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International Conference on Burma/Myanmar Studies Burma/Myanmar in Transition: Connectivity, Changes and Challenges

University Academic Service Centre (UNISERV), Chiang Mai University, Thailand, 24-‐25 July 2015

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Migration as a Challenge for Myanmar’s Socio-‐economic Development: Case Studies of Hpa-‐an and Mrauk-‐U townships in Myanmar

Saw Yu May

Lecturer, Geography Department, University of Yangon -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Migration is the act or process of moving from one place to another with the intent of staying at the destination permanently or for a relatively long period of time (1992, Longman). It can also be assumed that people move from one place to another, usually their home place, to work or to settle in another place. As basic factors, migration take place an area where the migrants believe that their opportunity and life circumstances will be better at their destinations than the present location. Nevertheless, if an area where takes place a movement of in-‐migration because of positive conditions (pull factors), this will be generally increased the population or human resources. Similarly, if an area where takes place a movement of out-‐migration due to negative conditions (push factors), this area will lose their population or human resources. Some time it affects the negative impacts and potential challenges for sustainable socio-‐economic development of this area. Therefore, this study is based on some specific areas of Myanmar: Hpa-‐an Township, Kayin State and Mrauk-‐U Township, Rakhine State where migration process takes place by focusing the question of how and why the people are migrating in these areas. This paper is intended to explore the migration patterns of these areas and to point out the main reasons of push and pull factors for these migrations. To obtain the relevant data, it is analyzed with field observation and in semi-‐structured in-‐depth interview survey method to the local authorities, experts and local people. Some of the facts from the interview data are assessed by SWOT Analysis to know the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats due to migration. As a result from this study, economic condition is the key factor of the migration for the study areas and that effect on the socioeconomic condition of these areas.

Key words: migration patterns, push factor, pull factor, potential challenges, Hpa-‐an Township, Mrauk-‐U Township

An Overview of the Research Background

Migration is the act or process of moving from one place to another with the intent of staying at the destination permanently or for a relatively long period of time” (Longman, 1992). Migration process takes place almost around the world throughout the history. Migration is the movement of people from one place to another for the various purposes for permanent or semi-‐permanent settlement. Migration which takes place within a country is called internal migration whereas takes place to the other countries/oversea is called international migration. Today, the most significant migration pattern is rural-‐urban migration that may be occurred throughout the world especially in developing countries. “In the 20th century, nearly all countries



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have experienced a great movement of people from agricultural area to the cities, continuing a pattern of rural to urban migration that first became prominent during the 18th and 19th century Industrial Revolution in advanced economies” (Fellmann, Getis, Getis, 1990). The movement of people from the countryside to cities is to search searching for better living opportunities. Generally, there are two types of migration, namely forced and voluntary. It can be said that voluntary migration is referred to as the people move into a new destination by their own choice, the forced migration, the people move into a new region for reasons other than their own choice. Anyhow, migration means that the people allocate the new location for residence due various factors such as economic, political, environment, etc. Since few decades, migration process becomes more significant in Myanmar and becoming a major issue for socioeconomic development. Against this background, study areas of Hpa-‐an Township and Mrauk-‐ U township were selected for the migration study. This study focuses on how and why the people are migrating on from one place to another within the selected study areas. The main purpose of this study is to explore the migration patterns of these areas and to point out the main reasons of push and pull factors for these migrations.

Method of Study

In this study, to obtain the relevant data, field observation was firstly done in different areas. The limitation of this study is obtaining the secondary data of how much migration take place in respective area. Before starting this study, field observations and open talks with local residents were conducted. Then, reliable information about the migration was taken by systematic structured interview survey method and in-‐depth interview survey method was applied to the local authorities, local experts and local residents. These surveys were done in Hpa-‐an Township during 2011 and in Mrauk-‐U Township in March 2015. Some of the facts from the interview data were assessed by the SWOT Analysis to deeply understand the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats due to migration.

Geography of the Study Areas

Myanmar is composed of fifteen Divisions: seven States and eight Regions. In this research, the study areas are situated in different regions. These areas are departing from each other and composed of different physical and cultural components. The first study area is Hpa-‐an Township, Kayin State which is in the south-‐eastern part of Myanmar and Hpa-‐an is the capital of the Kayin State which is 270 km far from Yangon, the biggest city of Myanmar, and it lie in the Thanlwin River Valley with isolated mountains and hills which are the continuation of Eastern Highlands.

The another study area is Mrauk-‐U Township, Rakhine State which is situated on the western part of Myanmar and an ancient city of Rakhine State. Rakhine State is the second least developed area of Myanmar followed by Chin State. Mrauk-‐U is designated as an archeological site of Myanmar in 1996 by Myanmar government. Again in 2009, it was announced as cultural heritage zone. Formally, Mrauke-‐U was known as Myo-‐haung and once it was the capital of Rakhine State. Later, the capital moved from Mrauk-‐U to Sittway which is 143 km away by motor road and about 64 km is by water



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way. Mrauk-‐U is one of the remote areas of Myanmar (Zin Nwe Myint, 2009). These study areas can be said that development is still left behind. The general geographical factors of study areas can be expressed as follow:

Elements Study Area 1 Study Area 2

Location Hpa-‐an Township, Kayin State Mrauk-‐U Township, Rakhine State

Topography * situated on the eastern bank of Thanlwin River

* generally it is a lowland area with some isolated mountains which is the continuation of Eastern Highland

* composed of Hpa-‐an Town and 91 village tracts

*Thanlwin River flows across the area which is favorable for agriculture

* situated Rakhine costal region, in the western part Myanmar.

*generally low lying area between western mountain ranges and costal sea with small undulating hills that like barriers or walls for this town which delete generally run from north to south

* composed flows Mrauk-‐U Town and 92 village tracts

* situated between Kaladan River (Kissapanadi River) and Lemro River

Climate *Tropical Monsoon climate, the average temperature is about 27.8ºC, total annual rainfall is about 2540 mm

* Tropical Monsoon Climate, the average temperature is about 27ºC and the average annual rainfall is about 3000 mm.

Environmental condition and Natural Hazard

* flooding occur very often along the Thanlwin River

* salt water intrusion due to tidal process that affect on agriculture

* sometime flood occurs along the Kaladan and Lemro Rivers in rainy season

* salt-‐ water intrusion due to tidal process that affects on the agriculture

* sometime tornados, storm wind



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Figure 1. Location of Study Areas, Hpa,-‐an Township, Kayin State and Mrauk-‐U Township, Rakhine State (Source: Myanmar Survey Department)



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Socioeconomic Factors of Study Areas

Total population of Hpa-‐an township was over 126,255 persons in 2013. Kayin, Mon and Pa-‐O ethnic people are living together and about 85% of the people are Buddhists and the rest are Christian and others (*GAD, Hpa-‐an Town). Generally speaking, agriculture is the main occupation in all the study area. In Hpa-‐an Township, paddy is cultivated mainly on the lowland and along the Thanlwin River valley. Moreover, Rubber plantation and gardening are also found in other parts of the township. Apart from agriculture, there are border trading with Thailand via Myawady, in the eastern part of Hpa-‐an Township. In Mrauk-‐U Township, the total population was about 223186 persons in 2014 (*Immigration Department, Mrauke-‐U). The main ethnic groups are Rakhine, Chin, Myo, Thet etc., and the majority of the people are Buddhists. Agriculture is the main economy. Paddy cultivation is found along the Kaladan River (Kissapanadi River) and Lemro River by irrigation and one of the highest paddy cultivation areas of Rakhine State. The other crops are pulses and vegetables grown near upper part of the Lemro River. Other occupation engaged in fresh water fishery and prawn culture in the two rivers.


Location Hpa-‐an Township, Kayin State, Mrauk-‐U Township, Rakhine State

Social characteristic *Total population is over 126,225 persons in 2013

*Kayin, Mon and Pa-‐O ethnic groups are living together

*85% Buddhists and 25% are Christians

*Total population is about 223186 persons in 2014

* ethnic groups are Rakine, Chin, Thet, Myo, Khame, etc,

* Buddhism

Economic characteristic * main cultivation are wet agriculture, rubber plantation and gardening

*border trading with Thailand via Myawady

*second least developed area of Myanmar

*main occupations are wet agriculture and irrigation agriculture

*the main crops are paddy, bean and pulses, vegetables,

* some fresh water fishery and prawn culture

Others Factor *transportation is moderately good, it is one of the shortest path to Thailand border in Myanmar

*one university, two technological universities and one education

*transportation is difficult, can access motor road and water transportation but it is necessary to upgrade

* one university and two technological universities and one governmental



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college, one nursing school technological High School are in Sittwe which is 143 km far from Mrauk-‐U

Types and Process of Migration in Study Area

Migrations may be forced or voluntary or, in many instances, reluctant relocations imposed on the migrants by circumstances (Fellmann, Getis, Getis, 1990). According to the results from field survey, it can be found in-‐migration as well as out migration in the study areas. In these areas, people have been migrating; mostly it is rural-‐urban migration (internal migration) because of the difficulties of agriculture which was sometime due to climate instability and difficulties of land reclamation that made not profiting in cultivation to the people in rural area. Sometime investment in agriculture for next year is difficult. Therefore, the rural people migrated to urban area for their survival and for searching job. Sometime they want to migrate for education and health services to promote their current situation. Therefore these migrations are of in-‐migration into the study areas. Since last decade, many people from rural areas have migrated to near urban area and some migrated to the other cities. Similarly, the people from small towns have migrated to other cities and towns which are more urbanized/developed than the original location. This type of migration is urban-‐urban migration within the study areas. For example the people from small towns of Kyone-‐doe, Kawkareik migrated to Hpa-‐an Town. In this migration, migrants moved to new location which is more developed and urbanized area than their original location with the aim to improve their socioeconomic situation. After migrating to the new urban area, they faced the difficulties in finding employment. In this way, most of the people desire to migrate to another destination which they perceived better or more urbanized area to searching for their better livelihood. This kind of migration is internal migration. Despite huge in-‐migration from rural area to urban area, out migration is significantly much greater within the study areas. Migrants have enormously increased over the last five years in the study area. This type of migration is urban to abroad migration called external migration or international migration which is also significant. According to the interviews, most of the migrants are in working group ages between 18 and 40 which is the labour migration or labour mobility. Most migrants of these ages are strongly concerned with job-‐related movement, which is the main reason of migration. Interviews pointed out that there are about 80% of young people who migrated abroad in Mrauk-‐U as similarly in Hpa-‐an Township. In all the study areas, one of the influencing factors of migration is social network through which information are distributed from first migrants to their friends, relatives and neighbors. By this way, the new migrants follow to the earlier migrants and to their places that link by social network. If one of the family members goes to a new destination, there is a greater connection to an area and a greater potential of numbers of migrants that will follow. In Hpa-‐an Township, there are one or more migrants per household. He or she migrated to one destination where jobs opportunities are high for



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him or her and can send back remittance to their family at home land. This situation was attractive to other kin or friend like channel leading to chain migration. In Hpa-‐an township, migration process has taken place since last decade and is still very active. Migration from the Hpa-‐an Township moves mainly to Thailand (Bangkok) and follows to Malaysia. Therefore, Bangkok is the major destination of the migrants from Hpa-‐an Township amounting to 86.2% of total migrants (*structured interview survey, 2011). Some people from Hpa-‐an migrated to developed countries like Australia and New Zealand. Some migrants moved to other places only for temporary stay, and after some years they come back home. In Mrauk-‐U Township, the migrant people moved to other places such as internal as well as external destinations. To the internal destination, they migrated to border towns of China and Jade mine in Myatkyina Township, Kachin State with only purpose for temporary and current economic situation. To external destination, they migrated to Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore.


Location Hpa-‐an Township, Kayin State Mrauk-‐U Township, Rakhine State

Types of Migration *Labour Migration

*Chain Migration

*Temporal Migration

* Labour Migration

* Chain Migration

* Temporal Migration

Ages of Migrants between 18 and 40 between 18 and 40

Gender of Migrants male and female is equal male is more than female

Migration Patterns of Study Areas

In all the study areas similar types of migration like labour migration and chain migration can be found. But they migrated to different destinations according to the migrants’ desire. In Hpa-‐an Township, while few of the migrants migrated to Yangon and other urbanized areas, many other migrated to developing countries especially to border country of Thailand where more job opportunities can be expected than their home land.

From Mrauk-‐U Township, people usually migrated to internal as well as international destination in the same volume. The migrants from Mrauke-‐U migrated not only to Yangon for economic and education purpose but also to border towns of China and Jade Mine in Myitkyina Township, Kachin State for the better economic and job opportunities. Migration to foreign countries is also for economic purposes especially to developing countries, namely Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore. It is noticeable that in all study areas, the migration has taken place mainly for the economic purposes. The migration patterns of study areas are shown in the following Figure 2.



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Figure 2. Migration Patterns of Study Areas: Hpa-‐an Township, Kayin State and Mrauk-‐U Township, Rakhine State (Source: Interview Survey, Hpa-‐an Township, in 2011: Mrauk-‐U Township in 2014)

Causes of Migration: Push and Pull Factors of Migration

As migration for most people is a major step not taken lightly, both push factors and pull factors typically play a role (2003, James M. Rubenstein). There are a number of reasons why people are migrating to other places in these areas. They are migrating from one place to another because of the push and pull factors of this region. Generally, it can be referred that push and pull factors are the reasons and conditions that drive people from one place and attract them to another place.

In this studies, there are many kinds of push and pull factors. The key indicator of migration of these areas is lack of job opportunities. In these areas, income or salary is very low and it is impossible to support the family. Often, it is difficult to get a job and there is no alternative job as well. For example, in Mrauk-‐U Township, some village tracts along the river bank of Kaladan, the farmers cultivate the paddy for six month in a year, after harvesting they have no more jobs to do in the remaining months. Therefore, they are waiting to cultivate another crop for the next year. In between this time, they have no alternative jobs because they depend only on paddy cultivation and they cannot cultivate double crops because the river has salt intrusion due to the tidal effect in the remaining six months. Moreover, the land is limited to extend due to the growing population year after year. Based on the results derived about 20% of farmers are landowners but the remaining ones are tenant farmers. In this situation, the young people start to migrate to other places for searching better job opportunities. Therefore, migration process occurs like a channelized pattern, and can be said that migration is strongly related with the agriculture in this areas.

Study Area 1

Developed Countries

Yangon Oversea: Developing Countries

Surrounding Rural Area

Near Smaller Towns

Surrounding Rural Area

Near Smaller Towns

Study Area 2 Yangon

China Border

Oversea: Developing Countries

Myitkyina (Jade Mine)

Direction and Volume of Migration



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Similarly in Hpa-‐an Township, it is very difficult to get a job and there are no job opportunities except in agriculture. Thus, the farmers tend to change to other types occupation. Apart from this, a few people migrated for education purpose.

In the study areas, there are some push and pull factors can be shown in the following;

Reasons Study Area 1 Study Area 2


Push Factors of Migration

*per capita income is very low

* lack of job opportunities and not enough job or difficulties to get jobs

*current job is not profit or de-‐salary that cannot support to the family as well as livelihood

* lack of investment or capital

* security

*per capita income is very low

* lack of job opportunities

* not profit and not enough money to support the family by current job

* not market for agriculture products and accessibility to market is very difficult

* lack of investment or capital

Pull Factors of Migration

* have job opportunity easily (over 90%)

*Education opportunity (0.6%)

*kinship, friendship and family link

*can send back remittances to the origin of home that attract to other migrants to follow the same migration route

*easy to get more money than native land

*environmental attraction and better living condition

* job opportunities

* education opportunities

* kinship, friendship and family link

* easy to obtain job and money

*better living conditions and better medical care condition

* can send back remittance to the origin of home that attract to other migrants to follow the same migration route



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Figure 3. Migration Flow of Study Areas, Hpa-‐an Township, Kayin State and Mrauk-‐U Township, Rakhine State, Myanmar



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Effects of Migration

Often, migration affects all the socioeconomic development of these areas, it can be said that migrants easily obtain more jobs and earns regularly. Therefore, this situation creates decreasing unemployment problem for these areas. Apart from this, migration of young people made depopulation of these areas where the labour shortage problem encountered in such kind of economic activities, for example, in agriculture because only the older people and women are left behind at home land. In this case, they cannot provide the whole work of this area. In addition, it is difficult to hire the labours because young people migrated to other places that impact again to agriculture. This kind of situation sometime may also affect to the socioeconomic development of these areas.

In the study areas, unbalancing state of gender ratio affect on the social structure of these areas because most of the young generation migrate to other places and sometime they get married at the new places. Therefore, the more people are migrating, the more it will impact on the social structure and social cohesion. Again, sometime it affects on the cultural identities and cultural value. For example, in the study areas, some regular cultural festivals and customs, like Water Festival, Thidingyut Festival the migrants could not participate in these ceremonies and so that will bring about the loss of cultural value for the young generation. But these are actually the responsibility of youth. In addition lack of job opportunities that creates sometime loss of educated people as brain drain process of these areas.

Anyhow, some opportunities can be obtained from migrants and it can be reinvested for other economic activities i.e. services, industries, etc., from the remittances. In the case of Hpa-‐an Township, about 70% of migrants can send remittances for constructing a new house for their family (*Source: Structured Interview Survey, 2011). Similarly, it can reinvest in such kind of economic activities from their remittances such as, services, cottage industry. Moreover, it can enhance the development of this region if the migrants have new skills or education (knowledge) when they come back home. For example, in Hpa-‐an Township, some migrants who were formerly farmers when they come back home, they reinvest in industries. In this case, it can be assessed on migration by SWOT Analysis for the socioeconomic consideration of these regions.

SWOT Analysis on Migration of the Studies Areas

Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities Threats

*decreased in the unemployment rate

* the remittances from migrants, it can be supported to education, health care for the family those who are left behind home land

* depopulation

*young migrants make loss of labour forces in such kind of economic activity e.g. agriculture

* loss of labour may difficult for establishing the socio-‐economic development of these

* from saving money from remittances, it can be spent as investment/ capital for other services or enterprises

*if the migrants have new skill when they come back home, it will benefit for the

* brain drain process

*loose of social cohesion and social structure in their home land

*decline or loss of cultural identities and culture value



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regions

* imbalance in gender issue

development of this region

Conclusion

Today, migration is one of the challenging issues in Myanmar for the socioeconomic development. The sustainable development is largely based on the human resources. If a place has no human resources, it is difficult to implement to develop. In the two study areas, about 90 percent of migrants moved to other places for economic purposes. Lack of job opportunities are the main reasons for migration and if more job opportunities can be, the migration can be controlled definitely. To control the migration rate in respective regions, the local community should try to consider what the potential for the economic development of this region is and how to promote it; and what the strength and opportunities of this region are, etc. These will create socioeconomic development of this region and will control the migration to some extent. Furthermore, the government and local authorities should collaborate for trying to promote and to upgrade the living standard, which will also promote the socioeconomic development of this region inevitability. Currently, it is necessary to consider the migration issue urgently in Myanmar.

From the results of the study, some factors which will support to socioeconomic development of these areas would be recommended as follow.

Reasons Study Area 1 Study Area 2


For job opportunity

*promote the systematic techniques in wet cultivation especially paddy cultivation because of flooding and salt intrusion

* introduce other potential agricultural crops such as vegetable, rubber with high technology

*support to high technology to the SMEs enterprises

*establish the other industries/ factories because it can be said that good transportation already exists and it is easy to communicate with the central part of Myanmar

* promote the systematic mechanization, irrigation in wet cultivation especially for paddy cultivation

*establish a new market for organic agriculture products e.g. vegetables, because soil is still good condition

* promote and re-‐establish the tourism because there are a lot of archeological sites that can easily attract to tourism and it is the highest potential for development of this area

*search other tourism sites which have been left behind despite being attractive



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*promote tourism industries because there has a lot of natural places for tourist attraction

*introduce high technology to agriculture and other economic sector

to tourists

* establish suitable factories and industries

* support the SMEs such as prawn culture and animal husbandry : e.g. cattle

* introduce high technology to agriculture and other economic sectors

For infrastructure *necessary to prepare for all the tourist infrastructure

*electricity

*upgrade transportation system: water transportation as well as road transportation

*encourage the local people to invest in the tourist industry

*necessary to promote the tourist infrastructure e.g. intra transportation network, hotel and restaurants, etc,.

* upgrade electricity, water supply

For other purpose * promote security

*promote this area to a better condition for tourists

*necessary green and clean environment for tourist attraction

*upgrade education for tourist industry



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Britain Rubenstein, James, M. . 2003”. The Cultural Landscape. An Introduction to Human Geography,” Macmillian

Publishing Company. Fellmann,J.,Getis, A., Getis, J. .1990. “ Human Geography: Landscapes of Human Activities”(3rd Ed.) WCB.

Wm.c Brown Publishers,U.S. Zin New Myint and Khin Myo Hla .2009. “ Preliminary Investigation on Tourist Industry of Mrauk-‐U, Rakhine

State”. Journal of Myanmar Academy of Arts and Scienc

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