paper writing tips - 041411

8/6/2019 Paper Writing Tips - 041411

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2011 Robert R. Roxas - UP Cebu

Introduction on ResearchIntroduction on Research What is Research?What is Research?

The Purposes of ResearchThe Purposes of Research

Steps on Conducting ResearchSteps on Conducting Research Scientific papersScientific papers

Parts of scientific papersParts of scientific papers

AbstractAbstract IntroductionIntroduction

Review of Related LiteratureReview of Related Literature

OutlineOutline


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Overview or BackgroundOverview or Background

Methodology Results and DiscussionMethodology Results and Discussion

Conclusion and Future workConclusion and Future work

Citation and ReferencesCitation and References

Tables and FiguresTables and Figures

Sample PapersSample Papers

OutlineOutline


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Introduction on ResearchIntroduction on Research


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What is Research?What is Research?


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The wordThe word researchresearch is ais a very confusingvery confusingtermterm

OftenOften--misusedmisused term, itsterm, its usageusage inin

everydayeveryday language islanguage is very differentvery different fromfromthethe strictstrict scientific meaningscientific meaning

It hasIt has so manyso many meanings that we mustmeanings that we must

understandunderstand preciselyprecisely what wewhat we meanmean

when we use it in itswhen we use it in its scholarly sensescholarly sense

MisconceptionsMisconceptions


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We have beenWe have been conditionedconditioned to the term into the term inso many connotativeso many connotative frameworks that weframeworks that wemaymay not be surenot be sure exactly what the termexactly what the term

reallyreally does meandoes mean ItIt bewildersbewilders many studentsmany students encounteringencountering

the term for thethe term for the first timefirst time in ain a trulytrulyprofessionalprofessional andand academicacademic sensesense



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WhenWhen studentsstudents are enrolled inare enrolled in graduategraduateprograms, they areprograms, they are gropinggroping in the darkin the darkunder aunder a thunderingthundering adviser who wants aadviser who wants a

real researchreal research done by a studentdone by a student



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ProductProduct of years of researchof years of researchSunsilk CoSunsilk Co--creation Shampoocreation Shampoo (using(using

Straightening System) as promoted byStraightening System) as promoted by YukoYukoYamashitaYamashita, a Japanese straight hair expert, a Japanese straight hair expert

Research?Research?


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ClearClear ShampooShampoo (A Revolutionary New(A Revolutionary NewAntiAnti--dandruff Shampoo) as promoted bydandruff Shampoo) as promoted byRainRain, a Korean artist, a Korean artist

Research?Research?


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IndustryIndustry endeavorsendeavors

FactFact--findingfinding surveyssurveys of consumerof consumer buyingbuyingpowerpower

FiguresFigures showing customershowing customer preferencespreferences andandneedsneeds

ChartsCharts andand graphsgraphs detailingdetailing growthgrowth andandsalessales improvementimprovement

FactsFacts andand figuresfigures representing therepresenting thecorporate economycorporate economy

Research?Research?


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AcademicAcademic activitiesactivities

AA basic educationbasic education studentstudent browsingbrowsing thetheinternetinternet for information to learnfor information to learn howhowMagellanMagellan discovereddiscovered the Philippines and thethe Philippines and therouteroute he tookhe took

Research?Research?


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AA high schoolhigh school student making astudent making a term paperterm paperAnAn undergraduateundergraduate studentstudent studyingstudying thethe

companyscompanys manualmanual system in order tosystem in order toautomateautomate its systemits system

AA graduategraduate studentstudent gatheringgathering informationinformationin order toin order to conductconduct a seminar on thea seminar on the recentrecenttrendstrends in ITin IT

Research?Research?


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TheThe systematicsystematic process ofprocess ofcollectingcollecting andandanalyzinganalyzing information toinformation to increaseincrease ourourunderstandingunderstanding of theof the phenomenonphenomenon underunder

studystudy SuccessfulSuccessful researchresearch beginsbegins with awith a properproperorientationorientation

EssentiallyEssentially a waya way of thinkingof thinking SimplySimply aa mannermanner in which menin which men solvesolve thethe

knottyknotty problems in theirproblems in their attemptattempt toto pushpushbackbackthe frontiers ofthe frontiers ofhuman ignorancehuman ignorance

ResearchResearch


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BeginsBegins with awith a questionquestion in thein the mindmind of theof theresearcherresearcher

Requires aRequires a planplan

Demands aDemands a clear statementclear statement of problemof problem DealsDeals with thewith the mainmain problemproblem throughthroughsubproblemssubproblems

SeeksSeeks directiondirection throughthrough appropriateappropriatehypothesishypothesis

DealsDeals withwith factsfacts and theirand their meaningmeaning Research isResearch is CircularCircular

Characteristics of ResearchCharacteristics of Research


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Begins with a question in the mind ofBegins with a question in the mind ofthe researcherthe researcher

StartsStarts with thewith the curiositycuriosity of man, whichof man, which

causes him tocauses him to wonderwonder,, speculatespeculate, and, and askaskquestionsquestions A questionA question intelligentlyintelligently asked in theasked in the

presencepresence of anof an observedobserved phenomenon thatphenomenon that

puzzlespuzzles the researcherthe researcher



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NormallyNormally startsstarts when one asks awhen one asks aquestion like question like WhyWhy?, ?, How comeHow come?,?,Whats the cause of thatWhats the cause of that?, ?, What doesWhat does

it all meanit all mean?, etc.?, etc.



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Begins with a question in the mind ofBegins with a question in the mind ofthe researcherthe researcher

Begins with aBegins with a questioningquestioning andand inquisitiveinquisitive

mind in the presence ofmind in the presence ofbafflingbaffling andandperplexingperplexing factfact



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The Purposes of ResearchThe Purposes of Research


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TheThe purposepurpose of research can be aof research can be acomplicatedcomplicated issue andissue and variesvaries acrossacross

different scientificdifferent scientific fieldsfields andand disciplinesdisciplines

At theAt the most basicmost basic level, science can be split,level, science can be split,

loosely, into two types, loosely, into two types, pure researchpure research and and

applied researchapplied research

Purposes of ResearchPurposes of Research


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AllAll scientific researchscientific research seeksseeks toto answeranswerquestionsquestions

ScientificScientific questions askquestions askhowhow oror whywhy

somethingsomething happenshappens

TheThe answersanswers to these questionsto these questions helphelp

broaden ourbroaden our understandingunderstanding ofofhowhow thethe

world worksworld works

Purpose of Research (Scientific)Purpose of Research (Scientific)


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However,However, mostmost scientistsscientists considerconsider thetheanswers theyanswers they getget through research to bethrough research to be

theoreticaltheoretical oror probableprobable rather thanrather than

absoluteabsolute factfact

This allows forThis allows for differencesdifferences of opinion inof opinion in

thethe scientificscientific community as well ascommunity as well as helpshelps

scientistsscientists keepkeep their mindstheir minds openopen



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AsAs newnew discoveries arediscoveries are mademade, scientists, scientistschangechange their beliefs abouttheir beliefs about howhow somethingsomething

worksworks



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TheThe objectiveobjective of academic andof academic andinstitutional R&D is to obtaininstitutional R&D is to obtain newnew

knowledgeknowledge, which, which may or may notmay or may not bebe

applied toapplied to practicalpractical usesuses

Purpose of Research (R&D)Purpose of Research (R&D)


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TheThe objectiveobjective of industrial R&D is toof industrial R&D is toobtainobtain knowledge,knowledge, applicableapplicable to theto the

companyscompanys needsneeds, that eventually will, that eventually will

resultresult in any of the following:in any of the following:New or improvedNew or improved productsproducts

NewNew processesprocesses

NewNew systemssystemsNewNew servicesservices

TheThe objectiveobjective is normally tois normally to increaseincrease thethe

companyscompanys salessales andand profitsprofits

Purpose of Research (R&D)Purpose of Research (R&D)


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PurePure research is research done simplyresearch is research done simplytoto find outfind out something bysomething by examiningexamining

anythinganything

ForFor instanceinstance, in some pure scientific, in some pure scientific

research scientistsresearch scientists discoverdiscover whatwhat

propertiesproperties variousvarious materialsmaterials possesspossess

Purpose of Research (Pure)Purpose of Research (Pure)


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It isIt is notnot for the sake offor the sake ofapplyingapplying thosethoseproperties toproperties to anythinganything in particular, butin particular, but

simply tosimply to find outfind out whatwhat propertiesproperties therethere

areare

Pure mathematicsPure mathematics is for theis for the sakesake ofof

seeingseeing whatwhat happens,happens, not to solvenot to solve aa

problemproblem

Purpose of Research (Pure)Purpose of Research (Pure)


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Steps in Conducting ResearchSteps in Conducting Research


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ForFor anyany research project,research project, researchersresearchersmust have amust have a detaileddetailed plan beforeplan before

beginningbeginning

TheThe planplan shouldshould includeinclude aa

conceptualization of theconceptualization of the overalloverall

organizationorganization of the project and aof the project and a

detaileddetailed specification of thespecification of the stepssteps

required for successfulrequired for successful executionexecution of theof the

researchresearch

Identify Area of FocusIdentify Area of Focus


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ImplicitImplicit in thein the overalloverall plan of a researchplan of a researchdesign are:design are:

TheThe basicbasic formatformat of the researchof the research

TheThe naturenature andand rolerole of the dataof the data

TheThe identificationidentification of appropriateof appropriate

measurementmeasurement instrumentsinstruments

TheThe linkinglinking of data and the specificof data and the specific

researchresearch methodologymethodology



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TheThe determinationdetermination as to whether theas to whether theresearch is of aresearch is of a qualitativequalitative nature,nature,

quantitativequantitative nature, or both;nature, or both;

TheThe validityvalidity of the selected researchof the selected researchmethodologymethodology

HowHow the data will bethe data will be acquiredacquired

The existingThe existing ethicalethical issuesissues



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ReadingReading the literaturethe literature relatedrelated to yourto yourtopictopic of interest can help youof interest can help you formulateformulate

a specific researcha specific research problemproblem

In addition, theIn addition, the related literaturerelated literature cancan

help you in severalhelp you in several otherother ways like:ways like:

AvoidingAvoiding mediocre results (mediocre results (low qualitylow quality))

AvoidingAvoiding duplications (duplications (same qualitysame quality))

ProducingProducing new or improve things (new or improve things (highhigh

qualityquality))

Review Related Literatures/WorksReview Related Literatures/Works


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ForFor softwaresoftware related researches, yourelated researches, youdont havedont have to limit your review toto limit your review to

literaturesliteratures, you, you needneed to reviewto review softwaresoftware

oror systemssystems as wellas well

In the review, you have toIn the review, you have to identifyidentify thethe

strengthsstrengths andand weaknessesweaknesses of theof the existingexisting

oror previousprevious researches or systemsresearches or systems



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Your researchYour research aimsaims to solve theto solve theweaknessesweaknesses of the previous or existingof the previous or existing

onesones

This willThis will givegive you theyou the reasonreason to go onto go on

with the research andwith the research and produceproduce superiorsuperior

products or servicesproducts or services



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DependingDepending on the type of research beingon the type of research beingconductedconducted, this is the, this is the meatmeat of researchof research

ForFor purepure research,research,

CollectingCollecting data maybe bydata maybe by interviewinterview ororsurveysurvey questionnairesquestionnaires

ObservingObserving phenomenonphenomenon

PerformingPerforming some experimentsome experiment

Investigate / ExperimentInvestigate / Experiment


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ForFor softwaresoftware related researches,related researches, bearbear ininmind that wemind that we wantwant to produceto produce fastfast andand

efficientefficient softwaresoftware

SoSo AnalyzeAnalyze the problem or needthe problem or need

DesignDesign a solution to thea solution to the

problem/subproblemsproblem/subproblems ImplementImplement the designthe design usingusing programmingprogramming

languageslanguages

TestTest andand EvaluateEvaluate

Investigate / ExperimentInvestigate / Experiment


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For pure researchFor pure research AnalyzeAnalyze the collected datathe collected data

UseUse statisticalstatistical toolstools

InterpretInterpret observed phenomena or factsobserved phenomena or facts CorrelateCorrelate some phenomena or factssome phenomena or facts

Analyze and Discuss ResultsAnalyze and Discuss Results


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ForFor softwaresoftware related researches, we arerelated researches, we arenormallynormally interestedinterested in thein the running timerunning time

bothboth theoreticaltheoretical andand empiricalempirical

AnalyzeAnalyze thethe theoreticaltheoretical running time andrunning time andcomparecompare with the existing oneswith the existing ones

CompareCompare thethe actualactual running time of yourrunning time of your

algorithmalgorithm with thewith the existingexisting onesones CreateCreate somesome tablestables oror figuresfigures to show thatto show that

you have ayou have a betterbetter resultresult thanthan the existingthe existing

onesones



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Common complexity classesCommon complexity classes

O(2O(2nn), O(10), O(10nn), etc.), etc.exponentialexponential

O(O(nn33))cubiccubic

O(O(nn22))quadraticquadratic

O(O(n log nn log n))n log nn log n

O(O(nn))linearlinear

O(O(log nlog n))logarithmiclogarithmic

O(1)O(1)constantconstant

OO--notationnotationDescriptionDescription



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DifferentDifferent

runningrunning

times oftimes of

algorithmsalgorithms



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After seeingAfter seeing the tables or figures,the tables or figures, analyzeanalyzewhat went wrong to somewhat went wrong to some unexpectedunexpected oror

undesirableundesirable resultresult

DiscussDiscuss how this can behow this can be solvedsolved oror avoidedavoided SomeSome statisticalstatistical approachesapproaches or evenor even

packagespackages will be used towill be used to analyzeanalyze the datathe data



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If there areIf there are alreadyalready itemsitems identifiedidentified butbutcannotcannot be implemented because ofbe implemented because oftimetime

constraintsconstraints, they must be, they must be statedstated asas

futurefuture works in theworks in the appropriateappropriate sectionsectionof a paperof a paper



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Make someMake some generalizationgeneralization of what youof what youfoundfound or theor the resultresult of your experimentof your experiment

Sometimes, because ofSometimes, because oftime constraintstime constraints,,

we havewe have future worksfuture works//recommendationsrecommendations IdentifiedIdentified butbut to beto be implementedimplemented

Conclude About Your FindingsConclude About Your Findings


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Scientific PapersScientific Papers


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PublishedPublished ReportsReports

ConferenceConference ProceedingsProceedings

JournalJournal PaperPaper

UnpublishedUnpublished ReportsReports TerminalTerminal ReportReport

TechnicalTechnical ReportReport

MastersMasters thesisthesis

DoctoralDoctoral dissertationdissertation

Research OutputResearch Output


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Parts of Scientific PaperParts of Scientific Paper


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TheThe completioncompletion of a research project isof a research project isalwaysalways thethe writtenwritten reportreport

ToTo writewrite a research report that showsa research report that shows

fidelityfidelity to the data and theto the data and the abilityability toto

organize themorganize them logicallylogically andand presentpresent

themthem clearlyclearly is tois to bringbring one's researchone's research

effort to itseffort to its destineddestined conclusion: toconclusion: toshareshare your workyour workwith otherswith others



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TheThe researchresearch report is areport is astraightforwardstraightforward document thatdocument that setssets

forthforth clearlyclearly andand preciselyprecisely what thewhat the

researcherresearcher has donehas done toto resolveresolve thetheresearch problemresearch problem

In its structure, it isIn its structure, it is factualfactual andand logicallogical

and it makesand it makes no pretenseno pretense of being aof being awork ofwork offinefine literatureliterature



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It must beIt must be completecomplete,, comprehensiblecomprehensible,,andand grammaticallygrammatically correctcorrect

The researchThe research documentdocument you write is ayou write is a

clear reflectionclear reflection of your scholarshipof your scholarship

That isThat is whywhy it isit is oftenoften used as aused as a

culminatingculminating measure of ameasure of a student'sstudent's

educationaleducational successsuccess



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Research paper frequently follows thisstructure:

AbstractAbstract

IntroductionIntroduction Review of Related WorksReview of Related Works

Overview or backgroundOverview or background

MethodologyMethodology Results and DiscussionResults and Discussion

Conclusion and Future WorkConclusion and Future Work

ReferencesReferences

Paper FormatPaper Format

may be lumped withmay be lumped with

the introductionthe introduction


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AA briefbriefoverview thatoverview that tellstells the readerthe reader ininbasic termsbasic terms what your thesis/researchwhat your thesis/research isisall aboutall about

FairlyFairly shortshort, only, only oneone oror twotwo paragraphsparagraphsin lengthin length

Typically written inTypically written in simple nontechnicalsimple nontechnical

termsterms Should beShould be interestinginteresting enough toenough to arousearouse

interestinterest

AbstractAbstract


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Often considered theOften considered the mostmostimportantimportant part of a paperpart of a paper

Probably theProbably the most difficultmost difficult sectionsectionto writeto write

OftenOften written lastwritten last, after the, after the

majoritymajority of the paper has beenof the paper has beencompletedcompleted

AbstractAbstract


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Identifies theIdentifies the mainmain purpose of thepurpose of theresearch, itsresearch, its majormajor points, andpoints, and

conclusionsconclusions

TheThe mainmain purpose of the research shouldpurpose of the research should

includeinclude the following:the following:

TheThe research questionresearch question

TheThe noveltynovelty of the researchof the research

TheThe primary resultprimary result of the research projectof the research project

AbstractAbstract


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FamiliarizesFamiliarizes the readers of thethe readers of the mainmainpurpose andpurpose and focusfocus of theof the

thesis/researchthesis/research

ProvidesProvides backgroundbackground informationinformation

EnablesEnables the reader to bethe reader to be mentallymentally

preparedprepared beforebefore reading the morereading the moretechnicaltechnical aspects found in theaspects found in the

discussiondiscussion sectionsection

IntroductionIntroduction


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AlsoAlso beginsbegins thethe majormajor description ofdescription ofthe paperthe paper

LikeLike abstract, it should beabstract, it should be

interestinginteresting enoughenough

Typically containsTypically contains threethree parts:parts:

PurposePurpose,, scopescope, and, and backgroundbackgroundinformationinformation



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PurposePurpose explainsexplains whywhy the researchthe researchis beingis being carriedcarried outout

The specificThe specific problemproblem or researchor research

questionquestion beingbeing addressedaddressed ScopeScope defines thedefines the parametersparameters

Discusses theDiscusses the basic pointsbasic points included inincluded in

the thesis/researchthe thesis/research

OutlinesOutlines thethe methodmethod of investigation,of investigation,if oneif one is carried outis carried out



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SometimesSometimes includes aincludes a short glossaryshort glossary ofofterms ofterms ofkeywordskeywords that need to bethat need to be

defineddefined beforebefore the readerthe reader startsstarts toto

read the discussionread the discussion

BackgroundBackground informationinformation includesincludes

importantimportant facts tofacts to prepareprepare thethe

reader for thereader for the discussiondiscussion sectionsection

that followsthat follows



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SometimesSometimes additionaladditional section issection isincluded in the introductionincluded in the introduction

This describesThis describes whatwhat other researchesother researches

have writtenhave written on theon the samesame topictopic

AttemptsAttempts to establish or emphasize ato establish or emphasize a

need forneed for furtherfurther researchresearch



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GrammarGrammarWhen theWhen the writer(s)writer(s) refers to his/herrefers to his/her

own work in this section, the simpleown work in this section, the simple

present verbpresent verb is often usedis often used

Sometimes theSometimes the passive verbpassive verb form isform is

preferablepreferable to the active form in ato the active form in a

scientificscientific paperpaper



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GrammarGrammarWhen referring toWhen referring to otherother researches,researches,

either theeither the past tensepast tense oror presentpresent verbverb

can be usedcan be used

Sometimes theSometimes the passive verbpassive verb form isform is

preferablepreferable to the active form in ato the active form in a

scientificscientific paperpaper



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AnAn inin--depthdepth examination of theexamination of thesignificantsignificant material inmaterial in booksbooks,,journalsjournals

andand other sourcesother sources relating to your topicrelating to your topic

AimsAims toto exploreexplore what iswhat is already knownalready knownon the topic and toon the topic and to introduceintroduce the mainthe main

thinkers/writersthinkers/writers in the areain the area

HelpsHelps you and your readers toyou and your readers to acquireacquire

an understanding ofan understanding ofyour topicyour topic

Review of Related Literature/WorksReview of Related Literature/Works


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Sets theSets the scenescene for your research,for your research, placingplacingyour research questionyour research question in contextin context

Therefore,Therefore, a parta part of your academicof your academic

developmentdevelopment ofofbecoming expertbecoming expert ononyour topicyour topic



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HelpsHelps you and your readers toyou and your readers to acquireacquireanan understandingunderstanding of your topic, of whatof your topic, of what

hashas alreadyalready been done on it,been done on it, howhow it hasit has

beenbeen researched, and what theresearched, and what the keykeyissuesissues areare



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You needYou need to showto show that you havethat you haveunderstoodunderstood thethe mainmain theories in thetheories in the

subject areasubject area andand howhow they have beenthey have been

appliedapplied andand developeddeveloped, as well as the, as well as themain criticismsmain criticisms that have been made onthat have been made on

the topicthe topic

Therefore, aTherefore, a partpart of your academicof your academicdevelopmentdevelopment -- ofofbecomingbecoming anan expertexpert onon

your topicyour topic



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NotNot aa linearlinear processprocess

Rather,Rather, itit isis aa backwardsbackwards--andand--forwardsforwards

processprocess betweenbetween youryour readingreading andand youryour

writingwriting

YouYou readread otherother peoplespeoples workwork,, andand youyou

writewrite youryour evaluationevaluation ofof it,it, andand discussdiscuss

howhow itit cancan helphelp youyou toto developdevelop youryour

researchresearch questionquestion



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WrittenWritten beforebefore,, duringduring andand afterafter thetheotherother partsparts ofof youryour paperpaper

StartStart itit asas soonsoon asas youyou can,can, butbut dontdont

considerconsider itit finishedfinished untiluntil thethe paperpaper asas aa

wholewhole isis finishedfinished



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TheThe four mainfour main functions of a literaturefunctions of a literaturereviewreview

ItIt demonstratesdemonstrates the underlyingthe underlying

assumptionsassumptions behind thebehind the generalgeneral researchresearchquestionsquestions

It shouldIt should demonstratedemonstrate thethe stancestance of theof the

researcher, and theresearcher, and the valuesvalues andand politicspolitics s/hes/hebringsbrings to the researchto the research



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ItIt demonstratesdemonstrates thatthat thethe researcherresearcher isisknowledgeableknowledgeable aboutabout relatedrelated researchresearch andand

theorytheory

ItIt showsshows thatthat thethe researcherresearcher hashas identifiedidentifiedsomesome gapsgaps inin existingexisting workwork onon thethe topic,topic, oror

hashas singledsingled outout somesome elementelement ofof existingexisting

workwork thatthat s/hes/he wouldwould likelike toto developdevelop oror

buildbuild onon

ItIt demonstratesdemonstrates thatthat thethe proposedproposed studystudy willwill

thusthus fillfill aa demonstrateddemonstrated needneed



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ItIt helpshelps youyou refinerefine andand redefineredefine thetheresearchresearch questionsquestions,, althoughalthough thethe detaildetail ofof

thisthis maymay notnot alwaysalways bebe recordedrecorded inin thethe

reviewreview



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The mainThe main processesprocesses involved in ainvolved in aliterature reviewliterature review

FindsFinds outout whatwhat isis knownknown aboutabout aa topictopic

CriticallyCritically evaluatesevaluates whatwhat isis knownknown

ExaminesExamines similarsimilar workwork thatthat addressesaddresses thethe

issuesissues youyou areare addressingaddressing

IdentifiesIdentifies gapsgaps inin whatwhat isis knownknown andand showsshows

howhow youryour workworkfillsfills thosethose gapsgaps



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IdentifiesIdentifies elementselements thatthat youyou wouldwould likelike totobuildbuild on,on, andand discussesdiscusses howhow youyou proposepropose toto

dodo soso andand whywhy

ExplainsExplains whywhy youryour researchresearch isis worthworth doingdoing



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InIn thesisthesis oror dissertationdissertation, this section is, this section isnormallynormally conceptualconceptual andand theoreticaltheoretical

frameworkframework

InIn conference proceedingsconference proceedings oror scientificscientificjournal,journal, this section is normally anthis section is normally an

overviewoverview oror backgroundbackground

Overview or BackgroundOverview or Background


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This sectionThis section discussesdiscusses what thewhat theresearcherresearcher usedused during theduring the

experimentexperiment oror investigationinvestigation

ApproachesApproaches

Analysis & DesignAnalysis & Design

Apparatus/equipmentApparatus/equipmentTools including softwareTools including software

ImplementationImplementation

MethodologyMethodology


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Although it isAlthough it is typicallytypically calledcalledmethodsmethods, this section, this section can alsocan also bebe

calledcalled equipmentequipment,, materialsmaterials, or, or

proceduresprocedures, or a, or a combinationcombination ofof

each of theseeach of these

GrammarGrammarIn theIn the methodsmethods,, resultsresults, and, and discussiondiscussion

sections, thesections, the past tensepast tense is usedis used

MethodologyMethodology


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Often theOften the most difficultmost difficult to writeto writeAims toAims to telltell the readers thethe readers the meaningmeaning ofof

data resultsdata results withinwithin anan acceptableacceptable

theoretical frameworktheoretical framework IncludesIncludes importantimportant information forinformation for

readers to understand:readers to understand:

What the writer isWhat the writer is trying to dotrying to doWhat he hasWhat he has actually doneactually done andand discovereddiscovered

and what should beand what should be done nextdone next

DiscussionDiscussion


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AlsoAlso helpshelps the reader understandthe reader understandthethe relationshiprelationship betweenbetween observedobserved

factsfacts

InformationInformation should be organized inshould be organized in

clearclear,, logicallogical, and, and interestinginteresting style instyle in

order toorder to keepkeep the readers attentionthe readers attention



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ComponentsComponents of a discussionof a discussionExplainExplain the principles, relationship, andthe principles, relationship, and

generalizationgeneralization supportedsupported by theby the datadata

results.results. Do not just repeatDo not just repeat informationinformationfrom the results.from the results.

NeverNever try totry to cover upcover up any weaknesses inany weaknesses in

the research.the research. Point outPoint out when there arewhen there are

problemsproblems or if there isor if there is any lack ofany lack of

correlationcorrelation with the data.with the data.



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Point outPoint out how the research eitherhow the research eitheragreesagrees oror disagreesdisagrees withwith previouslypreviously

published research.published research.

ConclusionConclusion should be stated asshould be stated as clearlyclearlyas possible.as possible.

SummarizeSummarize the evidence that you havethe evidence that you have

forfor eacheach conclusion.conclusion.



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GrammarGrammar

In theIn the methodsmethods,, resultsresults, and, and discussiondiscussion

sections, thesections, the past tensepast tense is usedis used



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AA briefbriefrestatement of therestatement of the majormajorinferences that can beinferences that can be interpretedinterpreted

from thefrom the discussiondiscussion sectionsection

NewNew informationinformation oror evidenceevidence that isthat is

aa surprisesurprise to readers shouldto readers should nevernever

bebe included toincluded to supportsupport a writersa writersargumentargument

ConclusionConclusion


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OftenOften there isthere is moremore than onethan oneconclusion in aconclusion in a formalformal reportreport

StateState firstfirst thethe mainmain conclusionconclusion

Then follow with theThen follow with the remainingremaining

conclusion in aconclusion in a decreasingdecreasing order oforder of

importanceimportance



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RememberRemember: The: The conclusionconclusion containscontainsonly theonly the writers opinionwriters opinion based onbased on

data/evidencedata/evidence presented in thepresented in the

discussiondiscussion sectionsection


C iC i


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GrammarGrammar

When theWhen the major result(s)major result(s) of the thesisof the thesis

areare presentedpresented in this section, thein this section, the pastpast

tensetense is usedis used


R f Bibli hR f Bibli h


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WhenWhen referringreferring to other documentsto other documentsin a thesis, such as ain a thesis, such as a textbooktextbook,,

journal articlejournal article,, questionnairequestionnaire,,

correspondencecorrespondence, or even a, or even a

conversationconversation, the writer, the writer mustmust

identify theidentify the sourcesource of thisof this

informationinformation in the thesis/researchin the thesis/research

paperpaper

References vs. BibliographyReferences vs. Bibliography

R f Bibli hR f Bibli h


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ReferencesReferences thethe listlist of sources ofof sources ofinformation that youinformation that you citedcited in the textin the text

BibliographyBibliography -- thethe listlist of sources ofof sources of

information that youinformation that you consultedconsulted

whether or notwhether or not you got somethingyou got something

out of themout of them

References vs. BibliographyReferences vs. Bibliography

Ci i d R fCi i d R f


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Be sure toBe sure to citecite the ideas that youthe ideas that youborrowedborrowed,, liftedlifted, or, or paraphrasedparaphrased fromfrom

other sourcesother sources in the textin the text

Follow theFollow the prescribedprescribed format of theformat of thepublisherpublisher

Ex.Ex. [23, 45][23, 45] oror ((RoxasRoxas 2004 and2004 and SaxorSaxor

2011)2011) AllAll cited sources should becited sources should be foundfound in thein the

ReferencesReferences section of the papersection of the paper

Citations and ReferencesCitations and References

T bl d FiT bl d Fi


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AllAll figuresfigures andand tablestables should be citedshould be citedin the textin the text

Never useNever use tables and figurestables and figures withoutwithout

citing themciting them in the textin the text Ex.Ex. Table 1 showsTable 1 shows oror Figures 4 and 3 showFigures 4 and 3 show

Never useNever use phrases likephrases like as shown in theas shown in the

figure abovefigure above oror in the table belowin the table below

Tables and FiguresTables and Figures

SS


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Practical ResearchPractical Research -- Planning and DesignPlanning and Design bybyPaul D.Paul D. LeedyLeedy and Jeanne Ellisand Jeanne Ellis OrmrodOrmrod

Introduction to ResearchIntroduction to Research by Richard F.by Richard F.

TaflingerTaflinger, available online at:, available online at:

http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~taflinge/research.http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~taflinge/research.

htmlhtml

U.U. AizuAizu Graduation Thesis HandbookGraduation Thesis Handbookbyby

StephenStephen LambacherLambacher, John, John IzzoIzzo, & Jerold, & JeroldDeHartDeHart, March 2000, by The University of, March 2000, by The University of

AizuAizu

Doing a Literature ReviewDoing a Literature Review by Anne B. Ryanby Anne B. Ryan

SourcesSources


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THANK YOU VERY MUCHTHANK YOU VERY MUCH

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