t h e end,

a l l w e can t r u s t i s "goats and s i l e n c e " on ba ld Mountain t hen

t h e d r a m a t i s t i s faced wi th f i n d i n g a s u i t a b l e form t o convey

t h i s . However, White 's p l a y s o f t e n r e l y on n o v e l i s t ' s t r i c k s ,

on v e r b o s l t y , on a dramat ic n a t u r a l i s m wi th f r i l l s , and on

d i a logue which no t on lv d o e s n ' t enab le h i s c h a r a c t e r s t o f u l l y

communicate w i . t h each o t h e r , b u t a l s o does not become t h e

v i t a l d ramat ic ex-peri-ence whlch b r i n g s a p l a y t o l i f e .

I n The Ham Funera l White comes c l o s e s t t o u n i f y i n g t h e

d i v i s l o n between what he wants t o say and t h e form i n which

he i s working. The Season a t S a r s a p a r i l l a ha s t h e background

f o r a p l ay of g r e a t importance, b u t i t s r e l i a n c e on t h e form-

u l a f o r a "well-made" p l a y and i t s d i s t r i b u t i o n of impact

over t h e l a r g e number o f c h a r a c t e r s d i s s i p a t e s some of i t s

e f f e c t . A Cheery Soul - i s t h e l e a s t success fu l , and demon-

s t r s t e s t h e d i f f i c u l t y of t s a n s p o s i t i o n from one genre t o

another . I n h i s l a s t p l a y , t h e grand scheme bogs down

f i n a l l y i n ve rbos i ty and 'hlhite's r e l i a n c e on t h e same formula

which betrayed h i s o t h e r p l ays .

It i s not t h a t h h i t e i s unimaginative o r t h a t h i s p lays

a r e unsuccessfu l . On t h e con t ra ry t h e r e a r e t imes when he i s

a b r i l l i a n t , invent ive d r a m a t i s t . The point i s t h a t form and

content a r e insenerable ~ n d must be combined, p a r t i c u l a r l y in

drama, f o r f u l l i n t e g r i t y and a r t i s t i c success .

Roger Covell , "Pa t r i ck White s P l ays , " Guadrant , no. 2 9 , 1964, p. 7. The t e x t o f White's o t h e r ~lay7-n t o Abyss in ia , w r i t t e n i n London j u s t be fo re 1946 has supposedly been l o s t . It was produced f o r A s h o r t season a t t h e Rol tons Theatre i n London.

Char les Osborne, "Pa t r i ck ' d h i t e t s P l a y s , The Lon- Magazine, Sentember 1965, p. 95.

3 P a t r i c k ?dhi te , Four P l a y s , (London, 1965)

5 i b i d . , p . 8.

' P a t r i c k hrhite , Four P lays (London, 1965) p . 1s. This q u o t a t i o n and a l l o t h e r s a r e t aken from t h i s e d i t i o n .

7 Wayne Booth i n The Rhetor ic o f F i c t i o p (Un ive r s i t y of Ghicago, 1967) makes u s e f u l p o i n t s on t h i s s u b j e c t on p. 162.

' i b i d . , P . 387.

lo i b i d . , D. 387.

i b i d . , p. 387.

l2 James Joyce, A P o r t r a i t of t h e A r t i s t a s a Youn ed. Char les G * Anderson, (1t.Y. Viking P r e s s ,

i b i d . , p. 214.

i b i d . , P. 215-

i b i d . , p. 215. This theory i s of course de r ived from P l a t o and A r i s t o t l e . Rene h e l l e k and Aust in Warren i n Theory of L i t e r a t u r e , (N.Y., 1956 ) make s i m i l a r p o i n t s .

- , 16

For example, Y . T i n d a l l i n James Joyce: His Wag o f I n t e r p r e t i n g t h e Modern - - hor ld ( N . Y . , S c r i b n e r s , 1950) pp. 16- 1 7 s a y s , "A c a r e f u l r ead ing makes i t apparent t h a t Joyce i s a l o o f and g e n e r a l l y i r o n i c i n h i s t rea tment o f Stephen." Quoted i n James Joyce , A P o r t r a i t o f t h e A r t i s t a s a Young Man, ed. Ches te r G. Anderson (N.Y., Viking, 19681 p. 449.

l7 Wellek and Warren, P. 235.

IR - Theat re i n t h e Twentieth C e n t u x , Ed. Robert ud. i o r r i g a n , ( k . U . , 1 9 6 3 ) . p . 23.

NOTES ( con t . ) l9 Novel i s t s T h e a t r e , i n t r o . by E r i c Hhodes , (Penguin,

19661, p. 12 .

20 quoted i n op. c i t . Osborne, Q . 96.

21 i b l d . , p. 96.

22 White makes f requent use o f t h e r e v e l a t i o n which an i n t u i t i v e unders tand ing of inanimate o r n a t u r a l o b j e c t s can b r i n g . I n t h e Tree of Man, S tan Parker i s such a c h a r a c t e r , so i s Bob qu ip l ey i n t h e same novel and Arthur Brown's marb les a r e "mandalas" and have t h i s e f f e c t i n The S o l i d Mandala.

23 Osborne, p . 96.

J . F . Burrows, "Pa t r i ck d h i t e l s Four P lays , " A u s t r a l i ~ L i t e r a r y S t u d i e s , 1966, p . 159.

25 Thelma Her r ing , "Manads and Goat-Song: The P lays of P a t r i c k White" S o u t h e r l y , 'Jol. 26 , No. 3 , p. 226.

27 Roger Cove l l , " P a t r i c k h h i t e l s Plays," s u a d r a n t , no. 29, 1964. p. 9.

2R Barry Argyle , P a t r i c k m i t e , (London, 1 9 6 7 ) , p. 97.

29 Burrows, p. 160.

30 Burrows, p. 161.

31 Cove l l , p. 11.

32 Argyle, p. 92.

" The dogs a l s o d i sappear when the analogous s i t u a t i o n is f i n i s h e d .

34 P t c Uhi te , Tho Burnt Ones, (London, 1964)

35 Argyle , p. 101 .

'' aurrows, p. ~ h 4 .

4u Burrows, p. 164.

A SELECTED - BIBLIOGRAPHY

P a t r i c k White London, 1967. k w l e , Ba r ry , , Booth, Wayne, The Rhe tor ic o f F i c t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of

Chicago, 1967.

Burrows, J .F . , "Pa t r i ck White f s Four p l ays , " A u s t r a l i a n L i t e r a r y S t u d i e s , 1966.

Cor r igan , Robert W., e d . , Theetre i n t h e Twent ie th Centurx, N . Y . , 1963.

Cove l l , Roger, " P n t r i c k hhf - te 1s Plays, " Quadran t , no. 29, 1964.

Dut ton, Geoffrey, e d . , The L i t e r a t u r e o f A u s t r a l i a , P e l i c a n , 1964.

Fsslin, Mart in , The Theatre of t h e Absurd, :d.Y., 1961.

Pinch, J a n e t t e , ed. , Bibl iography o f P a t r i c k u ~ h i t e , ~ d e l a i d e , 1960.

Her r ing , Thelma, "Maenads and Goat-Song: The P lays of P a t r i c k White," S o u t h e r l y , Vol. 26, No. 3, 1965.

Osborne, C h a r l e s , "Pa t r i ck White s P l a y s , " The London Magazl ne , Senteqber , 1965.

Hhodes, E r i c , ed. , Novel i s t s T h e a t r e , Penguin, 1966.

Wellek, Rene a n d Warren, Aus t in , Theory of L i t e r a t u r e , l i . Y . , 1956.

White, P a t r i c k , - Four Plays, London, 1965,