oxfam wash minimum requirements - january 2010

Oxfam GB

Minimum Requirements for WASH Programmes

January 2010

Pre-publication PDF version.

For programme use.

Who is “Minimum Requirements for WASH Programmes” for?

“Minimum Requirements for WASH Programmes” (MR-WASH) is essential reading for all Oxfam GB1 Public Health (PH) field staff and partners, and their Managers. It describes the process and standards to which Oxfam WASH programmes2 must adhere if they are to be carried out effectively, consistently and in a way which treats affected communities with respect.

� PH Team Leaders, Co-ordinators, Advisors and HSPs should use MR-WASH as a constant reference when implementing activities on a day-to-day basis, and for planning purposes to ensure sufficient time and resources are allocated for projects to comply with Oxfam’s Minimum Requirements.

� Project Managers and Country Management Teams should use MR-WASH as a checklist of “must dos” which they need to be satisfied are understood and are being fulfilled by their staff.

� PH Field Staff (Officers and Assistants) will be trained on MR-WASH at the start of every new programme, and should follow the Requirements in their daily work.

� Staff from Local Partner organisations – unless specifically stated MR-WASH also applies to partner organisations working with Oxfam on a WASH programme.

Guide to Using the Document 1. MR-WASH is presented in 2 sections: (1) a 4-page ‘checklist’ of the Minimum Requirements for

each theme of Oxfam’s WASH work, and (2) explanations of each Requirement in detail. Relevant material (e.g. the Oxfam Pocket Humanitarian Handbook (HUHA)) and global standards are referenced throughout the document and can also be found in full on the accompanying DVD [in progress].

2. All PH staff are expected to follow these Minimum Requirements. However, there will be situations or projects in which certain aspects are not appropriate or relevant; in such cases staff members responsible must be able to justify why she/he did things differently.

3. MR-WASH is intended to support and give clarity about what Oxfam does and how to do it well; it should NOT limit programme activities. In particular, innovative approaches to WASH activities that meet these MR are encouraged.

4. MR-WASH addresses programme standards from Oxfam’s point-of-view. The document compliments but does not replace external standards such as SPHERE and the Accountability ‘Good Enough’ guide.

5. For the sake of clarity and consistency this document uses the term ‘affected communities’ to describe the communities we work with in humanitarian emergencies, including host communities where applicable.

1 Hereafter referred to as Oxfam. 2 WASH is a term used by Unicef and the water and sanitation sector to highlight the importance of integrating hygiene promotion in water and sanitation interventions. In Oxfam terms, WASH incorporates: Water (water supply for human consumption and household needs); Sanitation (excreta disposal, solid waste management, drainage, vector control) and Hygiene (health data monitoring, community mobilisation and engagement, information, education and communication, and NFI distributions).

Minimum Requirements for WASH Programmes (MR-WASH)

January 2010 - 3 - Oxfam MR-WASH January 2010.doc

Ref �� Minimum Requirement

A1 Ways of Working for PH Teams

� WASH programmes must be planned and implemented by PHEs and PHPs working together as a single “PH Team”, and activities should be co-ordinated with EFSL and other technical programmes to identify opportunities and challenges for joint working.

� PH teams should give particular attention to selection and capacity building of WASH partners with flexibility and skills to deliver at short notice.

� All PH staff should receive a briefing on logistics, finance and other supporting teams, and be aware of how to interact with these functions (e.g. completing supply requisitions, overall budget, budget codes etc.)

A2 Co-ordination � PH staff must plan, implement and monitor programmes in close co-ordination with other Oxfam affiliates, NGOs, UN agencies and national authorities.

A3 Health and Safety � All PH staff have responsibility for health and safety: every WASH activity must be examined from the point of view of health and safety, and support must be requested if staff are uncertain or concerned about a health and safety issue.

A4 Assessment � An assessment of WASH priority risks and needs must be undertaken before any humanitarian intervention using the Oxfam Public Health Assessment Tool, the Global WASH Cluster Assessment Tools or another planned assessment process.

A5 Today’s response, tomorrow’s disaster – forward thinking for WASH

� All WASH programmes, however short-term or ‘rapid response-orientated’ they might seem, should consider aspects of Disaster Risk Reduction in assessment, on-going activities and preparedness planning.

A6 Reporting � There should be a clear, concise mechanism for collecting and reporting information about the progress of a WASH programme, which is understood by all, well co-ordinated with other NGOs and UN agencies, and is not overly onerous on staff time.

� The conclusions of regular WASH reports (sitreps etc.) should be disseminated to stakeholders including affected communities and partners.

A7 Monitoring, Evaluation and Learning

� WASH programmes must ensure that systems for MEL are planned jointly between PHE and PHP teams and are well co-ordinated with the WASH Cluster.

� A WASH Learning Review should be undertaken towards the end of the programme, with lessons learnt from this review documented and shared widely



Ref �� Minimum Requirement

A8 Ensuring the participation of the most vulnerable

� WASH programmes must include provision for the specific needs of children.

� All WASH Programmes are based on a needs and risk assessment. It is imperative that such assessments identify the specific needs, vulnerabilities and capacities of distinct socio-economic, gender, ethnic and age groups within a community.

A9 Mainstreaming � All WASH programmes must undertake mainstreaming of HIV & AIDS, gender and protection.

A10 Accountability � In all humanitarian responses, PH staff should put in place mechanisms for community participation, information sharing, feedback and positive staff attitudes and behaviour.

A11 Working with Volunteers � PH staff must follow the 11 key considerations of planning and implementing WASH activities with volunteers.

A12 Contingency Planning � PH staff should work with Programme Management and at inter-agency level to ensure adequate preparedness to PH risks in Oxfam and sectoral contingency plans.

A13 Exit from WASH Programmes

� Exit plans for WASH programmes should include consideration of WASH-specific factors, such as local suppliers of spare parts, government systems for WASH and facilitation of WASH committees.

� PH teams should be actively involved in determining exit plans, to ensure appropriate technical input is given to decisions on continuation or phase out of WASH activities.

B1 Health data � PH staff must have a simple system for accessing and interpreting data on key disease trends, whether collected directly from affected communities, through co-ordination activities and/or from medical professionals.

� Epidemiological data should be used to develop hygiene promotion campaigns.

B2 Water � All WASH programmes should aim to comply with the SPHERE Minimum Standards for water supply in terms of water quantity, water quality and locations/distances to water points.

� WASH programmes must provide hygiene promotion on the importance of the safe water chain, operation and maintenance, and the means to enable safe hygiene practices.

B3 Excreta Disposal � WASH programmes must ensure appropriate safe sanitation for affected communities, including facilities for excreta disposal and bathing, to minimise risk of WASH-related disease and environmental pollution, in a way that maintains dignity.

� Sanitation activities must be based on consultation with beneficiaries – especially women, children and less able people – on design, type and location of any sanitation facility. Where possible sanitation facilities should be based on materials that communities have at their disposal.

� Desludging and decommissioning needs should be considered when designing excreta disposal projects.



B4 Solid Waste Management � All solid waste activities should be based on the findings of a solid waste audit, and follow hierarchy of options (minimisation, re-use, recycling, disposal) in accordance with local conditions.

� For reasons for health, safety and environment: household-level burning of waste should not be promoted; all hazardous waste arising from Oxfam activities must be specially managed; and, appropriate personal protective equipment should be issued for all waste activities.

B5 Promotion of Hand-washing � Hand washing must be addressed, especially in all latrines Oxfam constructs or repairs, either at the latrine or at the household level, by the promotion of hand-washing techniques, and promotion and provision of soap or proxy such as ash.

B6 Distribution of Hygiene Kits � The composition, targeting criteria and distribution systems for hygiene kits must be decided in consultation with the affected community, and undertaken in co-ordination with the WASH Cluster.

B7 Development and Use of Information, Education and Communication materials

� The affected community must be consulted before the rollout of an IEC programme to ensure cultural sensitivity and understanding of the subject matter.

� Development and use of IEC should also be undertaken in close collaboration with the WASH and Health Cluster and appropriate government departments to ensure that consistent, ‘approved’ messages are used.

� An IEC strategy that explains the rationale for the choice of messages, communications methodologies and monitoring mechanisms should be developed as soon as possible.

B8 Vector Control � Physical or chemical vector control activities must be based on a clear assessment of the risk of vectors to WASH-related disease, and co-ordinated with WASH Cluster, government authorities and specialist agencies to ensure added value of Oxfam intervention.

� Oxfam does not advocate for, or implement, chemical fly control methods such as spraying, outdoor fogging or dusting for the sole purpose of eradicating or controlling flies.

B9 Shelter � PH staff should provide input on technical shelter designs, construction management, and WASH integration in transitional shelter projects.

B10 Camps and Informal Settlements

� PH staff should be proactively involved in supporting camp and settlement planning with WASH input. This should include technical assessments of water availability and planning and layout of water distribution network and sanitation facilities.

B11 Construction Standards � All Oxfam construction activities (site management, health and safety, excavations, masonry, concrete, and sign off) must meet or exceed national quality standards, and be based on a regularly reviewed work plan.



B12 Cholera and other Diarrhoeal Outbreak Control

� All PH staff must be aware if cholera is endemic in the country they are working and they must be familiar with the measures for prevention and response.

� All PH staff must be familiar with the critical stages in the outbreak curve and key target activities for each stage as specified on the OGB Cholera Prevention and Control Guidelines.

� At a minimum a response to a severe diarrhoea outbreak should entail the following:

o Intensive public health campaign on key diarrhoea focused messages.

o Access to oral re-hydration.

o Chlorination of all drinking water.

o Distribution of NFIs.

o Clean-up campaigns to ensure the environment is free from faecal matter.

o Provision of WASH support to Cholera Treatment Centres.

o Close co-ordination with the Health Cluster and MoH.

B13 Malaria � The decision to intervene with a malaria programme must be based on knowledge of the malaria profile for the area: all WASH assessments must include an appraisal of malaria risk and the capacity and intention of other agencies (including the government) to intervene.

� Depending on context the preference for Oxfam malaria activities is for the provision of community education to ensure effective prevention of malaria and distribution of insecticide-treated nets.

B14 Other public health programming

� If PH staff identify a need or opportunity to intervene in other public health areas, Programme Management, and preferably Regional or Oxford-based Public Health Advisors should be consulted to determine Oxfam’s capacity to intervene, what added value Oxfam would bring, and budgetary and timing issues.

B15 What we DON’T do � PH staff must be briefed and understand the limit of Oxfam PH activities, and know how to deal with requests for humanitarian support in activities that we do not undertake (if necessary with the support of Programme Managers).



A1 Ways of Working for PH Teams

� WASH programmes must be planned and implemented by PHEs and PHPs working together as a single “PH Team”, and activities should be co-ordinated with EFSL and other technical programmes to identify opportunities and challenges for joint working.

� PH teams should give particular attention to selection and capacity building of WASH partners with flexibility and skills to deliver at short notice.

� All PH staff should receive a briefing on logistics, finance and other supporting teams, and be aware of how to interact with these functions (e.g. completing supply requisitions, overall budget, budget codes etc.)

Reference documents

A1.1 • The most successful WASH programmes (in terms of health impact, beneficiary perception and satisfaction) are those in which Public Health Engineers (PHEs) and Public Health Promoters (PHPs) work closely and harmoniously together.

• For PHEs and PHPs to work together effectively, there must be:

o Joint assessments and planning (strategic and activity planning) between the 2 teams.

o Co-ordinated presence in the field – avoid turning up in different vehicles, or having multiple meetings in the same villages on the same day.

o Community meetings that involve both PHE and PHP inputs.

o Regularly scheduled (weekly or more frequently) joint meetings to encourage effective collaboration and communication.

o A joint Monitoring Plan.

o Joint analysis of assessment and monitoring data to identify implications for both PHE and PHP.

o Joint input into a PH Staff Training and Capacity Building Plan (with support from the HR team).

o Respect of the roles and contributions that each specialism (PHE and PHP) makes towards an overall goal.

• PH staff working in different areas (e.g. different villages or camps) within the same overall programme also have a responsibility to work together as 1 team to avoid duplication or contradiction, e.g. with purchase orders, technical specifications or hygiene messages. Senior PH staff should take practical steps to make sure this happens.

• At the planning stages of new programmes the requirements for both PHE and PHP activities should always be considered (i.e. avoid having a programme which is just engineering or hygiene promotion).

• PH Team Leaders and Management should engage in regular discussion with Regional WASH Advisors to discuss programme implementation challenges - in particular at key project stages (e.g. new proposals, start of implementation, post evacuation, exit). Regional WASH Advisors should also be copied in on technical WASH designs (and provide advise on these designs to field staff).

• HUHA 3.6.1

• Oxfam, Integration of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene.

A1.2 Roles and responsibilities - Joint responsibilities for PHE and PHP • HUHA 3.6.1



All PH staff are expected to:

• Have an understanding of both Oxfam (including the Staff Code of Conduct) and of how their role fits in within the wider humanitarian programme.

• Mobilise affected communities to organise collective activities e.g. clean up campaigns, carry out construction and organise management committees for the operation and maintenance of WASH facilities.

• Ensure that cross cutting issues such as gender, protection and HIV are appropriately addressed.

• Carry out community consultations, including feedback, around siting and design of WASH facilities and other activities.

• Establish water and sanitation maintenance systems (which may include committees, training, provision of tools, equipment and/or spare parts, revenue collection systems).

• Be aware of the context specific advocacy issues and participate in advocacy activities in collaboration with other Oxfam staff as appropriate.

• Make people and communities aware that they have the right to give feedback (and complain) and we have the obligation to respond.

• Ensure adequate monitoring systems are in place to monitor and inform programme implementation.

A1.3 Roles and responsibilities - PHPs

In addition to all of the Minimum Requirements described in this document, PHPs should, in collaboration with PHEs:

• Find out what women and men, girls and boys affected by emergencies know, do and think about WASH-related risks to health.

• Assist affected communities to identify local WASH-related PH problems and plan solutions.

• Build awareness within affected communities of health issues around WASH, by providing culturally appropriate information on preventive measures to reduce WASH risks, and disseminate the information by using creative communications strategies e.g. radio broadcasts, drama, children’s activities and community meetings.

• Mobilise and train women and men amongst the affected communities to work as educators and health promoters in their own communities.

• Supporting PHEs with social feasibility issues of WASH facility designs.

• PHP Job Profile, 2007.

• WASH Cluster, Job Descriptions for PHP Co-ordinator, Promoter and Community Mobiliser, 2009

A1.4 Roles and responsibilities - PHEs

In addition to all of the Minimum Requirements described in this document, PHEs should, in collaboration with PHPs:

• Assess technical options for the provision of water, sanitation and emergency shelter.

• Create designs based on technical feasibility and community feedback.

• PHE Job Profile, 2007



• Organise (with support from PHP where relevant) construction.

• Supervise and monitor construction, with an emphasis on community engagement and participation.

• Ensure that facilities constructed are of good quality and are maintained at that standard for the duration of their or the project’s lifespan.

A1.5 PH Staffing Considerations

• Every WASH programme is different and has different staffing requirements: the key question to ask when establishing a PH team is: how many staff of different levels are needed to deliver a quality programme efficiently?

• PH posts and gradings should reflect the skills required to the job, whether PHE or PHP. In forming PH teams it is essential for Managers to understand that PH staff have developed their skills in different ways: skills and experience might be a substitute for academic qualification but not the other way round.

• To promote equal respect and open dialogue between the PH disciplines, PHE and PHP staff with a similar level of responsibilities on a PH organogram should be on the same level (D1, D2 etc.).

PH Co-ordinators (PHCs)

Projects which have PHCs who manage (and sometimes advise) both PHP and PHE programmes (staff & activities) should:

• Have a manageable job description that is not just a complication of PHP and PHE tasks but a Co-ordinator role.

• Ensure that there are strong PHE and PHP Team Leaders to provide technical support equally in both sectors.

A1.6 WASH and Emergency Food Security and Livelihoods (EFSL)

WASH programmes must be coherent and integrated with other humanitarian work. Whilst noting that WASH and EFSL programmes are sometimes aimed at different groups (WASH activities generally address the wider PH needs of the entire community, whereas EFSL work will usually be targeted to specific vulnerable livelihood groups), as much as possible WASH activities will be implemented with the same communities, and through the same delivery mechanisms as EFSL activities.

• Programme Managers / Technical Team Leaders must hold regular co-ordination meetings between WASH, EFSL and other programmes to ensure integration and efficiency of implementation.

• PH and EFSL teams should work together to identify opportunities for incorporating cash for work, cash transfers, voucher schemes and other innovative ESFL techniques into WASH activities.

• Engage with EFSL colleagues when designing shelter interventions (including beneficiary selection, modality of material provision – i.e. provide voucher to purchase materials, skill-building programmes for local carpenters, etc).

• Options for using local markets to source NFIs and WASH and shelter materials should be investigated by PH teams with the support of EFSL (and logistics) colleagues.

Oxfam Cash and PH Briefing Paper



• PH teams should appraise options for income generation / revenue collection by WASH committees (for example to finance Operation and Maintenance (O&M)) with EFSL colleagues.

• Livelihoods work initiated by PH teams must consider the particular needs of women and vulnerable groups such as PLWHA.

A1.7 Working with WASH Partners

Local authorities and NGOs often have excellent local knowledge and contacts as well as skilled human resources.

There are many different models for working with partners. For example, Oxfam sets the work plan and undertakes management and M&E; the partner submits their own proposal and Oxfam oversees implementation; Oxfam seconds staff into partners to support them; or Oxfam seconds staff from partners into Oxfam.

Whichever method is chosen depends on the capacity of the partner and the primary objective of the programme (for example, is it rapid emergency response or longer-term capacity building), what is acceptable to the local partner, and ultimately, what is the most effective way for the project to deliver for the affected communities.

• HUHA 3.13

• Oxfam Partnership Policy, 2007

• OI Toolbox, Working with Partners in Humanitarian Responses, 2008

• WASH Cluster Hygiene Promotion Training Materials, 2009

A1.8 Working with Finance, Logistics and other Programme Support Functions

The HUHA details Minimum Requirements for Programme Support Functions. In addition to this, PH teams should:

• Be briefed on the functions of Finance, Logistics, HR and other Programme Support teams, and understand how they interact with WASH programmes.

• Receive a briefing on the overall programme budget, in particular the WASH activity budget, donors/sources of funds, and budget codes and how to use them.

• Undertake joint assessments/field visits with Logistics staff to aid in implementing NFI distributions or delivery of construction materials, as well as market assessments.

• Ensure that all WASH activities which require cash payment or transfer of materials in the field are communicated to the Programme Manager, and that adequate support is sought to undertake these activities safely and in line with Oxfam policy.

• HUHA 4



A2 Co-ordination

� PH staff must plan, implement and monitor programmes in close co-ordination with other Oxfam affiliates, NGOs, UN agencies and national authorities.

Reference documents

A2.1 Oxfam International

All humanitarian responses carried out by any Oxfam affiliate are Oxfam International responses. PH teams (as delegated by Oxfam Country Management) should:

• Share relevant WASH information (programme plans, capacities, assessments, reports etc.) with the country level OI humanitarian Lead Agency and OI Humanitarian Country Team.

• Take opportunities for sharing of WASH best practice and resources with other affiliates, for example through joint training sessions, assessments or participating together in MEL activities.

• HUHA 2.5

• OI Humanitarian Dossier, 2008

A2.2 WASH Cluster3

Oxfam GB is committed to supporting coordination mechanisms in emergencies, either through the WASH Cluster or similar co-ordination forums, to help minimise duplication of effort and ensures a consistent, high quality approach.

Humanitarian co-ordination is not simply attending meetings: Oxfam as a leading actor in WASH has a role in supporting others in the sector with technical assistance, training and resources. PH teams are expected to input Oxfam best practice and principles to the Cluster, and to advocate that other WASH actors adopt these resources.

PH teams must:

• Engage with other agencies (NGOs and UN) at the earliest opportunity (i.e. Day 1 of a response to a rapid onset emergency) to promote a common approach to assessment and planning, and to avoid duplication of resources.

• Register key staff (email, phone etc.) to be included on distribution lists for WASH Cluster correspondence and information sharing.

• Take a proactive approach to general co-ordination meetings and technical sub-groups (e.g. Hygiene Promotion Group) to promote consistency and high quality of implementation, contingency planning, monitoring and reporting.

• Directly (or through other appropriate Oxfam colleagues) establish contacts in other relevant co-ordination structures, such as Health, Education, Protection, Logistics or Shelter Clusters to promote informal networking and sharing of information. PH staff should not aim to attend all meetings but should maintain regular contact with these networks.

• Prepare and communicate to all Oxfam PH team members a clear plan of who should attend which meetings, their expected inputs,

• Oxfam Policy on Cluster Leadership, 2008

• OI Policy on Clusters and Advocacy, 2009

3 It is increasingly common for a WASH Cluster to be activated for humanitarian emergencies. In order to be succinct, different mechanisms for WASH co-ordination are hereafter referred to simply as the ‘WASH Cluster’, and relevant Minimum Requirements apply regardless of whether a formal Cluster has been established or not.



and what and how they should feedback outcomes / actions to colleagues.

• Ensure that key outcomes from every co-ordination meeting are concisely communicated to management and teams in a timely manner,

PH staff can also take opportunities for informal networking (outside meetings, over coffee etc.) with colleagues from other agencies to widen their scope of contacts.

Oxfam role in WASH Cluster Leadership

In humanitarian emergencies the lead for water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) co-ordination is Unicef working closely with local authorities.

• In general Oxfam does not offer to be a WASH Cluster lead in countries as this is the role of Unicef as global co-ordinating agency. Our primary role is in providing emergency preparedness and response; taking on a cluster lead role without sufficient back-stopping can lead to a loss of vital emergency preparedness and response capacity.

• Much of our credibility in the WASH sector comes from our reputation for operational work (either directly or through partners). Working in this role we are able to play an active and influential role in the cluster and other co-ordination processes. Where possible we should be offering to lead PHE and PHP technical working groups that support cluster co-ordination.

• This does not mean that we will never take the cluster lead in a country. There have been circumstances in which we will do this for particular context-specific reasons and for a distinct time period. But we should not set ourselves up as long-term cluster leads in countries, and we should always consider the resource implications of engaging in Cluster Leadership

A2.3 Co-ordination with Government

In most cases, the responsibility for humanitarian response ultimately rests with the government of the affected country.

The extent of co-ordination that is possible with government authorities on specific WASH issues will depend on the political and humanitarian context, however PH staff (in collaboration with Oxfam Country Management) should:

• Take pro-active steps to develop a working relationship with the relevant technical WASH authorities at local and national level.

• Obtain copies of national legislation, policies and standards covering all relevant public health issues, ensure all PH teams are trained in these policies and understand their application.

These can often be done through the WASH Cluster or other functioning inter-NGO co-ordination mechanism.



A3 Health and Safety

� All PH staff have responsibility for health and safety: every WASH activity must be examined from the point of view of health and safety, and support must be requested if staff are uncertain or concerned about a health and safety issue.

Reference documents

A3.1 • Health and safety issues must be dealt with and provisions made for every WASH activity such as latrine digging, desludging, NFI distributions, solid waste management, hand-dug wells, children’s activities, spring development, drilling, vector control, bladder or tank construction etc.

• PH staff must be properly trained and have the correct protective clothing, and sites must be properly marked and cordoned off at all times to prevent accidents.

• Personal Protective Equipment is considered a Health and Safety matter.

• Each work site should have basic first aid kit and someone who knows how to use it.

• PH field staff should be adequately fit and properly dressed (e.g. footwear) and equipped (e.g. sunhat, raincoat) to perform their job according to local field conditions.

• Oxfam Good Practice Guidelines for Health and Safety for Work on Water, Sanitation and Shelter Projects

• Oxfam Equipment Catalogue.



A4 Assessments

An assessment of WASH priority risks and needs must be undertaken before any humanitarian intervention using the Oxfam Public Health Assessment Tool, the Global WASH Cluster Assessment Tools or another planned assessment process.

Reference documents

A4.1 In an emergency, a rapid assessment should provide information as to whether to intervene and if so, the type and scale of activities and priorities for the resource allocation. Subsequent collection of baseline data can identify the most vulnerable to help target assistance, and can reveal capacities and skills among the communities and the risks to health that should be addressed by WASH activities.

For all assessments PH staff should:

• Carryout an initial rapid assessment and develop basic concept note within 72 hours (per M&E Minimum Standards).

• Balance the need for assessment with the humanitarian imperative of saving lives following a rapid onset emergency. Often PH teams will need to start WASH activities immediately, based on rapid assessment results which can be substantiated later.

• Co-ordinate assessment methodologies with other agencies and local authorities to obtain a consistent picture of the situation, and ensure comprehensive coverage of affected communities.

• Prepare a data collection plan that includes time frame for data collection and entry; the resources (transport, food, water, materials) needed; HR needs if temporary enumerators are to be used.

• Train staff and volunteers in assessment techniques, preferably in advance of an emergency (and with regular refresher sessions) so that no time is wasted in getting a competent team to the field.

• Inform all relevant actors such as community leaders and local authorities on the assessment (time frame, locations etc.) and get required permissions for access, data collection etc.

• Use a range of data collection methods, such as focus group discussions, household surveys, key informant interviews, transect walks and mapping.

• Collect data from authorities (water, health) and other NGOs who have long presence in the area.

• Collect information on seasonal disease trends and the potential exposure for new water-sanitation related diseases due to the hazard/displacement context.

• Undertake a pilot exercise to identify potential difficulties with the methodology.

• Agree a method for data analysis (and possible data base) that allows for timely interpretation of results, and can be used later in the programme for comparative MEL.

• Share the assessment findings and planned actions with the Oxfam PH team, affected communities, local authorities and WASH Cluster.

• HUHA 3.2

• Oxfam Public Health Assessment Tool and supporting materials (How to Conduct FGDs, etc.)

• WASH Cluster assessment tools (IRA, RAT and CAT)

• Oxfam WASH Integrated Database Management Tool (in progress).



A5 Today’s response, tomorrow’s disaster – forward thinking for WASH

� All WASH programmes, however short-term or ‘rapid response-orientated’ they might seem, should consider aspects of Disaster Risk Reduction in assessment, on-going activities and preparedness planning.

Reference documents

A5.1 Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)

Due to the increasing frequency and impact of disasters and consequential disease epidemics, all Oxfam programmes must consider how they can integrate DRR into WASH and other programmes. Examples of how DRR can be integrated into WASH activities are given in the ‘Learning Companion on DRR and WASH’, but at a minimum, PH staff should:

• Think beyond the present situation when undertaking rapid and baseline WASH assessments:

o In addition to current impacts, is there evidence that natural hazards are increasing?, and what are the vulnerabilities of the affected community (particularly women) to these disasters?

o What capabilities does the affected community have to respond to disasters?

o What opportunities are there for empowering affected communities to understand the disaster risks (including climate change patterns), identify solutions, and negotiate the means to implement these.

• Undertake a similar analysis of on-going programmes (both humanitarian and development) with the above considerations.

• Consider the potential long-term negative impacts of WASH activities.

• Contribute to the development of preparedness plans in anticipation of disasters (� Section A12 Contingency Planning). These should include contingency plans and stocks, and funding proposals to help mitigate the impact of future disasters. Ensure that all stakeholders - including affected communities, the WASH Cluster, and local authorities, are involved in preparedness planning from the beginning.

• Oxfam Learning Companion on DRR and WASH

• Oxfam DRR Programme Policy, 2009



A6 Reporting

� There should be a clear, concise mechanism for collecting and reporting information about the progress of a WASH programme, which is understood by all, well co-ordinated with other NGOs and UN agencies, and is not overly onerous on staff time.

� Summaries of regular WASH reports (sitreps etc.) should be disseminated to stakeholders including affected communities and partners.

Reference documents

A6.1 A clear understanding of the progress that is being made is crucial if WASH programmes are to be completed as according to plans and in a timely way.

PH staff must:

• Develop simple mechanisms for collecting data for regular internal reporting, and explain these requirements clearly to teams.

• Prepare a single PH report and clearly communicate with PH team members about the person responsible for compiling and sharing reports and frequency and deadline of reports.

• Take a proactive approach to support the design and implementation of an inter-agency reporting mechanisms, e.g. WASH Cluster Sitreps and Who is doing What, Where and When database (4W). PH staff should use their influence in the WASH Cluster to advocate against multiple and frequently changing versions for reporting templates.

• Share reports with local partners and other stakeholders.

• Agree a mechanism with affected communities for distributing appropriate sections of Oxfam reports in a transparent and understandable way.

• HUHA 3.12



A7 Monitoring, Evaluation and Learning

� WASH programmes must ensure that systems for MEL are planned jointly between PHE and PHP teams and are well co-ordinated with the WASH Cluster.

� A WASH Learning Review should be undertaken towards the end of the programme, with lessons learnt from this review documented and shared widely.

Reference documents

A7.1 In addition to the overall guidelines for M&E detailed in the Oxfam Pocket Humanitarian Handbook, and Minimum Standards for M&E of Category 2 and 3 Emergencies, PH staff should:

• Prepare a joint MEL plan that incorporates both PHE and PHP activities, and jointly analyse the collected data.

• Review log-frames on a regular basis (bi-weekly or monthly) to measure progress against indicators and activities jointly done between Oxfam and partners.

• Share Oxfam MEL tools, resources and reports with the WASH Cluster and advocate within the Cluster for a co-ordinated approach to MEL.

Plan and budget for a WASH Learning Review towards the end of the programme, involving programme and support staff, which considers what the programme did well, what could have been improved and how we could do things differently, for programme / technical and cross-cutting themes and for support functions.

• Advocate for a WASH Cluster-wide RTE and/or Learning Review as appropriate.

• HUHA 3.10

• Oxfam Minimum Standards for PHP Monitoring during the first 3 months of a rapid-onset emergency

• Oxfam Minimum Standards for M&E of Category 2 and 3 Emergencies.

• Oxfam WASH Integrated Database Management Tool

• Oxfam RTE and RTE Lite Guidelines

• Oxfam Guidelines for Remote Monitoring in Humanitarian Programmes

A7.2 Community input to MEL

Effective community involvement in a WASH programme requires participation of affected communities in monitoring of activities. The extent of this involvement will vary according to the stage of the emergency and the specific humanitarian context, however as a minimum WASH programmes should:

• Appraise education levels within the affected community to see how communities can input to MEL.

• Discuss options for community involvement with representatives of different groups, for example how they could collect data, or interpret the results themselves to make their own WASH improvements (e.g. repair to a handpump or initiate a health campaign).

• Provide the necessary training and resources to the affected community to undertake monitoring.

• Oxfam Community-based M&E Briefing Paper



A8 Ensuring the protection of the most vulnerable

� WASH programmes must include provision for the specific needs of children.

� All WASH Programmes are based on a needs and risk assessment. It is imperative that such assessments identify the specific needs, vulnerabilities and capacities of distinct socio-economic, gender, ethnic and age groups within a community.

Reference documents

A8.1 Working with Children

Children’s lives are particularly disrupted by emergencies and the impacts of a disaster such as displacement or families being separated.

Involving children in a wide range of WASH activities can improve their physical and psychosocial health as well as that of the whole community. By giving children tools and knowledge to change their behaviour, what they learn is likely to be shared with the rest of the family and applied for the rest of their lives - an effective way to ensure the long-term sustainability of a WASH programme’s impact.

PH staff must ensure that:

• Every member of the affected community aged under the age of 18 is treated as a child.

• Ensure the specific NFI related needs for children are addressed.

• Child labour, for example through a clean-up campaign is avoided. If children are involved in WASH activities which could be perceived as labour, this should be clearly discussed and agreed with local authorities and parents beforehand.

• They understand the health and other risks facing children (protection, economic) in the specific country context.

• Design and siting of WASH facilities is appropriate for children.

• They understand the specific vulnerabilities of children who are orphaned or otherwise specifically vulnerable because of HIV & AIDS (OVCs) and ensure WASH activities are sensitive to this group.

• Oxfam Briefing Paper Involving Children in Public Health Emergency Programmes, 2009

• Child to Child Approach Manual

• Unicef, The Participation of Children and Young People in Emergencies, 2007

A8.2 Other Vulnerable Groups:

Other groups at risk in emergencies include the elderly, disabled people and PLWHA. In certain contexts, people may also become vulnerable by reason of ethnic/tribal origin, religious or political affiliation, or displacement. WASH programmes should take pro-active steps to ensure the participation of vulnerable groups, for example:

• Specific vulnerabilities influence people’s ability to cope and survive in a disaster; those most at risk should be identified in each context.

• Ensure that vulnerable groups are included to your programme by using participatory tools such as wealth grouping, social maps etc, and arranging to meet different groups (elderly, disabled people) separately. Coordinate participatory assessment activities with EFSL colleagues who may be undertaking the same exercises.

• Oxfam Technical Brief Excreta disposal for physically vulnerable people in emergencies, 2005

• WEDC, Water and sanitation for disabled people and other vulnerable groups, 2005



• Ensure that you understand the different solutions for communication with disabled people such as the deaf, blind and those with mental disabilities. This is a good starting point when reaching disabled people.

• Ensure that you understand timing issues for home visits to make sure that you don’t miss the vulnerable whose livelihoods are outside their home or are seasonally away.

• Don’t assume that just because you don’t see a vulnerable group in the community that they don’t exist – e.g. the mentally and physically disabled people are often kept inside their home by family members.



A9 Mainstreaming

� All WASH programmes must undertake mainstreaming of HIV & AIDS, gender and protection.

Reference documents

A9.1 Mainstreaming HIV & AIDS

Mainstreaming of HIV & AIDS does not change the overall WASH programme goal (e.g. provision of WASH to an earthquake affected community), but ensures that:

• The specific needs of HIV & AIDS infected and affected people are considered.

• The risk of HIV transmission in affected communities is reduced through sensitively planned WASH activities.

PH staff must:

• Be briefed by HR and Management on the personal risks they face of HIV and the wider HIV & AIDS profile in the country and amongst the affected population. PH staff should be aware of the links between their personal situation and programmatic mainstreaming of HIV & AIDS.

• Ensure that stigmatisation is avoided during assessment (especially in the way information is collected), project implementation and MEL.

• Use vulnerable households or chronically ill as a criteria in order to avoid the stigmatisation of directly labelling people as HIV positive or similar.

• Consider the special needs (e.g. access, proximity) of PLWHA in WASH activities.

• Work with HR staff to ensure all Oxfam staff, partners and contractors are informed about HIV and the Oxfam Workplace Policy on HIV & AIDS.

• Consider issues of gender and protection in conjunction with HIV & AIDS.

• Oxfam Briefing Paper: Mainstreaming of HIV & AIDS in Humanitarian Programmes, 2008

• Humanitarian Programmes and HIV and AIDS - A Practical Approach to Mainstreaming (Red Book)

• Oxfam Workplace Policy on HIV & AIDS

A9.2 Mainstreaming Gender

Mainstreaming of gender is about not making assumptions that a disaster will have the same impact on women and men. It ensures that:

• The disproportionate impacts of the emergency on women and girls are understood and addressed through WASH activities.

• Impacts of the emergency on men and boys are considered and addressed as appropriate.

• Impact of WASH activities / provision of aid on gender dynamics are considered and addressed as appropriate.

• Local traditions regarding gender are respected, but not necessarily followed (where appropriate, and after close collaboration with the affected communities).

• HUHA 3.9

• Gender Induction pack

• Oxfam Pick Up and Go Training Pack, Gender Equality and Sexual Exploitation



PH staff must:

• Understand Oxfam’s gender policy.

• Ensure there is no negative impact on women due to OGB programming.

• Basic gender analysis is completed and used to inform WASH programming.

• Collect gender disaggregated data (considering the feasibility and actual need/usefulness of this data – i.e. don’t collect it if no-one is going to use it).

• Ensure that women and men are actively involved in the design and targeting of humanitarian programme activities, in particular (but not limited to) the siting and design of sanitation facilities and water points, the choice of non-food items and the contents of hygiene kits.

• Ensure that issues of women’s and girl’s dignity is addressed through out the programme cycle, in particular (but not limited to) the design of latrines and bathing cubicles and access to appropriate menstrual protection materials.

• Promote the equal representation of women – not only in numbers, but also in terms of decision-making powers - in WASH community-management structures.

• Promote the opportunity for women to be the explicit beneficiaries of WASH-related income generation activities, and take steps for removal of barriers (e.g. childcare) to women’s participation in these.

A9.3 Mainstreaming Protection

Mainstreaming of protection in a WASH programme ensures that:

• WASH teams contribute to the wider humanitarian goal of safe programming, in particular by mitigating the concern that WASH goods and services provided might make affected communities more vulnerable to violence, sexual exploitation or coercion.

PH staff must:

• Be briefed by a Manager on the protection threats that they might encounter during the course of their work, and how they could respond.

• Ensure that protection information relevant to WASH (including land-ownership) is collected and analysed during assessments.

• Ensure that people’s safety is taken into consideration in programme design e.g. siting and lighting of facilities, distance to water points, community meetings and management of NFI distributions.

• Understand the relevant linkages for channelling information on protection trends. With the support of the Programme Manager or other Oxfam colleagues, information could be passed to the Protection Cluster, UNHCR or individual agencies dealing with protection issues.

• HUHA 3.9

• Oxfam Protection Training Manual, Module 3, 2009



A10 Accountability

� In all humanitarian responses, PH staff should put in place mechanisms for community participation, information sharing, feedback, and to promote positive staff attitudes and behaviour.

Reference documents

A10.1 Oxfam defines an accountable humanitarian programme as one in which the people affected by it are the most influential decision-makers throughout the lifetime of the project and the most important judges of its impact.

To ensure accountability in WASH activities in all humanitarian responses (including first-phase emergency relief), PH staff must put in place mechanisms for:

• Community participation: Ensure that affected communities are enabled and supported to participate as much as possible.

• Information sharing: Share information with the affected communities about what services can be provided by whom, how and when. If there are delays in procurement or delivery tell the community.

• Feedback: Have a range of simple and appropriate feedback and complaints mechanisms in place. PH staff must respond to feedback in a systematic manner.

• Positive staff attitudes and behaviour: Encourage staff to be open and transparent and to analyse the situation from a beneficiary’s point of view. Treat the affected communities as partners and not as helpless victims.

Accountability mechanisms should be integrated with other programme teams (i.e. EFSL), there is no need to duplicate structures/methods, particularly when working in the same communities.

• HUHA 3.4

• WASH Cluster Accountability Tools, 2009

• The Good Enough Guide, Impact Measurement and Accountability in Emergencies, 2007



A11 Working with Volunteers

� PH staff must follow the 11 key considerations of planning and implementing WASH activities with volunteers.

Reference documents

A11.1 Strong community participation, often channelled through groups or committees from the affected community, is the backbone of Oxfam’s approach to WASH programming. It facilitates community-led project design, implementation and monitoring, and encourages participation and accountability. Working with volunteers and committees also allows us to work effectively with large populations and to continue activities when it is not safe or practical for staff to be present in the field.

PH staff working with volunteers and committees in humanitarian responses must:

1. Work with HR staff to identify all relevant legal issues around engaging volunteers or a committee.

2. Use a clear and transparent mechanism for selecting volunteers and committee members which has been agreed with the entire community (i.e. not just leadership).

3. Promote the equal representation of women – not only in numbers, but also in terms of decision-making powers – amongst volunteers, and also representation of vulnerable groups and different ethnic groups.

4. Maintain a database of committee members, with details including training and incentives received.

5. Ensure clarity between Oxfam and the affected community in the roles and responsibilities of volunteers, including any incentives that might be offered. This should be done before the start of activities. It is good practice to agree a MoU or action plan with the affected community. This should not reflect a ‘shopping list’ of desires but be the result of an open conversation about what is feasible in what timeframe and the constraints faced by both the community and Oxfam.

6. Co-ordinate volunteer issues internally with other Oxfam programmes. Do not automatically assume that WASH volunteers should be used for other programmes and visa versa.

7. Co-ordinate the recruitment of volunteers and the formation of committees within the WASH Cluster, advocating for consistency of approach to recruitment and working practices with volunteers (including any incentives offered to volunteers).

8. Link volunteers and committees with government structures as appropriate, (see A13.3). If there are already government health workers engaged in health/hygiene education assess the feasibility of working to build this groups’ capacity instead of training more community hygiene volunteers.

In discussion with the affected community:

9. Make contingency plans for remote management of volunteers and other unexpected challenges (specific to the context).

10. Prepare and implement appropriate capacity building plans for volunteers.

11. Forward plan appropriate capacity building plans for volunteers and an exit strategy.

• Oxfam Briefing Paper, Working with Community Committees, 2009

• Oxfam Draft MoU for Community Committees (prepared by the Sudan Programme).

• Oxfam Toolkit for Training Water Management Committees in Kenya (prepared by the Kenya Programme).



A12 Contingency planning

� PH staff should work with Programme Management and at inter-agency level to ensure adequate preparedness to WASH risks in Oxfam and sectoral contingency plans.

Reference documents

A12.1 Each Oxfam country programme should have a Contingency Management Plan that will detail the risk and predicted impact of disease outbreaks, natural disasters, political instability/violence and other complex emergencies. It should also have specific guidelines for the remote management of programmes.

In collaboration with Programme Management and the Humanitarian Programme Co-ordinator, PH teams should:

• Consider the main WASH-related risks in the programme (and/or in country-wide) and feed these into the Country Contingency planning process.

• Take every opportunity to involve and train partners in contingency planning and emergency preparedness: frequently local partners are far better placed to respond to emergencies and continue services during remote management.

• Participate in inter-agency contingency planning (e.g. through the WASH Cluster or UN OCHA) related to public health risks.

• Engage with the relevant government, technical departments (i.e. the Engineering Department or Ministry of Health) on contingency planning.

• Advocate for appropriate contingency stocks to be held at country level through the UN or NGO systems.

• Consider running a simulated response to the highest WASH risks as part of staff capacity building and preparedness.

• Engage in remote management planning to minimise the risk to staff, maximise our impact regardless of our direct presence, and limit time spent away from field sites where safe, well-considered re-entry is possible.

• Consider WASH aspects within site-specific remote management plans.

• Technical briefing paper on PH remote programming (due)



A13 Exit from WASH Programmes

� Exit plans for WASH programmes should include consideration of WASH-specific factors, such as local suppliers of spare parts, government systems for WASH and facilitation of WASH committees.

� PH teams should be actively involved in determining exit plans, to ensure appropriate technical input is given to decisions on continuation or phase out of WASH activities.

Reference documents

A13.1 General Principles

Oxfam frequently works in situations of change and transition. We may be leaving a camp, an area or a programme when the emergency phase of the project is completed, or where there are still outstanding WASH needs and activities. General principles for Programme Exit are detailed in the HUHA, however there are some specific considerations for WASH.

• PH staff should work with logistics colleagues at an early stage to ascertain the presence and functionality of local commercial suppliers of, for example, spare parts for WASH facilities or replacement hygiene items, as this will affect programme sustainability.

• PH teams should be actively involved in determining exit plans, to ensure appropriate technical input is given to decisions on continuation or phase out of WASH activities.

• It is imperative when handing over facilities that a public meeting be held between OGB Representatives and other relevant stakeholders. This meeting should be used to ensure that there are no outstanding grievances (standard of the works, payments) and must be completed before final payment is made to contractors or partners.

• HUHA 3.1

• Oxfam Rough Guide to Exit Strategies, 2006

A13.2 Handover to other NGOs

• The handover of WASH activities to another NGO needs clear communication from an early stage with the affected community and staff from both Oxfam and the other NGO taking over. If Oxfam is using a particular approach (for example not paying incentives to committee members or collecting market waste on a daily basis) PH staff should advocate that the succeeding NGO continue such policies. If this isn’t possible, changes should be explained clearly to the affected community.

A13.3 Handover to government or traditional structures

• Oxfam’s approach should be in line with the existing government or traditional system. Forming a water user association in country where this structure does not exist is not effective.

• A community management system is not in some way linked and accountable to local authorities is unlikely to be sustainable. All the information about who is responsible for continuing WASH activities (e.g. training and equipment provided, details of any revenue system initiated, the MoU, etc.) should be supplied to the relevant person in the local authorities.

A13.4 Handover of facilities to communities



• WASH facilities must be completely finished before they are handed over to the community, and the community needs to agree that the facility is ready for handover and all the supporting elements have been put in place. A signed MoU should confirm this.

• Training of communities or other stakeholders in O&M requires considerable time, planning and resources. It should not be left until the very end of the programme.



B1 Health Data

� PH staff must have a simple system for accessing and interpreting data on key disease trends, whether collected directly from affected communities, through co-ordination activities and/or from medical professionals.

� Epidemiological data should be used to develop hygiene promotion campaigns.

Reference documents

B1.1 WASH programmes cannot be planned or monitored without a clear picture of the health of the affected community. National Health Information Systems (HIS), established by the Ministry of Health and WHO can be unreliable during a humanitarian emergency, and are frequently unable to provide a sufficient level of detail (geographic, gender and age-segregated) for Oxfam requirements.

For this reason it is imperative that Oxfam PH staff investigate at a minimum the following range of sources and techniques for the collection of health information:

• Community-level monitoring – collection of data on health trends during regular programme monitoring is straightforward and can be done through focus group discussions, household surveys and other innovative methods. However, ensure that the data collection method is sufficiently rigorous to produce useful results.

• Clinics – PH staff should establish a range of informal contacts with NGO staff working in local clinics (including mobile clinics, cholera treatment centres, ORS points etc.) to facilitate sharing of health data. Medical NGO staff will usually provide this information on a daily or weekly basis for Oxfam to use in a tactful way (i.e. it is usually not official data until processed by the MOH).

• Co-ordination activities – useful updates on health trends can be obtained through WASH Cluster meetings and other general humanitarian co-ordination (e.g. OCHA meetings, sitreps).

• National HIS – Notwithstanding the constraints of national-level data, it is important for PH staff to monitor trends in published health data. This data can highlight newly emerging trends that might be off Oxfam’s immediate ‘radar’ and can be useful for citing in donor reports or proposals.

Consider the specific disease risks related to hazard and displacement context and anticipate how WASH activities may need to be adapted to meet emerging disease patterns (i.e. in earthquakes with no displacement there is less likelihood of diarrhoeal disease outbreaks, compared to earthquake with people re-located to a communal camp.



B2 Water

� All WASH programmes should aim to comply with the SPHERE Minimum Standards for water supply in terms of water quantity, water quality and locations/distances to water points.

� WASH programmes must provide hygiene promotion on the importance of the safe water chain, operation and maintenance, and the means to enable safe hygiene practices.

Reference documents

B2.1 Emergency Water Supply – First-Phase Emergency Strategy

The following immediate actions are required:

• Design emergency water supply responses based on local practices and preferences. (For example, in communities where people do not accept the taste of chlorine, different water treatment options may need to be explored and/or hygiene promotion needs to include clear messages on using chlorinated water).

• Provide hygiene education on the importance of the safe water chain – including collection, transport, storage, household water treatment, and use.

• Provide at least 15 litres per person per day (L/P/D) for the affected population.

• Chlorinate all sources of drinking water, even if the turbidity is up to 50 NTU*, to ensure a residual of 0.3–0.6mg/l is maintained. (* then start treatment ASAP).

• Ensure affected communities have clean and sufficient vessels in which to collect water.

• If tankering water, always ensure there are tanks/bladders with tap stands for tankers to discharge the water: affected communities should not collect straight from the back of the tanker.

• When tankering water, always factor in the exit strategy before implementing the activity.

• When there is more than one water source (e.g. tubewell and tankered water), it must be clearly communicated to affected population that which source is supposed to be for which purpose (e.g. tankered water for drinking and cooking and tubewell for other uses).

B2.2 Community-Based Water Resource Management (CBWRM)

One of the key emerging disaster risks observed by Oxfam is the increased scarcity of water in dryland areas, typically caused by low or variable rainfall patterns and exacerbated by climatic change, population growth, changes in land use practices, environmental degradation and poor governance of WASH services. CBWRM is a water management and DRR tool that uses community awareness of risk and traditional coping mechanisms to support grassroots adaptation and recovery from shocks and trends in water supply.

Examples of how CBWRM can be integrated into WASH activities are given in the ‘CBWRM Learning Companion‘, but at a minimum,

Oxfam CBWRM Companion, 2009



PH staff should:

• Consider the multiple uses of water – drinking, cooking, washing AND livelihoods (e.g. irrigation, livestock, brick making, water vendoring etc.) by different groups when undertaking WASH assessments and planning activities. Although WASH programmes might be unable to provide water for all household and livelihood uses, PH staff must have an understanding of the overall water demand.

• During assessments, work with the affected community to identify and prioritise credible risks to water supply. If these risks are significant, PH staff should then design activities that address these risks (see CBWRM Companion).

• Consider and monitor the impacts of WASH programme activities on longer-term water resources, livelihoods and protection issues.

• Gain an understanding of communal water laws and practices (in addition to national policies and legislation) and how these might impact on WASH activities.

B2.3 Water Quantity

• When calculating L/P/D, do not just divide the water production figures by the population but back the figures up with household water usage surveys.

• Refer to Sphere for details of daily water requirements for different users.

• The easiest way to establish if there is a water shortage is to look at the queues at water points.

• Distance from the water source is the biggest factor in determining household consumption; therefore, always ensure that water points are distributed as evenly as possible.

• In arid zones, livestock have no alternative sources of water and must also be included in calculations of water requirements

B2.4 Water Quality Testing

• In a 1st phase emergency carry out a rapid sanitary survey of water sources and, wherever there is a suspicion of contamination, ‘protect’ the source and/or chlorinate the water. There is no need to undertake a bacteriological test at this stage.

• All chlorinated sources should be monitored regularly (daily, bi-daily or weekly, depending on the severity of the emergency) with a simple pool tester.

• Bacteriological tests should be carried out when handing over improved water sources to communities and when there are any disease outbreaks.

• All routine water test results MUST be communicated to water users.

• ACTION must be taken when residual chlorine, bacterial and chemical analysis results fail.

• Ensure that water is acceptable to the users by addressing taste, colour and smell issues.

• Oxfam Technical Brief on Water Quality Analysis in Emergency Situations



B2.41 Chemical Quality

• Chemical analysis should be done once the emergency situation has stabilised or when local information indicates that there are serious-risk chemicals in the groundwater (e.g. arsenic areas, near intensive farming, mining operations or factories).

• Boreholes: Chemical analysis should be carried out for every borehole. This only needs to be done on completion unless it is in a high-risk area where regular monitoring – a test every 6 months – should take place.

• Water quality should conform to WHO guidelines, or local guidelines where these exist.

• Oxfam Technical Brief on Water Quality Analysis in Emergency Situations

B2.5 Bulk Water Treatment

If the water has an NTU of over 50, chlorination alone will not be effective; therefore, it must be treated. The following is a list of options ranging from low populations and low complexity to high:

• Batch: The simplest treatment is just using a tank (T11 or an Onion tank) and mixing the Alum in by hand, leaving it to settle for 4 to 6 hours, then chlorinating (leave for 30 minutes) before distribution.

• Batch: Use a suction side doser for Alum on a number of sedimentation tanks; after settlement decant to chlorine tank and chlorinate with chlorine doser.

• Continuous flow: Mobile treatment packages (in the range of 5–10m3/hr).

Considerations in water treatment:

• Find out if you are in an area where there are helminths or protozoa (Giardia and Cryptosporidium) which are resistant to chlorine, and ensure a fine mesh (4–6 microns) is added to the system. Some viruses may also require special treatment.

• Where possible, use gravity flow in the treatment system to avoid double pumping, and avoid constructing plants on flood-prone areas.

• Take great care when disposing of the highly toxic alum residual in the sedimentation tanks so as not to contaminate the ground- or surface-water.

• Oxfam Technical Manual on Coagulation and Disinfection Equipment

• Oxfam Guidelines on Water Treatment in Emergencies

B2.6 Household Water Treatment and Storage

All water treatment options are limited in their potential to protect health if the affected communities do not practice safe methods of collection, transportation and household storage of water. Any breaks in this ‘safe water chain’ should be a focus of WASH activities relating to water.

• It is essential that families have sufficient water collection AND storage containers. Normal practice is to distribute 1 bucket for collection and 1 bucket with a tap for household storage or appropriate (safe) local water containers.

• Regular monitoring of water quality (bacteriological and/or residual chlorine) must be done in a random sample of households and results discussed with the households.

• Oxfam Technical Brief on Household Treatment and Storage



• There should be regular campaigns to clean water containers, as dirty containers are 1 of the major sources of contamination.

• In the first phase of an emergency options for water treatment in the home such as alum and chlorine distributions, household chlorination or combined floc / disinfectant sachets should be promoted (all with considerable promotion and monitoring).

• If introducing “new” technologies during the immediate emergency response consider the ethical implications and adequate resources for the additional promotion requirements.

• For slow-onset emergencies or where people are still in their homes, sustainable household treatment such as ceramic pots or candles, biosand filters, and SODIS should be promoted. The choice of which depends on what previous experience communities have, local availability etc.

• All of these activities must be planned and implemented in close consultation with the affected communities, as cultural and religious norms relating to safe water chain have a significant impact on the success of any programme.

B2.7 Design and Siting of Hand-Dug Wells

• Wells should be dug during the dry season, to ensure the availability of water during all seasons.

• Always line hand-dug wells.

• Liners must adhere to Oxfam standard of 1.5m external and 1.3m internal diameters and 100mm thickness.

• All hand-dug wells must have a minimum of 1m raised wellheads, and concrete aprons with proper drainage leading to gravel soak pits must be included. (Consider highest flood level).

• Where necessary address livestock and agriculture water needs in the design of the well.

• Gravel filters must be included at the bottom and sides of wells and drainage channels.

• Always incorporate a sanitary seal, preferably a 1:2:4 concrete mix 1m from ground level (water table permitting).

• Use a 1:2:4 mix ratio for concrete ring production.

• Wells should be fitted with a hand pump or windlass and a proper cover slab with manhole options. (Consider availability of replacement hand-pump parts).

• Ensure that the wells are resilient to natural disasters by provision for deepening in drought prone areas and providing necessary protection from flooding.

• Oxfam Technical Manual on Hand-dug Wells

• Experiences from Turkana and Wajir, Kenya programmes

B2.8 Borehole Design

• All boreholes must have gravel packs, sanitary seals, concrete aprons with proper drainage to soak pits, and low-maintenance sustainable pumping devices. (Consider highest flood level when selecting height to raise the hand-pump).

• Borehole diameter should be 200mm greater than the OD of screen/casing to incorporate a gravel pack.

• Oxfam Guidelines on Well Design in Emergencies

• Oxfam Technical Brief on Solar Pumping



• Screen slot size should be 0.5mm or 1mm with an open area of 10%. Slot size should normally depend on the aquifer formation and the size of silt.

• The gravel pack must be well rounded and not angular, preferably 2-4mm diameter, and of silicate rich (>70%) or quartzitic nature.

• The gravel pack should completely enclose the screened portion to at least 5m above highest screen level. A bentonitic clay seal 0.5m should be placed above the gravel pack before backfilling.

• After borehole development it is imperative to undertake a 24-hour pumping test to determine the safe yield of the borehole. Borehole yields should be estimated (air lifting or bailers method) by drilling crews during final stages of borehole development. This is important in the sizing appropriate pumps for test pumping.

B2.9 Design of Rainwater Collection

• Rainwater collection works best for schools and institutions with a large roof space and large storage tanks but is also effective for individual households or communal buildings where other sources are contaminated and it rains frequently.

• There must be a mechanism to prevent first rain run-off from entering the storage tank.

• In diarrhoeal outbreaks the storage tanks must be included in an emergency chlorination programme.

• There must be a cover on the rainwater collection tank to prevent contamination.

• PVC or other synthetic tanks can be used in 1st phase. Cement tanks should be adequately washed out before use to avoid a smell of cement.

• Oxfam Rainwater Harvesting Guidelines

B2.10 Design of Water Collection Points

• Water collection points must be designed to avoid standing water around them; therefore, a proper soakaway must be incorporated into the design.

• The tap stand has to be no more than 10cm (4”) higher than the tallest water container.

• Ensure that provision is made for people with limited mobility to access water.

• Oxfam Distribution Manual

B2.11 Gravity-Fed Systems

• Low maintenance requirements and the formation of User Management Committees are essential for long-term sustainability.

• Technical calculations and detailed drawings are required before construction begins.

• PVC/PE distribution pipes must be buried a minimum of 0.3m. When pipes cannot be buried GI pipes should be used.

• All pipes that are suspended over streambeds or ravines must be securely supported.

• All designs that pass through landslide prone areas should have serpentile or progressive joints for quick isolation, diversion or replacement.

• Oxfam Technical Guidelines on Gravity-fed Water Systems (currently in production)



• Users must be consulted on tap point locations.

• Small gravity systems are preferred to wells for individual households.

• Technical and financial feasibility must be investigated as part of designing any pumping in gravity.

B2.12 Spring Capping / Protection

• Ensure the seasonal flow rates have been confirmed and are sufficient before starting the protection work.

• Always ensure the initial storage/filter compartment is below the eye of the spring so there is no back pressure causing the spring to exit through a different route.

• Provide a dry masonry wall around the spring eye, and create a simple infiltration system with graded sand, gravel and stones inside winged walls in which perforated pipes are placed to collect water into a spring box (water transfer chamber).

• Cover the spring protection (the infiltration system) with concrete screed, and provide a sealed manhole with cement mortar that can be opened to flush the infiltration system in case there is clogging.

• Fence the whole spring capping area to prevent access by livestock or any other animals.

• Provide the spring box with a simple silt trap, silt wash-out and an overflow pipe below the level of the eye.

• Where possible, provide storage – depending on the flow rate and water demand.

• In areas where epidemics occur regularly, make provision to chlorinate spring boxes.

• Oxfam Technical Brief on Spring Protection

B2.13 Surface Water

• Ensure all surface water sources are protected from contamination and that people treat the water before drinking.

B2.14 Water Tankering

• Water tankering is very costly and extremely difficult to monitor effectively, so it must only be a short-term measure until more sustainable water sources are in place.

• A full exit plan must be drawn up before beginning a tankering programme.

• All tankered water must be chlorinated and monitored for chlorine levels.

• All tankered water must be discharged into storage/distribution tanks.



B3 Excreta Disposal

� WASH programmes must ensure appropriate safe sanitation for affected communities, including facilities for excreta disposal and bathing, to minimise risk of WASH-related disease and environmental pollution, in a way that maintains dignity.

� Sanitation activities must be based on consultation with beneficiaries – especially women, children and less able people – on design, type and location of any sanitation facility. Where possible sanitation facilities should be based on materials that communities have at their disposal.

� Desludging and decommissioning needs should be considered when designing excreta disposal projects.

Reference documents

B3.1 Excreta Disposal – General Principles

Safe disposal of human excreta creates the first barrier to excreta related disease by reducing transmission through direct and indirect routes.

• PH staff must ensure that the environment is free from human faeces by instigating ‘clean-up’ programmes.

• Excreta disposal programmes must be based on consultation with beneficiaries – especially women, children and less able people – on design, type and location of any sanitation facility, even in a large-scale rapid-onset emergency.

• Prior to the construction of any sanitation facility, agree with beneficiaries how the facilities will be allocated, maintained and cleaned – and how this is will be monitored.

• In first-phase emergencies, avoid defecation areas where possible and go straight for shallow trench latrines surrounded by plastic sheeting. The next step, depending on timeliness and community acceptance, is to construct communal latrines, then shared family latrines and then individual family latrines.

• Consider environmental impact in the choice of materials for latrine construction.

• Excreta Disposal in Emergencies

• Oxfam Excreta Disposal Guidelines

B3.2 Pit Latrines Planning and Design Criteria

• In the first stages of an emergency, there should be 1 toilet for 50 people then, once this target has been met, move onto 1 toilet for 20 people.

• If constructing communal sanitation facilities, ensure a ratio of 3 female facilities for every male facility. However, this should be based on disaggregated data; for example, if there are more males than females over 10 years old, the ratio will need to be adapted.

• Spread communal toilet blocks around a camp or village, rather than constructing large clusters of toilets. Base this decision on community consultation.

• If the latrine is not ventilated, closable lids must be provided over the squat hole. Chlorinated lime or ash should be provided along with the lid to neutralise smell and reduce fly numbers.



• The squat plate must be firmly anchored into each side of the trench by using pegs or wooden bracings or a concrete/masonry plinth.

• There must be no visible gaps between the squat plate and the pit. Gaps can appear through erosion due to lack of proper drainage around the toilet.

• There must be a privacy wall around facilities for women’s latrines. This, however, is optional for male facilities.

• Every cubicle must have a mechanism to keep the ‘door’ closed from the inside. Shared family latrines should also have a hook to which to attach a padlock.

• Consider the need for NFI distributions of tools for disposal of infants’ and children’s faeces; hygiene promotion should link to the means provided for handling faeces.

B3.3 Toilets in High Water Tables (<1.5m from the surface)

To avoid contaminating the ground water, sealed units need to be constructed, comprising:

• Raised latrines (if a de-sludging system exists);

• Septic tanks with secondary treatment (for the longer term); and

• Urine separation raised toilets (twin vault where possible), coupled with intensive hygiene promotion on proper usage.

• Excreta Disposal in Emergencies

• Oxfam Septic Tank Guidelines

B3.4 Pit Latrine De-sludging

Any toilet designed to be de-sludged must have:

• A lined pit (if the pit is unlined, the mechanical vacuum process may collapse the pit walls);

• An access hole/slab where a pump / suction hose can be inserted or people can enter (the squat hole is often not large enough for the pump foot valve);

• A safe, properly organised and clearly marked final disposal site for the excreta; and

• A community/household sustainable de-sludging methodology in place for long-term situations.

B3.5 Hand Washing at all Sanitary Facilities

• Hand washing must be addressed for all latrines Oxfam constructs or repairs – either at the latrine or at the household level – by the promotion and provision of soap and hand-washing devices.

• All institutional latrines constructed by Oxfam must have hand-washing facilities provided with soap or a proxy such as ash.

• Women must be consulted about their requirements for them to manage their own menstrual hygiene needs

• Oxfam Technical Brief on Hand Washing Options

B3.6 Toilet Facilities for People with Specific Needs • Oxfam Technical Brief on Excreta Disposal for



It is estimated that within a ‘normal’ community between 4% and 10% of the population have reduced mobility for 1 reason or another.

• At least 1 toilet out of every 20 should be constructed for people with specific needs (including extra space for a carer to help a disabled person bathe)..

• PHPs should supply actual numbers or percentages and locations as soon as possible (note: after an earthquake or conflict there would be an increased percentage of people with physical disabilities), so that facilities can be constructed as near to the users as possible.

People with Physical Disabilities in Emergencies

B3.7 Cultural Aspects for Toilet and other Sanitary Facilities

In many countries there are strict cultural norms as well as taboos around sanitation; therefore, it is essential that the beneficiaries be fully consulted during the design (including materials) and usage of the facilities any programme will provide.

For example:

• In Muslim cultures the toilet must never be positioned so that it opens or so that the user’s bottom faces Mecca;

• Some cultures do not permit women to be ‘seen’ going to the toilet so a screen needs to be added in front of the door. 100% opaque (not semi-transparent) plastic sheeting should be used in super-structure/wall to prevent people’s silhouettes from being seen. Female toilets should have a roof if there are particular privacy concerns, for example where latrines are located lower than any public places e.g. road/embankment side.

• Women may not be permitted to share a toilet with a male that is not a member of their immediate family.

This list is not exhaustive and only gives some ideas on how cultures and taboos can raise planning and implementation concerns in a toilet programme.

• Oxfam Technical Brief on Vulnerability and Socio-cultural Considerations for PHE in Emergencies

B3.8 Emergency and Semi-Permanent Toilet Facilities

The timing of the decision to move from rapid ‘emergency’ latrines to semi-permanent constructions is difficult to predict. However:

• If affected communities are still living in plastic sheet structures, latrine structures with a metal roof and walls (or other more permanent material) should not be constructed, as the population might dismantle the latrines to improve their shelters and thus make the latrines inoperable.

• If the timeframe of the humanitarian situation will be longer than 3 months, consideration should be made to upgrading the superstructure of the toilets to a more suitable design, incorporating environmental, budgetary and longevity factors.

• In some contexts, there are political connotations to constructing semi-permanent latrines in temporary settlements – these must be considered by PH teams with the support of Programme Management.

B3.9 Bathhouse / Cubicle Construction Oxfam Technical Briefs:



• Female-bathing cubicles should be included in a screened courtyard design with toilets.

• Ensure adequate space and provisions for female menstrual needs e.g. cleaning, drying or disposal of sanitary napkins.

• If there is no piped water system, the bathing cubicles must be close to the water points so that people do not have to transport water far for bathing.

• There must be 1 bathing cubicle for every 50 people (1:100 in the first phase, then 1:50 in the second phase).

• At least 1 bathing cubicle out of every 20 should be constructed for people with specific needs (including extra space for a carer to help a disabled person bathe).

• Women are more likely to be bathing children whilst they bathe and so will need more time. To avoid excess queues for female bathing facilities there should be more (2:1 female : male) units for women, and they must be clearly marked.

• Adequate drainage for the wastewater must be provided. Slabs and floors should be provided with 1% slope towards drainage to prevent stagnant water.

• Every cubicle must have a door and, where possible, it should be a solid door so that door catches can be installed; this is especially important for communal bathing facilities.

• Bathhouse construction should also be accompanied by education, for example on stopping public defecation in the communal bathing space.

• Bathhouses should be segregated by sex and should be clearly marked. In communities where men bath outside/at water point, construction of bathhouses for men may not be necessary. However, in such conditions, consider additional water points.

• Frequently people wash their clothes while bathing: space for washing clothes needs to be considered while designing bathhouses.

• Vulnerability and Socio-cultural Considerations for PHE in Emergencies

• Low-cost Drainage for Emergencies

• Hand Washing Options

B3.10 Design of School Latrines

• Camp school latrines should be semi-permanent, whereas permanent structures are built for existing schools. It is important to match the construction materials of the school building (an exception to this is when metal roofing is used to enable catchment of rainwater for handwashing etc.).

• There should be a viable water source located near the latrines to enable anal cleansing, handwashing, and latrine cleaning.

• School toilets must be segregated for males and females.

• The toilets should be scaled down to suit children’s needs, especially the squat hole and foot rests.

• There must be adequate light entering the toilet unit to ensure that children can see where to urinate/defecate and are not afraid to use the toilets.

• IRC, School Sanitation and Hygiene Education, 2003



• According to culture, urinals should also be provided for males.

• There should be a privacy screen, especially for girl’s facilities.

• There must be hand-washing facilities for each block of toilets.

• There must be at least 1 male and female toilet for disabled pupils.

• Operation (cleaning arrangements) and maintenance systems should be agreed prior to beginning construction of school latrines.

B3.11 Latrine Decommissioning

When backfilling full or decommissioned latrines the following must be undertaken for the safe and effective decommissioning of latrines – either when latrines are full if when the affected community is moving to new area:

• Make sure that all the health and safety precautions are in place.

• Supply small sealable containers of chlorinated lime to the community groups or the people who will carry out the activity.

• Before removing the latrine slab sprinkle, by hand, a thin layer of chlorinated lime in the pit being closed (backfilled) or decommissioned BEFORE the fill material is added. Then fill with soil or sand (at least 50cms), making sure that the entire surface of the pit contents are fully covered.

• The latrine slab should be kept over the pit for 1 week.

• Remove the latrine slab and saturate the slab by pouring or spraying it with a 1% stock solution of chlorine on the latrine slab. Allow the chlorine solution to dry naturally before placing back in stock to be reused. If wooden supports are in good condition they should be cleaned and reused in the same way.

• Make sure that the closed pit surface is firmly compacted and marked (by a small thorn fence or planting a tree or similar).

• Oxfam Chlorinated Lime Use Guidelines, 2007.



B4 Solid Waste Management

� All solid waste activities should be based on the findings of a solid waste audit, and follow hierarchy of options (minimisation, re-use, recycling, disposal) in accordance with local conditions.

� For reasons for health, safety and environment: household-level burning of waste should not be promoted; all hazardous waste arising from Oxfam activities must be specially managed; and, appropriate personal protective equipment should be issued for all waste activities.

Reference documents

B4.1 General Principles

Poor waste management practices cause serious health risks by creating potential vector breeding grounds, contaminating water sources and creating feeding risks to livestock that may result in their deaths. The accumulation of solid waste often leads to blockages in drainage channels that lead to environmental health problems associated with stagnant and polluted surface water, fire risks, and air pollution if the waste in burnt in an uncontrolled manner.

• All programmes must undertake a solid waste audit to determine whether solid waste is a risk and what activities have to be done to reduce the risks. At a minimum the following questions should be included in the audit:

o Is solid waste a problem?

o How do people dispose of their waste?

o What type and quantity of solid waste is produced in households and in public places (markets, schools, transport hubs)?

o Has there been specific waste generated by the disaster? (e.g. rubble following an earthquake, or animal carcasses after flooding or drought).

o Can solid waste be disposed of on site, or does it need to be collected and disposed of off site?

o Are there medical facilities and activities producing waste? How is this being disposed of? Who is responsible?

o Who are the external agencies involved in waste management? What are their roles and responsibilities and have these changed as a result of the emergency situation?

• Personal Protective Equipment and clothing (gloves, boots, mask) must be provided for volunteers and staff including soap for washing.

• Solid waste management projects should follow the ‘waste hierarchy’ which advocates for waste minimisation, then re-use and then recycling or composting where possible before disposal.

Oxfam Guidelines for Solid Waste Management in Emergencies

Oxfam Technical Briefs on:

• Large-Scale Environmental Clean-up Campaigns

• Composting of Organic Materials

• Recycling and Hazardous Wastes

Oxfam Equipment Catalogue for ideal content of protective gear and solid waste kits.

Household Waste Disposal

• If disposal at a household level is promoted, the preference is for waste to be put into small pits and regularly covered with soil



or ash to reduce smells, flies, rodents, etc. Pits should be:

o >10m from dwellings

o >15m from water sources

o At least 1.5m above water table

o Approximately 1 to 1.5m deep

o Surrounded by a small fence to avoid accidents and scavenging

• When waste reaches just below the surface, the waste should be compacted and covered with soil.

• WASH programmes should not promote household-level burning of wastes for the following reasons:

o Health impacts – burning of waste (in particular plastics) produces toxic fumes that are harmful to humans and animals, and in particular to young children.

o Safety impacts – from uncontrolled burning near to houses.

o Nuisance impacts of constant smoke.

o Environmental impacts of atmospheric CO2 emissions.

Hazardous Waste Management

A variety of hazardous wastes are produced in the course of Oxfam WASH programmes or other humanitarian operations in the same area: these require specific attention to avoid environmental and groundwater pollution, and for obvious health and safety reasons.

• If PH staff are unsure of how to treat or dispose of hazardous waste they must always seek advice from Regional or Oxford-based WASH Advisors.

• PH staff should ensure all Oxfam WASH activities associated with hazardous waste are in compliance with national environmental legislation and international best practice.

Specific examples of hazardous wastes which may be encountered include:

• Non-sterile delagua membranes and pads � must be made safe by autoclaving or burning (dry them first).

• Alum residual from water treatment operations.

• Expired or surplus chemicals (e.g. chlorine, mosquito insecticide) � should be contained in sealed plastic drums before landfill disposal if no specialist disposal is available.

• Medical / clinic waste – medical NGOs will usually have the capability to dispose of medical waste. If they do not have this capacity, Oxfam should offer to support the establishment of a Waste Zone at the clinic or other facility in accordance with MSF guidance. � Preference is for low technology, locally replicable disposal options, with waste separation to minimise the

MSF Healthcare Waste Management Overview, 2002.



quantity of hazardous waste for disposal. The Waste Zone should have several pits for different purposes: general refuse pit / sharps pit / organic waste pit (commonly called ‘placenta pit’). All must be lined, be at least 2m above the water table, and have a cover designed for their specific purpose.



B5 Promotion of Hand-Washing

� Hand washing must be addressed, especially in all latrines Oxfam constructs or repairs, either at the latrine or at the household level, by the promotion of hand-washing techniques, and promotion and provision of soap or proxy such as ash.

Reference documents

B5.1 Proper hand washing (preferably with soap or a substitute such as ash and vigorous rubbing of hands) when performed at critical times (before preparing food, eating, feeding of children, after using latrine and after cleaning of babies’ bottoms) is the single most effective way of preventing diarrhoeal diseases.

• PHP staff should include an assessment of hand-washing knowledge, attitudes and practice in all rapid WASH assessments and baseline surveys.

• Hand washing must be addressed in all excreta disposal programmes, either at the latrine or at the household level - by the promotion of hand-washing techniques, and promotion and provision of soap or proxy such as ash.

• All institutional latrines constructed by Oxfam must have hand-washing facilities provided with soap or a proxy.

• MEL activities must include assessments of changes in hand-washing practice and appropriate use of hand-washing facilities.



B6 Distribution of Hygiene Kits

� The composition, targeting criteria and distribution systems for hygiene kits must be decided in consultation with the affected community, and undertaken in co-ordination with the WASH Cluster.

Reference documents

B6.1 Oxfam distributes non-food items in the form of ‘hygiene kits’ to support WASH activities. In addition to items for water storage, hand washing etc. the provision of culturally appropriate material for women to use for menstrual protection and is an important consideration. Other items may also be included in accordance with available resources and community priorities.

A hygiene kit should enable;

• Storage of safe drinking water at household level;

• Good practice around drinking water use;

• All family members able to practice handwashing at key times;

• The washing of bodies and clothing;

• Management of babies and young children’s faeces;

• Dedicated water containers for anal cleansing (if used);

• Management of menstruation;

• Practice of reasonable food hygiene.

When implementing a distribution of hygiene kits, the following must be undertaken:

• Consultation with the affected community, in particular women, to decide the composition of a hygiene kit and targeting criteria. Which items are selected will depend on what is already available at the household level, the expected length of displacement, local income opportunities, and local expressed needs.

• Co-ordinate with the WASH Cluster to lobby for consistency in hygiene kit composition, to avoid duplication, and to identify opportunities for large-scale procurement and gaps in provision of NFIs.

• Options for sourcing hygiene items through local markets should be investigated with the support of logistics colleagues.

• Options for innovative approaches for distribution (e.g. voucher schemes) should be investigated with EFSL colleagues.

• Ensure that all groups within affected communities understand and agree with the targeting criteria and that there are information sharing and feedback mechanisms in place.

• Ensure that affected communities understand the purpose and how to use each NFI, through demonstrations etc.

• The need for sanitary protection materials should be considered during the initial assessment.

Oxfam Briefing Papers on:

• Introduction to Hygiene Kits, 2008

• How to Guide Non Food Item Distribution, 2008

• Guideline for responding to women’s menstrual hygiene needs in emergencies.



• Incorporate mainstreamed themes of HIV & AIDS, gender and protection when designing distribution systems.

• Conduct post-distribution monitoring after distribution and record lessons learned.



B7 Development and use of Information, Education and Communication (IEC) materials

� The affected community must be consulted before the rollout of an IEC programme to ensure cultural sensitivity and understanding of the subject matter.

� Development and use of IEC should also be undertaken in close collaboration with the WASH Cluster and appropriate government departments to ensure that consistent, ‘approved’ messages are used.

� An IEC strategy that explains the rationale for the choice of messages, communications methodologies and monitoring mechanisms should be developed as soon as possible.

Reference documents

B7.1 IEC materials and activities are an essential component of any WASH programme. PH staff involved in the development of IEC must:

• Undertake an assessment of IEC needs, local literacy levels and cultural and religious issues around public communication. The information gathered in the assessment provides the framework for a ‘communication plan’ which should describe intended audiences, IEC techniques, M&E plans, logistics and budget).

• Collaborate with the affected community in developing IEC. Activities and materials must always be culturally sensitive and appropriate.

• Co-ordinate IEC plans with the WASH Cluster to ensure a collaborative approach, consistent with government policy is adopted.

• Pre-test IEC materials within the affected community.

• Ensure materials are logical and non-technical.

• Make sure pictures are as accurate as possible and familiar to audience.

• Identify local motivating factors for behaviour change and design images based on these factors.

• Try to convey positive messages.

• Develop hygiene promotion campaigns based on seasonal disease trends and/or new disease risks related to hazard/displacement context.

• Link hygiene promotion messages with engineering, NFI, and EFSL interventions. For example, if it is a 6-month livestock-restocking project and the EFSL team is distributing pigs - it might be important to do a bit of hygiene promotion on “pig hygiene”.

• Undertaken regular monitoring of IEC activities – both for feedback on the IEC and to determine the impact of the IEC on WASH practices, and modify approaches as appropriate.

• WASH Cluster IEC Tools

• Unicef, BCC in Emergencies Toolkit 2006



B8 Vector Control (to be read alongside specific Malaria Minimum Requirements � Section 13.)

� Physical or chemical vector control activities must be based on a clear assessment of the risk of vectors to WASH-related disease, and co-ordinated with WASH Cluster, government authorities and specialist agencies to ensure added value of Oxfam intervention.

� Oxfam does not advocate for, or implement, chemical fly control methods such as spraying, outdoor fogging or dusting for the sole purpose of eradicating or controlling flies.

Reference documents


• Vector control programming should be based on an assessment of the local impact of vectors on communicable disease such as malaria and dengue, and undertaken as an integral part of wider malaria or WASH activities.

• All vector control programming should pursue all available opportunities for community participation, and be accompanied by education to explain the work.

• Any chemicals used must conform to national and international (WHO) safety and environmental standards.

• Disposal of expired or surplus vector control chemicals must follow national guidelines and standards (or international if not available) for hazardous waste management. � See Solid Waste Management.

Oxfam Malaria Control Manual

B8.2 Physical Vector Control (Source Reduction)

• Physical vector control should focus on improving drainage around water points, providing adequate rainwater drainage, and filling-in or draining ponds, swamps and other breeding sites. Affected communities should be provided with the necessary tools and safety equipment, and knowledge on vectors, for this work.

• Solid waste management activities for the purpose of vector control (e.g. clean-up campaigns, facilitating local government cleansing operations) must be linked to vector risks identified by public health assessments. � See Solid Waste Management section.

• Clearing of vegetation from around dwellings is often undertaken in an attempt to reduce opportunities for mosquitoes to find resting places. However the impact of this is minimal compared to other control measures: resources should not be wasted on mobilising communities to embark on vegetation clearance.

B8.3 Chemical Vector Control

• Evidence shows that the provision of toilets and removal of open defecation is the most effective method for reducing the spread of WASH-related disease (including cholera and trachoma): Oxfam must not advocate for, or implement, chemical fly control methods such as spraying, outdoor fogging or dusting for the sole purpose of eradicating or controlling flies.

• Oxfam does advocate for Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS) with WHO-approved insecticides for the control of mosquitoes as a malarial control method. � See Malaria section.

WEDC, Emergency Vector Control using Chemicals

Oxfam Fly Spraying Policy, 2007



• Insecticide-treated plastic sheeting (ITPS) is a vector control measure sometimes found as wall coverings on latrines, family shelters, and clinic buildings. Although the chemical treatment used on ITPS is similar to that of insecticide-treated mosquito nets (ITMNs), the effectiveness of ITPS as a vector control method is still under debate. Oxfam will not promote or use ITPS in latrine or shelter construction, nor distribute ITPS as an NFI.



B9 Shelter

� PH staff should provide input on technical shelter designs, construction management, and WASH integration in transitional shelter projects.

Reference documents


• While water and sanitation is our core response, emergency shelter is part of Oxfam’s PH work. If there are unmet needs, we need to address them.

• Oxfam also constructs transitional shelters after disasters as a more durable response to the shelter needs of affected populations. Oxfam’s 2006 Shelter Policy permits appropriate-scale transitional shelter projects based on needs, our own capacity, and funding availability. PH staff are likely to be consulted on technical designs, construction management, and WASH integration in transitional shelter projects.

• Engage with the Shelter Cluster or government departments engaged in emergency and transitional shelter.

• All of Oxfam’s emergency or transitional shelter interventions must abide by SPHERE minimum standards for shelter and settlement. These include: attention to strategic and physical planning considerations; minimal covered living space areas; appropriateness of design; ease of construction; and low environmental impact.

• Construction of permanent housing is not considered an appropriate Oxfam humanitarian intervention, although Oxfam may engage in lobbying and advocacy work on permanent housing policies and interventions of others.

• Oxfam Shelter Policy, 2006

• SPHERE, Chapter 4: Minimum Standards in Shelter, Settlement, and NFIs

B9.2 Emergency Shelter Materials and Distribution

• Emergency shelter materials commonly distributed include tents, plastic sheeting, corrugated zinc or plastic roofing sheets, mattresses or floor mats, and blankets. All shelter materials distributed by Oxfam, including those purchased in local markets, must conform to international standards for quality.

• As displaced people often live in tents longer than planned, tent designs and materials must be appropriate for long-term use over several seasons. Lightweight camping-style tents are not suitable for humanitarian responses.

• Sufficient lengths of plastic sheeting must be distributed to meet SPHERE standards. 2 pieces of 4m x 6m sheets are often more useful to displaced families than a single sheet.

• Plastic sheeting must not be distributed without some fixing or fastening method. A sufficient length of polypropylene or natural fibre rope should be included with all plastic sheeting.

• Structural supports, such as bush or bamboo poles or timber, must be included if no salvageable materials exist, or if there is a risk of deforestation.

• Distributing nails and hand tools should also be included, as indicated by assessments. Toolkits to be shared among

• A Guide to the Use and Logistics of Family Tents in Humanitarian Relief



families should not exceed 1 kit for every 10 families. Practical training should accompany the distribution of tool kits. Provide simple information on assembling transitional shelters

• 2 blankets (double or king-size) per family member is the minimum requirement.

• Distributions of shelter materials should be organised in a manner that will enable all beneficiaries (including the elderly) to easily transport materials.

B9.3 Emergency Shelter Technical Support

• PH staff should not assume that displaced people lack the skills to erect simple emergency shelters or tents. Technical support is typically warranted only in cases where extreme weather conditions exist (heavy rains, snow or winds), or if traditional labour sources are not available within the targeted population.

• Demonstrations and group training are Oxfam’s preferred method of providing technical support. Building individual shelters for families is slow, expensive, and risks creating dependency.

• To prevent or reduce the risk of standing water after rainfall and to prevent water infiltration into tents, attention must be paid to proper drainage ditches around tents. When possible, tents should be elevated on earth or timber platforms.

• When plastic sheeting is distributed in areas of high winds or heavy rains, technical support may be needed to remind beneficiaries of the need for appropriate fixing methods. These include the need to spread the load, prevent the sheet from flapping, and avoid contact with friction points.

• If market and other conditions permit, cash or material vouchers may be an appropriate emergency shelter response. In these situations, the ESFL team will typically lead the response with technical support from PH staff.

• Plastic Sheeting – A Guide to the Specification and Use of Plastic Sheeting in Humanitarian Relief

• Oxfam Cash Guidelines for Emergencies

B9.4 Transitional Shelters

• Oxfam’s transitional shelter programmes are designed to support the immediate and short-term shelter needs of recently displaced families until permanent housing is constructed. This can involve:

o Supporting individuals and community groups with materials and expertise to build their own temporary shelters, or repair/rehabilitate damaged houses.

o Provide information and technical training on how to make transitional housing more disaster resilient.

o Link with EFSL team to explore opportunities for skills-training for carpentry.

o Collective shelters where families are temporarily housed in existing buildings;

o Camp settlements - either organized or spontaneous – where families are housed in tents;

o Host family support through building materials, cash grants, etc.

o WASH support for other agencies involved in transitional shelter projects.

• Oxfam Shelter Policy, 2006



o Advocacy & lobbying work on government transitional shelter policies and practices.

o Ensure accountability/feedback mechanisms are in place, particularly for high-value shelter kits.

• As Oxfam’s best experiences in transitional shelter involve small-scale, community-driven projects, avoid the temptation to design large programmes.

B9.5 Shelter and NFIs for Cold Climates

• Always consult locally on insulation techniques which can be improvised to fit with temporary or transitional shelters, i.e. use of lining made of straw or pine needles in ceiling and sub-floor.

• Tents are difficult to keep warm in cold climates as they lose heat quickly. While winterised tents are available, they are only slightly more effective than other double-walled tents at reducing heat loss from wind infiltration.

• As the greatest heat loss from tents occurs as conduction to the ground, all tents distributed by Oxfam in cold climates should have an insulated platform. Small stones, sand or straw (if kept dry between layers of plastic sheeting) can be used as an insulating material.

• Even moderate snowfall can cause tents to collapse. CGI or plastic roof sheets should be considered as a required snow barrier over tents.

• To prevent fire from sparks, all wood-burning stoves in tents must be on an elevated platform of sand or small stones.

• A bucket of sand to put out small fires is an essential non-food item (NFI) to be distributed along with wood-burning stoves in tents or other emergency shelters.

• Additional blankets can be used as an insulation material and to reduce wind infiltration heat loss from tents.

B9.6 Shelter and NFIs for Hot Climates

• Tents and other emergency shelters used in hot, dry climates must provide shade from the sun and adequate ventilation. As displaced persons in hot climates typically spend daylight hours outside their shelters, additional shade materials and structural supports should be provided.

• Shade netting is often a more appropriate material for use in hot, dry climates than plastic sheeting.

• Shelter interventions in hot climates should make consideration for night-time temperatures which can drop considerably – blankets etc. might still be necessary.

• Shade Nets – Use, Deployment and Procurement of Shade Net in Humanitarian Relief Environments

B9.7 Water, Sanitation and Shelter

• PH staff must ensure that all Oxfam’s emergency shelter interventions are accompanied by adequate access to and supply of water and sanitary facilities.



B10 Camps and Informal Settlements

� PH staff should be proactively involved in supporting camp and settlement planning with WASH input. This should include technical assessments of water availability and planning and layout of water distribution network and sanitation facilities.

Reference documents

B10.1 Site Planning and Assessment – Water Supply

• As Oxfam is frequently responsible for ensuring access to water for camp populations, PH staff should be involved in technical assessments of water availability prior to site selection.

• While surface water sources such as streams, rivers and ponds should be assessed for their potential, water supply in camps must be available all year round and easy to protect. Spring catchment, hand-dug wells and boreholes are preferred options.

• Davis, J., Lambert, R., (1999) Engineering in Emergencies

B10.2 Site Planning and Assessment – Excreta Disposal

• While population estimates by camp administration can provide a rough estimate of the number of latrines needed, sanitation needs typically increase over time. Using spatial estimates (counting the number of households in a camp sector) or sample beneficiary surveys can help PH staff obtain more accurate data.

• Latrine designs can evolve over the different phases of a camp’s lifetime. While shallow trench latrines may be an appropriate initial intervention, semi-permanent latrine structures are likely to be required after a short period of time. Initial site planning must take both these early phases into account, as well as the opportunity for family latrine construction at a later date.

• For better drainage and ease of latrine pit excavation, potential sites with permeable soils are preferable to hardpan or rocky locations.

• ACF Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Populations at Risk

B10.3 Site Planning and Layout

• The location of latrines and washing facilities must facilitate safe access and provide sufficient privacy for women and girls. Consultation with women and girls regarding location and design is essential.

• Siting latrines and bathing facilities for females in separate locations to male facilities is recommended when cultural mores and space permit.

• Solid waste disposal sites should be located away from water sources and at central areas throughout camps or at the periphery. Disposal sites should have perimeter fencing.

• Laundry and dishwashing stations should be conveniently located to households and water supplies.

• All water sources should have adequate drainage with soakaways to prevent standing water.



B10.4 Firebreaks

• Firebreaks between tents, shelters, and buildings are essential to limit the possibility of fire spreading. The preferred minimum space between structures should be 2.5 times the height of the structure (e.g. 2m-high tents should be spaced 5m apart).

• When it is not possible to achieve this distance, fire safety campaigns are essential to help camp residents identify risks and take appropriate mitigation and fire response measures.

• NRC Camp Management Toolkit



B11 Construction Standards

� All Oxfam construction activities (site management, health and safety, excavations, masonry, concrete, and sign off) must meet or exceed national quality standards, and be based on a regularly reviewed work plan.

Reference documents

B11.1 Project Management

• Management of construction projects is the responsibility of the PHE Technical Team Leader (TTL). All Oxfam construction projects must meet or exceed industry quality standards, the TTL or a senior PHE has the ultimate responsibility for ensuring quality.

• All projects, no matter how small, should be based on a work plan. Each work plan must include:

o Scope of works;

o Technical drawings;

o Phases and sequencing of construction work;

o Types and quantity of construction materials;

o Skilled and unskilled labour needed for each phase;

o Projected timeframe of project; and

o A clear budget.

• Work plans should be reviewed on a regular basis (preferably every other day) and revised as needed. Managers must be informed of any revisions to work plans.

Cobb, F., (2009) Structural Engineer’s Pocket Book (2nd Ed.)

Davis, J., Lambert, R., (1999) Engineering in Emergencies

B11.2 Site Management

• On every construction site one person must be in charge of the works. This person needs to have sufficient technical knowledge to address common problems; the professional ability to anticipate and address problems or delays before they occur; and have a disciplined personal behaviour and authority towards his workers, supervisors, and the host community. If no such person is available, it is the responsibility of the TTL or a senior PHE to directly supervise the work.

• Supervision does not take place behind a laptop. The site supervisor should be present in the field on a daily basis.

B11.3 Excavations and Construction Works

• Cutting/digging in public facilities such as roads requires permission from relevant the relevant public authority.

• When soil and slope conditions permit, the minimum depths of trenches for water supply systems are:

Field/bush 0.6m

Agricultural 0.8m

• Oxfam PHE Health and Safety Guidelines

• Oxfam Technical Brief 20 Construction Works



Along roads 0.8m

Road crossings 1.0·

• For all construction work the Oxfam PHE Health and Safety guidelines and the Technical Brief on Construction should be followed.

B11.4 Sign-Off and Handover

• While ongoing supervision of construction works can make sign-off a formality, it is the responsibility of the TTL or senior PHE in the field to formally approve the commissioning or use of any construction work.

• If the work does not meet acceptable standards, a revised work plan must be put in place to correct any problems or initiate changes.

• Maintenance schedules should be included in handing over construction work to communities. Whenever possible, relevant local authorities should be involved in the sign off and handover.



B12 Cholera and other diarrhoeal outbreak control Reference documents

B12.1 • All PH staff must be aware if cholera is endemic in the country they are working and they must be familiar with the measures for prevention and response.

• All PH staff must be familiar with the critical stages in the outbreak curve and key target activities for each stage as specified on the OGB Cholera Prevention and Control Guidelines

• All countries classified as cholera endemic by WHO where Oxfam is operational must have an active Cholera Preparedness and Implementation Plan (include pre-tested, standard IEC materials and messages).

• All PH staff should understand the cholera outbreak curve and issues of critical focus at each phase of the curve.

• At a minimum a response to a severe diarrhoea outbreak should entail the following:

o Intensive public health campaign on key diarrhoea focused messages (including pre-emptive community education in at risk areas and handwashing).

o Access to oral re-hydration, either home-based or through community Oral Rehydration Points (ORPs). This can be either home-made ORS from sugar salt solution (SSS) or ORS sachets depending on the context and practices of other agencies. If home-based SSS is promoted PH staff should use the formula of 6 teaspoons of sugar and ½ teaspoon of salt to 1 litre of clean water.

o Chlorination of all drinking water (at appropriate stages along the water chain which may include chlorinating at source, along the way or at the point of uses).

o Distribution of NFIs such as soap, water containers and means to carry out disinfection of household water if necessary.

o Start a clean-up campaign to ensure the environment is free from faecal matter.

o Provision of support to Cholera Treatment Centres for water supply, sanitation and isolation.

o Maintain linkages (formal or informal) with health NGOs or MoH in order to base project design/intervention on disease patterns/stage of the outbreak.

• Oxfam Cholera Prevention and Control Guidelines, 2009.

• Refugee Health: An Approach to Emergency Situations. MSF, 1997.



B13 Malaria

� The decision to intervene with a malaria programme must be based on knowledge of the malaria profile for the area: all WASH assessments must include an appraisal of malaria risk and the capacity and intention of other agencies (including the government) to intervene.

� Depending on context the preference for Oxfam malaria activities is for the provision of community education to ensure effective prevention of malaria and distribution of insecticide-treated nets.

Reference documents

B13.1 • The decision to intervene with a malaria programme must be based on knowledge of the malaria profile for the area: all WASH assessments must include an appraisal of malaria risk and the capacity and intention of other agencies (including the government) to intervene.

• Permission must be sought from the National Malaria Control Programme or Ministry of Health before an intervention is initiated.

• Every effort must be made to work in conjunction with existing longer-term malaria control programmes (e.g. Roll Back Malaria, Global Fund).

Oxfam’s malaria programming strengths include the provision of community education to ensure effective prevention of malaria (use of mosquito nets, vector control etc. and community participation) and distribution of insecticide-treated nets (either to whole communities or targeted to pregnant women and children under 5).

• The provision of mosquito nets should not be seen as the automatic choice of intervention, as they may not always be appropriate.

• If mosquito nets are to be distributed, long-lasting insecticide-treated nets (LLIN) are to be promoted wherever possible rather than re-treatable nets. Permanet and Olyset brands are both acceptable in terms of efficacy.

• General Minimum Requirements for � Distribution of Hygiene Kits will apply for a mosquito net distribution.

• IRS may be undertaken if it is the most appropriate option and there are no other actors capable of implementing it. If so:

o Staff should receive comprehensive training to ensure effective, and safe spraying.

o Spraying should be carried out just before the rainy season to ensure the insecticide is still effective when malaria peaks.

o It should be confined to camp situations or well-defined geographic areas, as wider coverage will limit effectiveness.

o All insecticide purchased for use in a particular country must be licensed by that country.

o DDT must not be purchased using Oxfam funding.

• Oxfam does not provide curative care as part of its WASH programmes, but adequate access to treatment is important if malaria control is to be successful. Therefore, if access to health care or treatment is severely compromised, Oxfam should advocate for the involvement of other agencies.

• Oxfam Malaria Control Guidelines

• WEDC Emergency Vector Control using Chemicals



B14 Other public health programming

� If PH staff identify a need or opportunity, or are requested to intervene in other public health areas, Programme Management and preferably Regional or Oxford-based Public Health Advisors should be consulted to determine Oxfam’s capacity to intervene, what added value Oxfam would bring, and budgetary and timing issues.

Reference documents

B14.1 Oxfam’s core public health expertise – both in terms of PHP and PHE – is in diarrhoea and malaria. However there will be occasions when a need or opportunity arises for involvement in other public health programming. This might be:

• To support the activities of another NGO or the Ministry of Health during an emergency response (for example a mass vaccination campaign);

• To respond to other WASH-related health threats (for example bilharzia, skin and eye infections) or other health issues amongst the affected community that would have an impact on public health or safety (e.g. fire safety).

• To maintain momentum and interest levels in existing community health clubs / children’s clubs etc. during the dry season or in chronic emergencies.

If PH staff identify a need or opportunity to intervene in other different public health areas, Programme Management, and preferably Regional or Oxford-based Public Health Advisors should be consulted. In particular the following must be considered:

• Does Oxfam have the capacity and experience to intervene? Do other NGOs have more established expertise? Would Oxfam’s involvement be better focussed on advocacy within WASH and Health Clusters for scale-up by other agencies?

• How does Oxfam add value to the activity?

• Can the cost of the activity be covered in the existing budget? If not, what alternative sources of funding are available (e.g. in-kind support from another NGO or UN)?

• Does the timing of the activity coincide with Oxfam core diarrhoea and malaria activities WASH activities around the rainy season? If so it is likely to detract from our core messages and will need strong justification.



B15 What we DON’T do

� PH staff must be briefed and understand the limit of Oxfam PH activities, and know how to deal with requests for humanitarian support in activities that we do not undertake (if necessary with the support of Programme Managers).

Reference documents

B15.1 • Oxfam does not carry out medical interventions, though we may advocate for others to provide clinical services if a needs assessment reveals a gap in provision.

• We do not provide community-based post-traumatic stress counselling, though staff are supported to cope with working with stressed communities, and general psycho-social support is provided for beneficiaries through enabling opportunities for recreation and active community involvement in programme activities and decision-making.

• Oxfam must not advocate for, or implement, chemical fly control methods such as spraying, outdoor fogging or dusting for the sole purpose of eradicating or controlling flies.

• The effectiveness of ITPS as a vector control method is still under debate. Oxfam does not promote or use insecticide-treated plastic sheeting in latrine or shelter construction, nor distribute ITPS as an NFI.

• Oxfam does not carry out child protection work, but does work with adults and children in order to meet their basic needs. There are many experienced and specialised actors (such as Unicef and Save the Children Fund) who are the most appropriate organisations to deliver child protection services in a safe, appropriate manner.

Oxfam Briefing Paper, Responding to the Psychosocial Needs of People Affected by Emergencies

Oxfam Fly Spraying Policy, 2007

Oxfam Child Protection Policy, 2007

Oxfam Piped Water Supplies, 2002

oxfam wash minimum requirements - january 2010

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