JOURNAL OF TEACHING IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION, 1984,4, 5763

A Paradigm for Curriculum Implementation

Stephen J. Virgilio University of New Orleans

The purpose of this article is twofold: to discuss some current problems with curriculum design in physical education, and to offer some suggestions for model-based attempts to assist the process of implementing new curriculums. The process of cumculum im- plementation can be broken into two phases, the preoperational stage and the opera- tional stage. Several issues within each of the two stages are discussed, for cumculum changes in general and specifically for physical education. The key elements in cur- riculum implementation are: support (material and human), change strategies, com- munication channels, staff develop-ment, and instructional planning. Each element has its own role to play in the process, and the lack of any single element will severely hinder the efficacy of the changes desired. The final section of the article presents a model of the cumculum change process as outlined in the text.

The professional literature in physical education has treated curriculum imple- mentation issues only tangentially in recent years. Most theorists addressing curriculum design issues have dealt with curriculum planning and development with little or no regard for curriculum implementation and evaluation. According to Beauchamp (1968), curriculum design has three primary functions: to produce the curriculum, to implement it, and to appraise the effectiveness of the curriculum system. These functions are ongoing cyclical planning, implementation, and evaluation processes with overlapping roles.

The lack of specific knowledge regarding curriculum implementation has not only created a gap in the curriculum literature but has also created problems facing school systems diligently trying to incorporate a new curriculum. According to Gress (1978), this gap may be due to (a) the assumptions implicit in most of the curriculum literature which focus on curriculum planning, (b) the field's lack of focus on implementation issues, and (c) confusion about the boundaries between curriculum and instruction. As a result of this dilemma, teachers often are given a new, well developed curriculum handbook at the begin- ning of the school year and expected to implement it after only a brief insewice effort.

We fail to plan for the implementation process. Curriculum task force committees accentuate the construction, development, and adoption phases of curriculum change but do very little to achieve an adequate level of implementation. Therefore, the outcome of many long hours of planning and developing a cumculum becomes fruitless without a specific paradigm for curriculum implementation.

Stages of Implementation

Curriculum implementation, by definition, is incorporating and appraising that which was materialized by the construction and development processes. The method for incorporation is putting the actual curriculum into effect. Appraising the curriculum pro- vides evaluative f e b a c k to the construction-development processes. The two phases of implementation described by Bishop (1976) are the preoperational stage and the opera- tional stage. In the preoperational stage, curriculum leaders and staff should establish the procedural steps essential for the piloting. Preoperational activities also attend to develop- ing schedules for both piloting and final implementation, the preparation of physical facilities to accept the new program units, and the preparation and purchase of equipment necessary for successfully activating the program. Also, curriculum leaders at this point should com- plete policy and budget preparations, develop means for communicating to the public, and make arrangements for activities that will occur during the next major phases of cur- riculum evaluation and maintenance.

Piloting is a critical phase of the preoperational stage which establishes validity for the new curriculum. According to Hunkins (1980), the data gathered from this effort is used to substantiate recommendations made by the curriculum staff to interested teachers, students, parents, and lay members. Piloting addresses the question of whether the new program will do what it claims. If through piloting one discovers that the programs or new units will not generate learning, then a revision is called for. Essentially, piloting is a formative evaluation activity-formative in that revisions can be made if materials or units are found to be lacking with regard to particular objectives at any time during the piloting phase.

The most evident substage of piloting is the testing of experimental units, developed with the understanding that they may not be quite ready for use. For

education staff were to develop a unit in camping for high nts, and this unit was to be complete with goals, objectives, activities, organization

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CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION

Key Elements of Curriculum Implementation

support

Support is usually supplied at the curriculum development level but it is often neglected at the implementation stage. Two key support factors critical to the continua- tion of the curriculum process are material support and human support. Material support is most important initially, when teachers need new materials, supplies, and equipment. Nothing delays implementation more than late-arriving materials or the lack of funds to support instructional goals (Loucks & Lieberman, 1983). Fiscal support should be budgeted for implementation, evaluation, and maintenance during the initial funding of the new curriculum.

Human support is pivotal, yet often overlooked. The school principal is a key ele- ment in both curriculum change and implementation. He or she can (a) issue reminders that use of a new curriculum is a school system priority, and (b) demonstrate informal interest and motivation. Physical education teachers need to share their curriculum in- novations with their principals, many of whom were physical education teachers themselves. Principals will support a sound physical education program; most of them believe in our objectives and philosophy. Our job is to sell our curriculum so that we may compete with other school subjects for both financial and human support. Another important aspect of human support ispeer support- Significant gains are usually realized when teachers work together, share ideas, develop new materials, and discover interesting techniques to enhance the new curriculum process, making substantive contributions.

Change Strategies

A major consideration for curriculum implementation is the phenomenon of change. Change is a complicated process demanding well thought-out strategies needed to accomplish new cumculum ideas. According to Bennis, Benne, and Chin (1969), planned change is the "conscious [deliberate and intended] utilization and application of knowledge as an instrument or tool for modifying patterns and institutions of practice." One basis for choos- ing a change strategy may be the degree or type of change sought. McNeil (1979) has developed five categories of curriculum change that may be used when appropriate. He points out, "anticipation [of categoryldegree of change] will facilitate planning of resources to effect change" @. 117). Table 1 identifies, defines, and illustrates McNeil's five degrees of curriculum change.

Changing the curriculum content and structure, however, is only half of the battle in the implementation process. For a school curriculum to change, the individuals com- prising it must change. The most extensive research in the area of teacher development relative to curriculum change is that of Hall and bucks and associates at the Texas Research and Development Center for Teacher Education. They have developed the Concerns-Based Adoption-Model (CBAM) (Hall, Wallace, & Dossett, 1973), which offers a unique ap- proach to understanding, describing, and assessing change by accentuating the needs of individuals rather than the curriculum subject matter. The model is an empirically based conceptual framework which outlines the developmental process that individuals experience as they implement an innovation and participate in staff development.

After an in-depth, 6-year study, the model identified four primary assumptions about change. The first assumption of the model is that change is not an event but a tirne- consuming process. Too often curriculum matters are mandated by administrators who

Table 1

Degrees of Curriculum Change

Category DefinitionlDegree Physical education example

Substitution

Alteration

Replace one element with another; easily made

Minor modification, addition to existing material, readily adapted

Perturbation Modification; disruptive, but quick adjustment

Restructuring Basic change in system, major unsettling

Value orientation Change in focus, major change rethinking

Change P.E. or health texts; substitute soccer for flag football

Addition of a wellness unit blending health and fitness activities

Change in P.E. schedule; class enrollment increases

Physical education teachers must also teach social studies or science

Change in philosophy; physical education as an elective with P-F grades.

(From McNeil, 1977)

are reacting to a legislative requirement or procedural decision without considering the time needed for implementation. An example of this is the implementation process taken by the federal government related to Public Law 94-142 (Education for All Handicapped Children Act, 1975), which affected physical education teachers directly: There was very little time, opportunity, or funding to train the physical educator to facilitate the atypical child in regular physical education classes.

The second assumption of the model is that change is accomplished by individuals, not by institutions. Physical education teachers from all levels should be involved in the decision-making process. Individual needs, philosophies, and opinions should be asses- sed before a curriculum team develops the aims, goals, objectives, and content. Therefore, the teachers who are not on the team will still feel they have input and thus will accept the change more readily.

The third assumption is that change is a highly personal experience. The emotional needs and feelings of people should be considered as well as the technical aspects of in- novative curriculum change. Interpersonal human relationships are important since in- dividuals who are satisfied and motivated will play a major role in the change process.

The fourth assumption is that change entails developmental growth in both feel- ings about and skills for using new programs. According to Anderson (1983), inservice teachers should have the primary responsibility for shaping program improvements. Studies have shown that innovations imposed by outside consultants tend to disappear when the outsiders leave and the funding ceases. Also, when teachers play a significant role in school change, the innovation is more likely to persist and be maintained over a long period of time.

CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION 61

These research findings must be considered when designing an educational change. The strategies to be used depend on the degree of change. However, proper planning for change should help reduce anxiety in individuals and eliminate the high failure rate of implementation efforts.

Communication Channels

Communication is important to all phases of curriculum design. During the imple- mentation phase, however, it becomes extremely important from the piloting stage through the final dissemination of the new cumculum. New and existing staff alike must be oriented about the new curriculum in terms of philosophy, rationale, the nature of the content, and the utilization of new materials.

The most common communication techniques available to school systems are pre- service meetings, usually held the week before school begins to apprise the teachers of new or innovative programs and allow time to organize, provide demonstrations, and motivate teachers for the upcoming year. Other techniques-newsletters, system bulletins, workshops, small group meetings, handouts, PTA meetings, and inservice meetings- may focus on specific physical education content. Also, certain support services help facilitate communication needs. Examples of support services include: (a) training pro- grams for administrators and staff personnel given by the curriculum writing team, @) college courses such as special topics classes for credit thatare designed for teaehing cur- riculum change, (c) giving release time for teachers to have study groups in the library so they can review new cumculum materials, and (d) use of a demonstration center where physical education teachers may view actual classes being taught using competency ob- jectives, new equipment, materials, and tests. Another method would be to videotape ex- emplary classes and circulate the tape throughout the school system. In this stage the county physical education supervisor would assume major responsibility for providing communica- tion to all channels of the school system. This may be augmented by teachers serving on a physical education cumculum steering committee to assist the supervisor.

Stag Development

Most implementation efforts fail because curriculum leaders neglect to provide adequate staff development opportunities. It is sometimes assumed that teachers already have the expertise to implement the change with little or no assistance. Patterson and Cza- jkowski (1979) noted that the major areas of staff development are reeducation and resocialization. Reeducation is the development or refinement of competencies necessary to implement the innovation. This may be accomplished by using a consultant in teacher education or including a series of workshops related to a new cumculum unit. The resocialization phase includes the development and the refinement of roles and role rela- tionships required for implementation. This may also include changing certain interactive skills, attitudes, and habits. Although this becomes very difficult to accomplish, it is essential for successful implementation.

Anderson (1982) has been able to combine both phases of staff development through his pioneering work with the Physical Education Program Development Center. The center is a collaborative effort involving the staff of teacher educators in physical education at Teachers College, Columbia University, and administrators and teachers in five school districts in northern New Jersey. The emphasis of the center is on program development and improvement rather than helping teachers improve teaching. Anderson

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