Out of Many

Chapter 2 & 3

Chapter 2

• When Worlds Collide

The English and the Algonquians at Roanoke

• In 1590, Governor John White returned to Roanoke Island, where he had left the first English colonists three years ago, in search of the 115 colonists; mostly single men, but also twenty families, including White’s daughter, son-in-law, and Virginia Dare, the first English baby born in North America. He found the colonists’ houses taken down and their possessions scattered, but saw “CROATOAN” on a trunk, the name of a friendly village, and set sail for the village.

• Walter Raleigh financed a settlement at Roanoke Island, surrounded by Algonquian villages led by a chief named Wingina. Wingina supported the new settlement as potential new allies and sent two of his men, Wanchese and Manteo, back with the explorers who came in 1584 to help assist in the preparations.

• Wanchese and Manteo worked with Thomas Harriot, an Oxford scholar, and John White, an artist; they learned each other’s language and developed a mutual respect among them.

• The English returned in 1585 to establish the colony of Virginia, with the two emissaries with them. Manteo, from Croatoan, argued that English technology made them potentially powerful allies. Wanchese, seeing the inequality of European society, warned of English brutality, and rightly so; Raleigh planned to use, by force if necessary, the Algonquians as serfs to provide labor in the fur trade, plantation agriculture, or gold and silver mines.

• The English cannot support themselves and ask Wingina for support. Wingina supplies them, but constant demands begin to drain Algonquian resources while they are decimated by the new diseases brought by the colonists. Fearing hostilities, the English launch a preemptive strike in May 1586, killing many leaders, including Wingina, beheading him. The colonists return to England afterwards.

• Harriot and White argue for using settlers that will live in harmony with the native peoples through “discreet dealing” so that they will “honor, obey, fear, and love us.” Raleigh arranges for White to lead a new colony in 1587.

• White is supposed to land on Chesapeake Bay, but the captain dumps White at Roanoke so that the captain can get on with plundering Spanish ships, putting them amid alienated and hostile natives. A party of Algonquians led by Wanchese attack a colonist. White retaliates with a counterattack that increases hostility. White returns to get help from Raleigh, but arrives in the middle of a war between England and Spain, and is unable to return until 1590. When White sails for Croatoan, a storm forces him to deeper waters and White never returns to the colony.

• Evidence suggests the lost colonists lived with the Algonquians.

The Expansion of Europe • European Communities• Western Europe is an agricultural society. New

technologies improve the productivity of farming while the size of the land under cultivation doubles; the population triples in this time.

• Most people are village peasants. Society is patriarchal; men perform the field work while women perform livestock care and housework, daughters leave their families to join their husbands when they marry, receive dowries but are excluded from inheritance, and divorce is nearly unheard of.

• Europe is a feudal society; lords control territory and exploit the serfs, amassing excessive wealth through tributes.

• Religion, through the Roman Catholic Church, unifies Europe, which legitimizes feudal power and counsels the poor to look for heavenly instead of material reward. The Church actively persecutes...everyone.

• Jews, migrants from a failed Palestinian revolution in 1st century BCE, experience discrimination. Many become merchants, but this only stimulates more hate.

• Living conditions are harsh. Diet is limited, illness is common, most people die before adulthood (a third die before their fifth birthday), and the Black Death (1347- 1353) wiped out a third of the Western European population.

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• The Merchant Class and the New Monarchies

• The European economy recovers in the 14th and 15th centuries through technology. The population recovers from the Black Death, reaching 65 million.

• New monarchies begin in Western Europe, legitimizing themselves by promoting political order (read: war), and are supported by the rising merchant class. This alliance helps fund explorations into the Americas.

• The Renaissance

• Begins in the city-states of Italy. Venice, Genoa, and Pisa use armed commercial fleets to control Mediterranean trade. Merchants here fund the Crusades, which furnishes these merchants with the silk and spice trades. This also provides Asian technology to Europe, such as the movable type.

• Contact with Islamic society gives access to classical texts lost in the Dark and Middle Ages, launching the Renaissance in the 14th-16th centuries.

• The Renaissance celebrates the human through architecture, art, and literature, promoting secularism over religion.

• Portuguese Exploration• Portugal is the first European nation to explore

distant lands. Merchant-installed king Joao I plans to create a merchant trading empire.

• Prince Henry the Navigator establishes an academy at Sagres Point, which dispels the flat-earth theory and creates the caravel by mixing Islamic and Asian technology to make a better seafaring ship.

• Portugal explores the northwestern African coast for gold and slaves and establishes a sea route to India by sailing around Africa, establishing a trade empire based on spices and slaves.

• Columbus Reaches the Americas• Columbus tries to propose sailing west from Europe

to reach the Indies. Portugal laughs at him, saying his calculations were too short; so do the French and English.

• Spain accepts his proposal; after conquering Grenada and ending the Catholic reconquista, Isabel and Ferdinand are hungry for more land.

• Columbus seeks to both establish trade and claim land for Spain.

• He leaves in August 1492, hitting land in October and thinking he hit the Indies (he reached the Bahamas). Columbus returns, also bringing knowledge of the Atlantic currents.

• Columbus comes back with captive native Tainos and stories of gold and spices.

• Columbus returns with another force and begins to war with the Tainos; there were 300,000 Tainos in 1492, less than 30,000 within fifteen years, and practically eliminated by 1520. The colony Columbus establishes is unable to support itself and the Spanish have him jailed in 1500.

• Amerigo Vespucci figures out that Columbus was a bit touched in the head and describes Columbus’ “Indies” as a Mundus Novus, a “New World.”

• The Spanish in the Americas • The Invasion of America • Spanish explorers plunder the Caribbean Islands, enslaving

the native people in a system calledencomienda. Though supposedly a reciprocal agreement, where the new Spanish lords protected the natives for their labor, it was systematic exploitation. The Spanish invade Jamaica and Puerto Rico in 1508, Cuba in 1511, Central America at the same time, and met the Aztecs in 1517.

• The Aztecs were an advanced warrior society with a capital at Tenochtitlan, where Mexico city is today, with a population of about 200,000 people.

• In 1519, Hernan Cortes lands on the Mexican coast and conquers the Aztec Empire in two years by allying with rival tribes while the Aztecs were facing a smallpox epidemic.

• The Destruction of the Indies• Antonia de Montesinos condemns the violence in a

sermon to colonists on Hispaniola. Bartolome de Las Casas, a priest who previously participated in the plunder, echoes him, saying that the human race is one. No one listens.

• The Destruction of the Indies (1552) by Las Casas details the Spanish abuses, which is used by other nations to hide their own exploitations, creating the “Black Legend” of Spanish conquest.

• Las Casas attributed the losses to warfare; in truth, starvation, a dropping birthrate, and diseases (influenza, plague, smallpox, measles, typhus) did most of the damage.

• Intercontinental Exchange• This was the exchange of valuable metals (short-

term) to Europe, cross-exchange of crops (potatoes, corn, tobacco, vanilla, chocolate, cotton to Europe; sugar, rice, and coffee to the Americas), and the introduction of domestic animals such as horses to the Americas.

• The First Europeans in North America• Ponce de Leon, governor of Puerto Rico, lands in

North America in 1513, naming the spot he lands Florida. He is killed in 1521. A second invasion by Panfilo de Narvaez in 1528 is ruined by a shipwreck, with the survivors wandering around until they are found by Spanish slave hunters in 1536. A survivor named Nunez Cabeza de Vaca writes an account that tells of golden cities in an empire known as Cibola.

• De Soto lands in 1539 in search of Cibola, but he is turned back after a number of defeats (but not before leaving behind disease). De Soto dies on the way.

• Francisco Vasquez de Coronado leads another expedition, but finds nothing. The Spanish lose interest in the Southwest.

• The Spanish New World Empire• A century after Columbus, 250,000 Europeans (mostly

Spaniards) and 125,000 African slaves settle in Brazil, with the slaves working on Spanish plantations in the Caribbean and Portuguese plantations in Brazil. Brazil is colonized under the Treaty of Tordesillas, an agreement written by the Pope of the time that splits the New World between Brazil and Portugal.

• Spanish women only make up 10% of the immigrant population; most male immigrants marry or cohabit with native or slave women, creating mixed-ancestry groups that would make up a new racial caste system (a mestizo being a person with a Spanish father and native mother, mulattoes being the other, etc).

• Though theoretically run from Spain, the Spanish colonies are largely self governing.

• Northern Explorations and Encounters • Fish and Furs • oFisherman had been exploring coastal North American waters

long before colonies were founded.oThe Grand Banks of the coast of Newfoundland had abundant cod; by 1500 hundreds of ships sailed annually to the Grand Banks.

• oGenovese explorer Giovanni Caboto (sailing for England) (John Cabot) reached Labrador in 1497.oIn 1524, Tuscan captain Giovanni da Verrazano (sailing for France), explored from Cape Fear (NC) to the Penobscot (ME).oCaptain Cartier established France’s claims to the land of Canada.oFur Traders were crucial to New France’s success.oIndians were active participants in the trade.oIn the early seventeenth century, the French made an effort to monopolize the trade.

• The Protestant Reformation and the First French ColoniesoThe Protestant reformation refers to the challenge by Martin Luther to the Catholic Church, initiated in 1517, calling for a return to what he understood to the purer practices and beliefs of the early church.oJohn Calvin developed the theological doctrine of predestination, the belief that god decided at the moment of creation which humans would achieve salvation.oProtestants were the European supporters of the religious reform under Charles V’s Holy Roman Empire.oFrench colony made by Jean Ribault failed because he left to get supplies, but got caught up into religious wars; the colonists starved, resorted to cannibalism, and were eventually rescued by a passing British Ship.

• Sixteenth-Century EnglandoLords in England needed to make more money due to “New World” inflation, so they started to take land from farming tenants to graze sheep for the woolen trade.oKing Henry VIII converted to the Church of England in 1534 with himself at its head.oAfter Henry 8 died his son, Edward VI, who died pretty soon, he was then succeeded by his half-sister Mary; Mary tried to undo the reform by killing lots of protestants, she was nicknamed “Bloody Mary.”oAfter Mary died her half-sister Elizabeth I took over, she tried to end religious turmoil by tolerating a variety of views.oShe tried to take the Catholic Ireland, but the Irish fought back; their fighting back led the English to view them as a lesser people.

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• Early English Efforts in the AmericasoEngland’s first voyages in the New World were made with the backdrop of a Spanish conflict.oJohn Hawkins violated Spanish trade laws and then got attacked on a later voyage.oEngland decided to join the hunt for American colonies.oGilbert died on his return to England after sailing to Newfoundland in 1583. oHis brother Raleigh made a colony at Roanoke which failed and became known as the lost colony.oUnlike the French (who focused on commerce) the English decided to take a violent approach to colonization.oSpain got mad at England because England took land that was “given” to Spain by the pope.

Chapter 3

• Planting Colonies in North America

• Communities Struggle with Diversity in Seventeenth Century Santa Fe‐oThe Pueblo Indians of New Mexico rose in revolt in August 1680, taking Santa Fe and trapping 3,000 survivors in the Palace of Governors of Santa Fe, sending two crosses— white for surrender and survival, red for defiance and death.oIn 1609, colonists founded La Villa Real de la Santa Fe de San Francisco, the “royal town of the holy faith of St. Francis,” and began to convert the Pueblo people into Christians, Spanish subjects, and a labor force for the colonial elite.oThe Pueblo, faced with Spanish military might, adopted Spanish customs, but merely incorporated them into their own traditions. The missionaries attempted to stamp out Pueblo traditions such as underground kivas (sites for sacred rituals), destroyed religious relics, humiliated holy men, and forced entire villages to perform “penance” by working in the fields and irrigation ditches. The governor hanged four religious leaders and whipped dozens more in 1675. These, combined with widespread famine caused by a severe drought and an epidemic, led to the Pueblo revolt of 1680. Pope, of San Juan Pueblo, organized a conspiracy among more than twenty towns.

• oThe Santa Fe colonists returned the red cross, but the Pueblos let them retreat to El Paso in the south after five days. The Pueblos ransacked missionary buildings and converted the palace into a communal dwelling, with the chapel as a new kiva.oWithout the Spanish, the Pueblo were unable to fend off attacks by the Apaches and Navajos, who used stolen horses and guns to raid the Pueblo villages. Pope was deposed in 1690 in the chaos.

• The Spanish returned in 1692 under Governor Diego de Vargas, reestablishing colonial rule and crushing another Pueblo rebellion. However, this time, the Spanish were more restrained, tolerating Pueblo religious practices and the inviolability of native land. In return, the Pueblos observed Catholicism in the Spanish chapels and pledged loyalty to the Spanish monarch. The forced labor ended and the Pueblos turned up to service. Remaining autonomous, the Spanish and Pueblo were able to fend off their enemies.

• Spain and its Competitors in North America• At the start of the 17th century, Spain controls the

only mainland colonial outposts; a series of forts along the Florida coast to protect ships coming from the New World to Spain.

• Both Spain and France relied on converting the natives to subjects, which caused much cultural mixing and a “frontier of inclusion,” where the Dutch and English made the natives live in separate societies in “frontiers of exclusion.”

• New Mexico• The farming communities of the Southwest provided

converts; by 1580, Franciscan missionaries were sent to the Southwest. In 1598, Juan de Onate financed an expedition into the Southwest for gold.

• Onate met resistance on his expedition. He besieged Acoma, a pueblo above the mountain, overcoming the defenders and taking the survivors as slaves.

• Unable to find gold, Onate returned to Mexico, but the monarchy established Sante Fe as a missionary colony where Franciscan missionaries penetrated the surrounding area.

• New France• In 1608, Samuel de Champlain established a French

settlement called Quebec on the St. Lawrence River to intercept the fur trade and allied with the Huron, helping them wage war against the Iroquois, and sent traders to live with them to learn their customs.

• The St. Lawrence site allowed the French to control the fur trade, but it isolated the colonists in the winter when it froze over and had a short growing season. Hired men called engages were sent to New France, but 9 out of 10 returned, so the population grew slowly.

• Young men often became coureur de bois, “wood runners” and independent fur traders. Most returned to French settlements, but some married into the surrounding tribes. In 1681 1682, Robert ‐Sieur de La Salle navigated the Mississippi and claimed the watershed for France.

• Unlike the Spanish, France did not have the manpower to conquer and exploit the natives, so instead they created alliances with the tribes to control commerce. Also, unlike the Spanish Jesuits who insisted on the natives learning Spanish customs, the French Franciscans adopted local customs and melded Christianity to it.

• New Netherlands• Holland, a small nation, was at the center of the 16th

century economic transformation in Europe. New farming technologies increased yields that supported a growing population and made Holland the world’s most urban and commercial nation. In 1581, after a century of rule by the Hapsburgs, the Dutch overthrew the Spanish control and won political independence.

• The Dutch created the first stock exchange and investment banks, had the largest commercial and fishing fleet in Europe, and captured the Baltic and North Sea trade in fish, lumber, iron, and grain. Holland was Europe’s “America.”

• The Dutch created two trading monopolies, the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India company, that combined military might and commerce to create a series of trading posts in China, Indonesia, India, Africa, Brazil, the Caribbean, and North America. Holland became the greatest commercial power in the world.

• The Dutch founded settlements at Fort Orange (now Albany) and along the Hudson River, and allied with the Iroquois, who fought a number of wars with Dutch help called the Beaver Wars (various conflicts from 1640‐1680). They dispersed the Hurons, the French allies, in the late 1640s. The Dutch also overwhelmed a small Swedish colony.

• England in the Chesapeake• Jamestown and the Powhatan Confederacy • King James I (reigned 1603 25) issued royal charters ‐

to colonize the mid Atlantic region of Virginia ‐tojoint stock ‐ companies. In 1607, the Virginia Company sent ships and a hundred men to the Chesapeake, creating the first permanent English settlement of Jamestown.

• The English, saying that the Indians were savages with no rights to respect, pushed out the Algonquian natives there. The Powhatan Confederacy, led by Wahumsonacook (“King Powhatan”), was wary of the English settlers but was eager to ally with them.

• Jamestown’s residents (adventurers, gentlemen, and “ne’er do wells”came looking for gold and a passage to the Indies. Finding neither, they drank and gambled, surviving only on Powhatan generosity.

• Powhatan realized that the English had not come to trade, but instead came to conquer.

• During the 1609 1610 winter, four hundred colonists ‐starved and many turned to cannibalism. Only 40 remained by spring.

• To make a profit, the Virginia Company attacked the Powhatans, creating a war that lasted until 1613 when they captured about 15 year old Pocahontas, ‐ ‐one of Wahumsonacook’s daughters. To secure peace, Pocahontas was married to John Rolfe, who showed her off in visits to England. Pocahontas fell ill and died; Wahumsonacook, in despair, abdicated in favor of his brother Opechancanough before dying.

• Tobacco, Expansion, and Warfare• John Rolfe developed a mild hybrid of tobacco, which

became Virginia’s “merchantable commodity.” Tobacco required large amounts of hand labor and exhausted the soil.

• The Virginia Company handed out “headright grants”—large plantations on the condition that the investors would transport the workers from England there themselves. As a result of enclosures pushing out rural farmers, many accepted the offer to work, but high mortality kept the population of Jamestown low. With English focus on sending immigrants and agriculture instead of trade, Virginia had no need for natives, and thus turned into a “frontier of exclusion.”

• Opechancanough, pressured by English demands for more land to grow tobacco on, attacked the colonists after native shaman Nemanttanew was murdered, leading to a ten year war. The Powhatans sued for ‐peace, but the Virginia Company was bankrupted and Virginia was turned into a royal colony. The settlers kept the House of Burgesses, a local governing body that regulated taxes and finances.

• In 1644, Opechancanough revolted one last time before he was captured and killed by the colonists. The Algonquians were pushed to reservations, shrinking from 14,000 strong to 2,000 by 1670, compared to 40,000 colonists.

• Maryland• In 1632, King Charles I (1625 49) granted 10 million ‐

acres at the northern end of the Chesapeake bay to the Calvert family, the Lords Baltimore, important Catholic supporters of the monarchy. Their colony became Maryland, in honor of the Queen, and founded St. Mary’s in 1634. Maryland became a haven for Catholics.

• Maryland adopted the Virginia system, creating large tobacco plantations.

• Indentured Servants• In exchange for transportation to the New World,

men and women contracted labor to a master for a fixed term (2 7 years) or, in the case of children, ‐until they were 21. A minority are convicts or vagabonds bound into service for as long as 14 years.

• Though they were supposed to be cared for during their service, work in the tobacco fields is rough and many are mistreated. Many try to escape, but to be capture meant an extension on their contract.

• African slaves are introduced in 1619, but they are rarer because of their greater expense; servants are treated as slaves anyway, and, due to disease, two out of five servants die during their indenture. Upon finishing their contract, indentured servants receive “freedom dues”—clothing, tools, a gun, or a spinning wheel, getting help to start on their own—and many head west to get land of their own. Most return to England.

• Community Lives in the Chesapeake • Because most immigrants were men, unmarried women

often married quickly. Men had a higher mortality rate than women in the disease ridden Chesapeake and ‐widows remarried quickly, negotiating for better marriage agreements; this may have created a “matriarchy.” Because of the small family size, kinship, important in England, is weaker.

• Communities in the Chesapeake are disparate. Many live in rough dwellings like huts or caves; even prosperous planters, investing everything into their fields, live in rough wood dwellings.

• Ties remained close to England due to the colonies’ dependence on the motherland.

• The New England ColoniesThe Social and Political Values of Puritanism

• Puritans, so called because they wish to purify and reform the English church, grew increasingly influential during the last years of Queen Elizabeth’s reign. Puritanism was popular among the merchant class, due to its focus on enterprise, who were responsible for England’s economic transformation. The Puritans protested against the end of rural life due to enclosures and the “idle and masterless men,” proposing communities built around a core congregation of reformed Christians. Their views became part of the Protestant Reformation of England.

• King James I ended Elizabeth’s religious tolerance policy and persecuted the Puritans. The Puritans openly criticized James’s successor, Charles I, for marrying a Catholic princess and supporting “High Church” policies. The English Civil War that followed provided a pretext for Protestant immigration to New England.

• Early Contacts in New EnglandThough the north Atlantic coast was initially controlled by French and Dutch traders, an epidemic in 1618 ravages the native population and disrupts the French and Dutch trade there. The surviving coastal societies could not effectively resist colonization.

• Plymouth Colony and the Mayflower Compact• Pilgrims (or Separatists, so called because they separated from the

English church, which they believed to be corrupt) backed by the Virginia Company and led by tradesman William Bradford left for North America from Plymouth, England on the Mayflower in September 1620.

• They land in Massachusetts Bay at the former native village of Pauxtet and rename it Plymouth. The hired men grumble about Pilgrim authority; Bradford draftsthe Mayflower Compact to appease them and create a governing body.

• Half the Pilgrims perish over the winter, but are saved by the Wampanoags led by Massaoit, their sachem (leader), in exchange for help against the Narragansett.

• The Plymouth colony is never a commercial success, but does become an independent Puritan community. Eventually, however, they disperse into eleven separate communities and local interests disrupt the Separatist haven.

• The Massachusetts Bay Colony• Wealthy Puritans receive a royal charter and form

the Massachusetts Bay Company, which sends 200 settlers to Naumkeag on the Massachusetts Bay, which they rename Salem. They hope to create a “city on a hill” as a model of reform. The Puritan Great Migration relocates 20,000 people to Massachusetts .

• Settlers take advantage of a loophole in their charter and form a civil government in 1629, which becomes the model for the bicameral Congress in the future US.

• Indians and Puritans• The English take “unused” native land on the basis

that the natives have no property rights to the land, using force and underhanded tactics that force the natives to give up land and make deals with corrupt sachems, selling tribal property for personal profit.

• Native tribes in the west resist Puritan expansion, but are hit by a smallpox epidemic just as a new wave of migrants arrived. The Puritans ally with the Narragansett and attack the Pequot, allied with the Dutch, but the indiscriminate slaughter of the Pequot in their sleep horrifies the Narragansett.

• The New England MerchantsThe English Civil War of 1642 deposes King Charles I in 1649 and the English Commonwealth, headed by Oliver Cromwell, replaces the monarchy. Puritan incentive to go North America, and migration, ends. The economy becomes a commerce based one, ‐selling commodities to the West Indies. The diverse economy lends long term strength to the New ‐England region, as opposed to the fur economy of New France.

• Community and Family in Massachusetts• Puritans stressed orderly communities and families. Land

was given out according to social status; social hierarchy was ordained by God, and thus the more prosperous were obviously the more goodly. Marriages are arranged and only male children receive compulsory education.

• Women are subordinate to men in Puritan society. Women could not own property, vote, or hold office, and were expected to bear children. Independent women aroused suspicion, leading to various witchcraft accusations, most notably in Salem.

• The Salem trials exposed negative ideas of women in Puritanism and the social inequality of Puritan society.

• Dissent and New Communities• Puritans had little tolerance for religions not their own.

Thomas Hooker, who disagreed with the limits of suffrage to male church members, led his followers to the Connecticut River and founded Hartford.

• Roger Williams, who advocated religious tolerance and the separation of church and state along with dealing fairly with the natives instead of taking their land, bought land from the Narragansett and founded Providence.

• Anne Hutchinson, an outspoken and brilliant woman, is excommunicated from the Puritans and moves to William’s settlement and establishes another dissenting community. Williams receives a charter in 1644, establishing the colony of Rhode Island.

• The Proprietary Colonies Early Carolina • Royal charters issued by Charles II created the new

colony of Carolina, stretching from Virginia to Florida. North Carolina was settled by small farmers and large tobacco planters. South Carolina was populated by settlers from Barbados, made wealthy off of the sugar plantations there, and their slaves.

• From New Netherland to New York• New Netherland, supplied by the Dutch West India

Company, came under the control of the English after a series of conflicts with the Dutch, also resulting in the bankruptcy of the West India Company, ending Dutch dominance in the Atlantic and passing it to the English.

• Renamed to New York after the charter was given to the Duke of York, the brother of Charles II. New York was the most heterogeneous society in North America. In 1665, the communities in the Delaware Valley were split off into the proprietary colony of New Jersey, which remained under the control of New York until the 1680s.

• The Founding of Pennsylvania • The rights to western New Jersey were sold to a group of

investors including William Penn, part of the Society of Friends (known as Quakers to their opponents). In 1681, Penn received a land grant from the king to a large territory west of New Jersey to settle a debt, founding Philadelphia.

• Penn drafted a Frame of Government that guaranteed religious freedom, civil liberties, and elected representation.

• Penn organized the most efficient colonization of the 17th century; ten thousand colonists arrived from England and agricultural communities spread into interior valleys, eventually separating into the colony of Delaware. Pennsylvania became America’s breadbasket and became the most important colonial port in North America.

• Conflict and WarKing Philip’s War

• Following the Pequot War of 1637 (English settlers versus the Pequot over land and trade in eastern Connecticut), the natives and colonists lived closely, but tensely, together. English missionaries converted some Algonquians, who moved to “praying towns.”

• Metacom, known as King Philip to the English, led the Pokanokets, one of the few remaining independent tribes. Metacom, educated in and absorbed into the English world, came to realize that the colonists had no room for his people. In 1671, Metacom was pressured into giving up his home territory. In the spring of 1672, three Pokanoket men were executed for the murder of a Christian Indian; Metacom went to the Narragansett, hoping for a defensive alliance against the nearby war.

• The English used this as a pretext for their attack on the Narragansett, starting King Philip’s War. The natives, though they initially had the upper hand, eventually began to falter; Metacom went to the Iroquois for help, but they reversed and attacked his forces. Metacom retreated and was defeated by the English.

• The Iroquois and the English joined in the Covenant Chain, which declared the Iroquois dominant over all other tribes, fighting wars as far west as Illinois in a series of conflicts known as the Beaver Wars. The English, fearing another attack, burned the praying towns.

• Bacon’s Rebellion• In the 1670s, the Susquehannock people came into conflict

with tobacco planters expanding out of Virginia. Led by Nathaniel Bacon, the frontier planters attacked the natives in 1675, murdering many. William Berkeley moved to suppress these unauthorized attacks and, in doing so, attracted their fury.

• In the spring of 1676, Bacon and his followers attacked Jamestown, forcing Berkeley to flee across the Chesapeake while the rebels pillaged and burned Jamestown. Bacon fell ill died soon after and the revolt crumbled. Virginia authorities signed a treaty with the Susquehannock, but most had already migrated to New York and integrated with the Iroquois.

• Bacon’s rebellion was against both the native people and the aristocratic rule of the colonies, exposing the differences between the frontier and the settled coastal regions. Culpeper’s Rebellion in the Albermarle region of North Carolina echoed the first. Colonial authorities began to favor greater military expansion to appease the frontier planters and, to prevent another servant uprising, began to transition from indentured servants to slaves.

• Wars in the South • Charleston merchants encouraged numerous tribes

—the Yamasees, Creeks, Cherokees, and Chickasaws—to wage war on tribes allied with the French and Spanish, including the mission Indians of Spanish Florida, the Choctaw allies of France, and the Tuscarora trading partners of Virginia. They used this war to capture natives and fuel a slave trade, selling the men to the Caribbean or northern colonies while the women remained in South Carolina, eventually intermingling with African slaves and having children known as “mustees.”