Outline IntroductionConceptual issuesTheoretical FrameworkAfrican Perspectives and the construction of

ResilienceResilience Strategies in Education SystemsSome Empirical data on the development of

ResilienceLessons drawnConclusions and recommendations

Introduction

Masten (2000) points out that a vital quality of resilient communities isthat they foster the development of their children into competentadults and productive citizens (Masten, 2000).

But the context of development varies because of differences innorms, beliefs and values specific to the culture.

Since there exists interaction between biological and culturalfactors, this presupposes both a universal and contextspecific view of the development of resilience skills.

Cont.This paper focuses on African indigenousapproaches to developing resilience in children to findout the extent to which these can impact formal education practices.

Children in Africa grow up in difficult situations that arecharacterized by poverty, war and violence, dysfunctionalfamilies and different forms of natural disasters.

But formal education in Africa is influenced by inherited tripartitevalues from western education, Christianity and influences from theMuslim east.

Cont

African education focuses on developing children’s generativecapacity through its humanitarian values and resilient skills.

It addresses relational norms and obligations exemplified in practicesof exchange and shared values in order to inculcate a sense of collectiveresponsibility.

The problem facing current educational practices is the much focus onwestern systems to the exclusion of other knowledge systems andthought processes that can contribute to the development of humanitarianvalues in resilience systems.

Conceptual IssuesHumanitarianism education is an attempt to teach various social topics that shouldProvide children with sound knowledge on human relations and skills.

Humanitarianism in resilient systems in education addresses sustainable education.The aforementioned, echoes the position of the Dakar World Conference in 2000 thatemphasizes the rights of children in emergencies. It also stresses that educationprogrammes should promote mutual understanding of peace and tolerance.

Today in most school systems for example in Cameroon, ministries of education areexpanding the curriculum by enforcing environmental education, civic and citizenshipeducation and peace and nation building at all levels. It is taught as an independentdiscipline or mainstreamed across the curriculum in some cases.

In indigenous African Education, humanitarian education is person-centered andemphasizes the teaching of spiritual and human values such as respect, tolerance,solidarity, feeling and support for others, sense of responsibility and other skills.

Cont.

Genero (1998) views resilience as a relational concept rather than as an individualcharacteristic whereas Walsh (1998) suggests that being resilient includes more thanmerely surviving and being a victim for life.

Resilience is thus a dynamic and multidimensional construct that incorporates thebidirectional interaction between individuals and their environments within the family,peer, school and community and society. Resilience systems.

Resilience systems in African context would be those structures at home, thecommunity, school and society at large that ensure that children have access toLivelihood opportunities for quality development and wellbeing. The end product is afocus on the development of positive mental health, self-image and reduced access torisk conditions.

Theoretical Perspectives

Resilience theory is associated with a reduction in emphasis onpathology and an increase in emphasis on strengths (Rak & Patterson,1996). This permit a shift from vulnerability/deficit models hypothesiswhen faced with adversity.

If resilience is developmental whereby children continuously acquire the habit of usingboth internal and external resources to ensure positive adaptation even in crisissituations then there is need to see the explanative theoretical framework from aninteractional perspective.

Processes employed can be explained from cognitive framework (Ionescu, 2006), theecosystem approach (Bronfenbrenner, 1978), psychosocial approach (Erikson, 1968)and Bowlby’s theory of attachment (1977) which provides a strong foundation forresilience. Such wide perspective in the use of explanative theories should poseproblem for research.

African Perspectives and the construction of Resilience

Africentric education has as one of its tenets, the

decolonizing of the African mind in order to overthrow

the authority of alien traditions over the African (Chinweizu,

1987). This is not rejecting foreign tradition but it is a denial of

its authoritative control in the African culture.

Africentric education equips African children with self

knowledge with the purpose of instilling in them a sense of

agency for the purpose of personal development, community

development and nation building (Shockley, 2007).

Cont. In other words, children are taught about their responsibility to

forge their development and that of their community.

Despite the lack of support in the notions of Africentric systems

of education, the concept of African agency and resiliency

remains critically important for African children.

In the context of African-centered literature, a "sense of agency“

or resilience is understood as a people's or person’s ability,

empowerment, and entitlement to control and mandate the

arenas of life around them (Asante, 1988, 1990;Maluccio, 2002).

ContAccording to Asante (1980), western educational systems do not

inspirea sense of resilience and agency in African children. Only Africentricschools have attempted to imbue a sense of agency in African children(Akoto, 1992). Africentric education systems offer a holistic approachfor bringing about a sense of agency and resilience for Africanchildren by using education as one vehicle for such change.

Africentric education must be understood not simply as a tool forimproving educational conditions, but as a tool for a holistic change inthe local community. Resilient socialization networks in childupbringing in Africa nurture a sense of responsibility for self andothers and their functioning.

Resilience Strategies in Education Systems

Since 1972, education reforms have focused on relevance and quality through various reforms in Cameroon:

Ruralisation of education with the main objective to make children self-reliant very early by developing in them love for agriculture and manual work,

Environmental education at all levels; from primary to university education is emphasized with more field experiences where children and students are involved in different activities in the communities.

Bilingualism posed language barrier for most children particularly when none of these languages are any of the mother tongues of the children. Children become vulnerable and this affects school performance. Government’s strategy is through a policy where English and French are taught as both curriculum content and medium for instruction.

Cont Gender sensitive education to increase access and progression for girls

through school friendly system The school friendly policy introduced democratic values. Other enhancing strategies are the creation of a gender friendly school community, provision of healthy learning environment with available health centers in the catchment areas, good sanitation, borehole toilets, pipe borne water, increased partnership with the community and more parental involvement in school activities.

Schools, colleges and universities are now more disability friendly from divers perspectives, in particular infrastructure and pedagogical practices.

Other enabling strategies are the positioning of guidance counselors in schools and the strengthening of teacher education programmes in terms of content and professional development.

The institution of the New Pedagogic Approach (Participatory)

Cont

The participatory approach uses the

techniques of hands-on, apprenticeship and

collaboration in group and individual work.

Through these engagements, children gain skills

and ability to manage and cope.

ContOther nongovernmental and individual structures provide support tovulnerable children. These institutions use community-based and grass rootsprotective strategies to provide social support to children who were victims ofone form of natural disaster or another for example . “Serve the OrphansFoundation "is an example. Effective support mechanisms include visits fromCommunity leaders, and training for self reliant skills.

Community-based approaches help children cope with the feeling of beingstigmatized, dropping out from school and other emotional traumas thatincrease their psychological burden on the growing up process. The mainstrategy to achieve this is through individual competency skill building.

Other Examples Resilience in Education from Africa

Resilience Strategies in other African Education Systems adopted the followingstrategies (Bird 2009) to strengthened children’s learning and resilience:Uganda Education Sector Strategic Plan for example,(ESSP, 2004-20015) has put inplace structures to address the conflict in the North of the country through itsapproach which aims to support and guide quality education for national integration,individual and national development by instituting Free fees for universal primary education programme targeting disadvantaged

children and children in conflict areas Design and help teachers to use curricular and instruction appropriate for pupils in

conflict areas Provide sufficient quantities of reading materials in local languages to overcome

feelings of alienation and exclusion In Sierra Leone, UNICEF and Save the children sector plan (2007-20015) addresspeace building strategy. In Kenya, context based indicators are being identified thatwill be integrated into the education management Information System (EMIS) fordisaster preparedness and emergency response.

Cont.Another example comes from the new Afghan National EducationStrategicPlan (2010-2015), focusing more on references to school protection,community participation and human rights, suggesting that peace messagesshould be mainstreamed both in the national curriculum and in teacher training. The“cross cutting issues are peace education, human rights, elimination of violation ofchildren and women’s rights, environmental protection, and HIV. These will beaddressed in the textbooks” (Afghan National Education Strategic Plan, p.5).Incorporating the participation of the local elders and community leaders is importantfor success. Tchad is emulating this model. 

Christie and Potterton (1997) mentioned the characteristics of resilience schools inSouth African society as a sense of responsibility, leadership and management style,flexibility, commitment to teaching and learning, improving programme, safety andorganisation, authority and discipline, culture concerns, governance and communityrelationship and parental involvement.

Some Empirical data on the development of Resilience

Research findings are highly congruent with a growing world literature

on what makes a difference in the lives of children whose development is

threatened by adversity (Cowen, 2000; Glantz & Johnson, 1999; Luthar,

Cicchetti and Becker, 2000; Masten, 1994; Masten & Coatsworth, 1998).

Some of the most frequently reported "protective factors" in the literature;

provide clues about the processes that lead to resilience. Protective systems for

human development having implications in resilience studies are attachment

systems, self regulation systems and spirituality among others.

Findings from resilience research suggest that the greatest threats to children

are those adversities that undermine the basic human protective systems for

development. Programmes and policies that support effective parenting and the

availability of competent adults in the lives of children are crucial.

Cont.

Literature is replete with research findings on what can belearnt from cultural practices to enhance the development resilience in formal education.

Even in Latino culture and Indian First Nation culture in the US(Stutman, Baruch, Grotberg & Rathore, 2002:38) the rich values andexperiences provide good examples for the development of resilience. HeavyRunner and Morris (1997) comment on these values and their relationship tothe development of resilience in children through oral tradition such as forExamples, songs and storytelling. Listening with patience and respectcreates opportunities for developing resilience. The traditional Indianfamily like most African family traditions are rich with profound values andnorms.

Cont.

Grotberg (1992) in his study of Sudanese andNorwagian child-rearing practices also foundvariations in parental attitudes towards resolvingchildren’s problems with peers.

The use of song, music and dance has a strong tradition in

South Africa as a vital pedagogic mechanism (Sæther2002),. They are valuable indigenous pedagogical toolsfor learning in school and about cultural traditions.

Lessons drawn

Lessons from the review illustrated that resilience varies as a function of the culture. Cultural strategies for building resilience are many and rich. Network such as the family, school and the community are major

partners in developing vulnerable children’s resilience. Use indigenous pedagogy approaches and techniques Use more participatory pedagogic strategies Strengthening children’s resilience skills for the development of

their self-image. Identity and self-esteem are central processes in resilience. Furthermore, it is important to build such skills based on pupil’s

entry characteristics and what obtains in the culture.

Conclusions and Recommendations

The standards by which parents, teachers, and communitymembers judge how well a child is developing, though mayvary across cultures, are based on developmental tasks. Thesetasks are the broad expectations parents and the societieshave for children of different ages.

More research is required for better understanding ofvulnerable children’s resilience. A study of the cognitivefunctioning of vulnerable children and the impact thedevelopment of resilience skills would provide addedknowledge on directions for interventions.

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