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UNIT 1

PRE-WRITING STRATEGIES

1. Before you start writing your paragraph, you have to make: A. Three major decisions:

a. choose a subject that you know about and are interested in b. choose an audience: elementary school children? A university professor? c. Decide on a purpose: what, exactly do you want to communicate?

B. Some steps: a. Choose a subject b. Narrow the subject to a topic c. Write your ideas about the topic in a variety of ways: clustering, brainstorming/ free writing,

and looping 2. The order of your pre-writing strategies and the number of your pre-writing steps will depend on:

a. the topic b. the audience c. the available material d. your individual writing strategies

3. Pre-writing forms: a. Clustering: Considering that a subject is like a cake; it can be cut into many pieces or topics for

paragraphs. b. Making a tree: considering a subject as a tree that has many branches for more specific topics,

and later for major-minor support sentences c. Brainstorming/ free writing : write everything you want to jot down (don’t worry about the

organization and grammar). When you finish, reread and select the ideas that are best suited to topic.

d. Looping: do the free writing first, then if you are still dissatisfied, choose the most interesting idea and place it in the first sentence of the paragraph as the topic.

Exercise:

1. Do a pre writing form for the following topics: a. My Holiday b. My Study c. My Friend (mention one of your friend)

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UNIT 2

WHAT IS A PARAGRAPH?

I. WRITING

A Paragraph is a basic unit of organization in writing in which a group of related, sentences develops one main idea. A paragraph can be as short as one sentence or as long as ten sentences. The number of sentences is unimportant; however, the paragraph should be long enough to develop the main idea A clearly A paragraph has three major structural parts:

- a topic sentence - supporting sentences - a concluding sentence

TOPIC SENTENCE

The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph. It not only names the topic of the paragraph, but also limits the topic to one or two areas that can be discussed completely in the space of a single paragraph. The specific area is called the controlling idea. Notice how the topic sentence of the model states both the topic and the controlling idea. Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics.

Gold : topic two important characteristics : controlling idea

The controlling idea is the central idea that is developed in a paragraph. Therefore, the controlling idea is the summary of all the information contained in its paragraph. Consequently, no information that cannot he summarized by the controlling idea can be included in a paragraph. Thus, the controlling idea is a restricting idea because it limits the. information that can be included in its paragraph. The importance of completely developing the controlling idea

The controlling idea must he completely developed and explained in its paragraph. Having read a paragraph, the reader should not have to ask questions that should have been answered in that paragraph. Read the paragraph that follows:

There are three reasons why John is not going to university. In the first place, his father is dead and if John went to university, his mother would be left all alone. She has a few friends, but they do not live very near, and she would probably have to spend most evenings alone. Consequently, although John wants to go to university very much, he is going to get a job near home instead. The controlling idea of the above example paragraph is that there are three reasons why John is not going to university. Consequently, the reader expects to read about those three reasons in the remainder of the paragraph. However, only one reason is given: ‘If John went to university, his mother would be left all alone'. The reader - is left asking what the other two reasons were. Therefore, the paragraph is a bad one because the controlling idea is not completely developed. If the controlling idea of a paragraph states that there are three reasons why John is not going to university, three reasons must be given. For example: There are three reasons why John is not going to university. In the first place, his family is quite poor and, since he has four young brothers and sisters still at school he feels that he should help his family financially as soon as possible. Secondly, if he went to university, his mother would be left alone to look after the young children. Finally, he has been offered a good job with excellent chances of promotion. Consequently, although he wants to go to university very much, John is going to take the job instead. Now study the following example paragraph:

I admire my friend Richard because he is so talented, intelligent, and kind. He is also very intelligent and can understand complex problems very quickly. Above all, he is very kind to others. I admire my friend for all these reasons. The example paragraph above has a clear controlling idea: the three reasons why the writer admires his friend. In addition, the reader has no difficulty in understanding the paragraph. Thus, it has two of the characteristics of a good paragraph; but it has only two of them. The controlling idea is not completely or even partially developed. After four sentences, the writer had provided little more than the information that was given in the first sentence.

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To develop the above example paragraph completely, the writer must give examples of his friend's talents, intelligence, and .kindness. The example paragraph that follows does this:

I admire my friend Alec because he is so talented intelligent, and kind. Not only can he play most sports well, he is also a good musician and actor. He, has always been the best student in his class, and in the recent pre-university exams, he was placed third in the entire country. Although he is so intelligent and gifted, he is not standoffish or boastful. Indeed, Alec is one of the kindest people I know. If anyone has a problem, they know they can go to him for help. If anyone is ill, he is always the first to visit them; and if anyone is sad, he is always very quick to cheer them up. If a person has such wonderful qualities, I think you will agree that it is impossible not to admire him. The meaning of the word 'development' in our definition of a good paragraph should now be clear. Each sentence in a paragraph must add a piece of information until the controlling idea is fully explained. A good paragraph, like a good story, must have a beginning, a middle, and an end. Excluding material that does not develop the controlling idea

The controlling idea restricts or limits the information that can be included in a paragraph. For example, take the controlling idea, ‘ I heard some good news from Mary Smith last week.’ The writer should not write about Mary Smith, but only the good news he has had from her. He should not write about any good news he has heard from Mary smith, but only about the specific good news he heard from her last week. Thus the paragraph must contain nothing but the good news the writer heard from Mary Smith last week. Since the controlling idea restricts the information that can be included in a paragraph, it follows that a writer must exclude information that does not develop the controlling idea, and include only the information that does develop it. For example, take the controlling idea 'why Mrs. Smith is always so busy between 5:45 and 7:45 in the evening'. The information included in the paragraph must explain only why 5:45 to 7:45 in the evening is a very busy time for Mrs. Smith. Information about other times in Mrs. Smith's day is irrelevant, and should be excluded from this particular paragraph. In the paragraph that follows, the writer has included information that is irrelevant. Study it

and, before you continue reading, decide which sentences do not develop the controlling idea.

It is easy to understand why Mrs. Smith is always so busy between 5:45 and 7:45 in the evening. Her two young boys go to school at 7:45 in the morning, and Mr. Smith goes to work at 8:oo. The boys cat lunch at school and Mr. Smith takes sandwiches to work for his lunch. Therefore, Mrs. Smith is not usually very busy at lunchtime. Mrs. Smith's youngest child is only eleven months old, so she spends most of the afternoon sleeping. At about 5:45 Mrs. Smith has to start cooking because Mr. Smith gets home at 6:30 and wants his dinner soon after he arrives. At the same time she has to keep an eye on her two sons to see that they do their homework. At 6: 15 it is time for the baby to be fed, bathed, and then put to bed. The two boys have to start getting ready for bed at about 7: is, and if Mrs. Smith does not watch them carefully, they do not wash very well. Finally, she has to wash up the dirty dishes and tidy the living room and the kitchen. Only very rarely does she finish this before 7:45. The controlling idea of the above example paragraph is why Mrs. Smith is always so busy between 5:45 and 7:45 in the evening. Consequently, the information in the paragraph should be limited to explaining why she is busy at that time. Therefore, the second, third, fourth, and fifth sentences should not be included in this paragraph because they do not develop the controlling idea.

EXERCISE I

Study the following paragraphs carefully. Decide whether each one has a definite controlling

idea. if a paragraph has a clear controlling idea, decide if it is completely developed and also

find if the writer included information that is irrelevant.

The human eye is one of Nature's most marvelously complicated .mechanisms. Whenever I think

about the human eye, I am amazed at its complexity. Although it looks very simple from the outside, the intricacy of the interior is amazing. I can guess someone’s characters from his eyes. It is made up of so many parts. and yet is so small that it is difficult to think of it without being astonished. It is really miraculous in its complexity.

In Britain, a question often asked is whether the voting age should be lowered from twenty-one to eighteen. Many people think that eighteen-year-olds should be allowed to vote. However, most people think that teenagers are ignorant about politics and do not think that eighteen-year-olds should be allowed to vote. Teenagers should be let to have fun. They feel that since few teenagers know enough about politics to make sensible decisions when voting, they should not have the vote.

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In Britain, a question often asked is whether the voting age should be lowered from twenty-one to eighteen. Some people argue that if a man is old enough to die for his country in time of war, he is old enough to vote. Others argue that since, in criminal law, a person ceases to be a juvenile at the age of sixteen, he should cease to -be a juvenile in civil law at that age, too. For example, he should be able to marry without his parents' consent, enter contracts, and vote. However, most people think that few teen-agers know enough about politics or people to be able to make sensible decisions when voting. They also argue that young people who have only recently left school have not had the necessary experience to decide the truth of what they hear and read during election campaigns. Therefore, it seems that until young people can show that they arc critical of what they hear and, read, and can make sensible decisions if they are allowed to vote, they will have to wait until they are twenty-one to vote.

I love swimming in the sea near my home. I live at five Chester. Chester is about twenty miles from Liverpool. Liverpool is a big industrial city. Industrial cities are important to the economy of a country.

I had a chance to talk with Mary Smith earlier this week. She told me that she is much happier

than she was last week because her mother, who was ill then, is now well again. She said that she had passed all her exams, and that she has been offered a job at the university library while she studies for her Ph.D. Mary also told me that next month she is going to France and then to Germany for three or four weeks on vacation. 2. Writing A Paragraph

Write a paragraph about a tour that you have taken (Write the topic and decide controlling idea)

II. SENTENCE SKILLS

1. Subjects and verbs

Understanding subjects and verbs is a big step toward mastering many sentence skills. As a speaker of English, you already have an instinctive feel for these basic building blocks of English sentences. See if you can insert an appropriate word into each space below. The answer will be a subject. 1. The ________ will soon be over. 2. ________ cannot be trusted. 3. A strange __________appeared in my backyard. 4. ________ is one of my favorite activities. Now insert an appropriate word into the following spaces. Each answer will be a verb.

5. The prisoner ___________ at the judge. 6. My sister ____________ much harder than I do. 7. The players ___________ in the locker room. 8. Rob and Marilyn __________ with the teacher. Finally, insert appropriate words into the following spaces. Your answers will be a subject and

verb, respectively.

9. The __________ almost ____________out of the tree. 10. Many _________ today ____________ sex and violence. 11. The _________ carefully __________ the patient. 12. A _________ quickly ___________ the ball. The basic building blocks of English sentences are subjects and verbs. Understanding them is an important first step toward mastering a number of sentence skills. Every sentence has a subject and a verb. Who or what the sentence speaks about is called the subject; what the sentence says about the subject is called the verb. In the following sentences underline the subject once and the verb twice: People gossip.

The truck stalled. He waved at me. That woman is a millionaire.

Alaska contains the largest wilderness area in America. A SIMPLE WAY TO FIND A SUBJECT

To find a subject, ask who or what the sentence is about. As shown below, your answer is the subject. Who is the first sentence about? People

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What is the second sentence about? The truck Who is the third sentence about? He Who is the fourth sentence about? That woman What is the fifth sentence about? Alaska

It helps to remember that the subject of a sentence is always a noun (any person, place, or thing) or a pronoun. A pronoun is simply a word like he, she, it, you, or they used in place of a noun. In the preceding sentences, the subjects include persons (People, He, woman), a place (Alaska), and a thing (truck), and note that one pronoun (He) is used as a subject. A SIMPLE WAY TO FIND A VERB

To find a verb, ask what the sentence says about the subject. As shown below, your answer is the verb.

What does the first sentence say about the people? They gossip. What does the second sentence say about the truck? It stalled. What does the third sentence say about him? He waved. What does the fourth sentence say about that woman? She is (a millionaire). What does the fifth sentence say about Alaska? It contains (the largest wilderness area).

A second way to find the verb is to put I, you, he, she, it, or they in front of the word you think is a verb. If the result makes sense, you have a verb. For example, you could put they in front of gossip in the first sentence above, with the result, they gossip, making sense. Therefore, you know that gossip is a verb. You could use the same test with the other verbs as well. Finally, it helps to remember that most verbs show action. In the examples above, the action verbs are gossip, stalled, waved, and contains. Certain other verbs, known as linking verbs, do not show action. They do, however, give information about the subject. In "That woman is a millionaire," the linking verb is tells us that the woman is a millionaire. Other common linking verbs include am, are, was, were, feel, appear, look, become, and seem. Practice 1

In each of the following sentences, draw one line under the subject and two lines under the

verb.

Ask who or what the sentence is about to find the subject. Then ask what the sentence says

about the subject to find the verb.

1. Fran froze six pounds of hamburger patties. 2. The company offered a ten-dollar rebate on every toaster oven. 3. The sports announcer talked nonstop during the game. 4. Jill peeled the bandage off her cut finger. 5. The warm sunshine felt good on my bare legs. 6. Our backyard is knee-deep in weeds. 7. Alicia snagged her stocking with her broken fingernail. 8. The steel comb scratched my scalp. 9. The pen leaked all over my finger. 10. That outlet store carries only damaged or outdated goods. Follow the directions given for Practice 1.

1. One lonely neon light glowed in the distance. 2. The kite soared into the sky at the end of a taut, vibrating string. 3. Manuel caught a foul ball at the game. 4. The skaters shadowed each other's movements perfectly. 5. Fluorescent lights emphasized the tired lines in the man's face. 6. Tracy reads to her bedridden grandmother every night. 7. Marsha's oversized glasses slipped down her nose twenty times a day 8. Carelessly, Jane allowed the children to light the kerosene heater. 9. The squirrel leaped from one tree branch to another. 10. Carpenters constructed a wooden wheelchair ramp next to the stone step the church. The subject of a -sentence never appears within a prepositional phrase. Prepositional phrase is simply a group of words that begins with a preposition Here is a list of common prepositions:

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about before by inside over above behind during into through across below except of to among beneath for off toward around beside from on under at between In onto with Cross out prepositional phrases when looking for the subject of a sentence. In the middle of the Right, we beard footsteps on the fee The magazines oft the table belong in the garage Before the opening kick , a brass band marched onto the field. The hardware store across the street went out of business. in spite of our advice Sally quit her job at Burger King. Practice

Cross out prepositional phrases. Then draw a single line under subjects and a double line under

verbs.

1. Stripes of sunlight glowed on the kitchen floor. 2. The black panther draped its powerful body along the thick tree branch. 3. A line of impatient people snaked from the box office to the street. 4. At noon, every siren in town wails for fifteen minutes. 5. The tops of my Bic pens always disappear after a day or two. 6. Joanne removed the lint from her black socks with Scotch tape. 7. The mirrored walls of the skyscraper reflected the passing clouds. 8. Debris from the accident littered the intersection. 9. Above the heads of the crowd, a woman swayed on a narrow ledge. 10. The squashed grapes in the bottom of the vegetable bin oozed sticky purple juice. Verbs of More Than One Word

Many verbs consist of more than one word. Here, for example, are some of the many forms of the verb help: helps should have been helping will have helped helping can help would have been helped is helping would have been helping has been helped was helping will be helping had been helped may help had been helping must have helped should help helped having helped will help have helped should have been helped does help has helped had helped Below are sentences that contain verbs of more than one word:

Diane is not working overtime this week. Another book has been written about the Kennedy family. We should have stopped for gas at the last station. The game has just been canceled.

Notes

I Words like not, just, never, only, and always are not part of the verb although they may appear within the verb.

Diane is not working overtime this week. The boys should just not have stayed out so late. The

game has always been played regardless of the weather.

2 No verb preceded by to is ever the verb of a sentence.

Sue wants to go with us. The newly married couple decided to rent a house for a year. The store

needs extra people to help out at Christmas.

3 No -ing word by itself is ever the verb of a sentence. (It may be part of the verb, but it must

have a helping verb in front of it.)

We planning the trip for months. (This is not a sentence, because the verb is not complete.) We

were planning the trip for months. (a sentence)

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Practice

Draw a single line under subjects and a double line under verbs. Be sure to include all parts of the verb. 1. Only Einstein could have passed that math test. 2. She could have been killed by that falling rock. 3. The children did not recognize their father in his Halloween costume. 4. The hunger strikers have been fasting for four days. 5. I could not see the tiny letters on the last row of the eye doctor's chart. 6. People may be wearing paper clothing by the year 2000. 7. He should have studied longer for the final. 8. Rosa has been soaking in the bathtub for an hour. 9. Long lines of southbound geese were flying overhead. 10. My little brother can ask the same stupid question five times in a row. Compound Subjects and Verbs

• sentence may have more than one verb:

The dancer stumbled and fell. Lola washed her hair, blew it dry, and parted it in the middle.

• sentence may have more than one subject:

Cats and dogs are sometimes the best of friends. The striking workers and their bosses could not

come to an agreement.

• sentence may have several subjects and several verbs:

Holly and I read the book and reported on it to the class. Pete, Nick, and Fran caught the fish in

the morning, cleaned them in the afternoon, and ate them that night.

PRACTICE

Draw a single line under subjects and a double line under verbs. Be sure to mark all the

subjects and verbs.

1 . The trees creaked and shuddered in the powerful wind. 2. The little girl fell off the jungle gym and landed in the dirt. 3. On Sunday, I will vacuum the upstairs rooms and change the linens. 4. The late afternoon sun shone on the leaves and turned them to gold. 5. Sam and Billy greased their chapped lips with Vaseline. 6. The tall, masked man and his Indian friend rode off into the sunset. 7. My sister and I always race each other to the bathroom in the morning. 8. Amy breathed deeply and then began her karate exercises. PUNCTUATION

1. FUNCTION :

1.1 Capital Letters for Calendar Divisions

Capitalize names of days of the week and months of the year : Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday; January, February, March. Do not capitalize the seasons unless you wish to personify them : winter, spring, fall, autumn. A century may be referred to with or capital letters, although the former usage is now more common than the latter : twentieth century or Twentieth Century.

1.2 Capital Letters for First Words

1.2.1 Capitalize the first word of every sentence. Examples : The tree was not healthy and had to be cut down. Mr. Johnson agreed to pay

some villagers to do that work. 1.2.2 Capitalize the first word of a direct quotation and of a quoted sentence

Examples : Our shop foreman said, “You have done a good job” “I never met a man I didn’t like”, is a saying attributed to Will Rogers. “Yes”, she replied. “You have my permission to leave now and my request never to return”. Aldous Huxley once wrote : “That all men are created equal is a proposition to which, at ordinary times, no sane human being has ever given his assent”. When only part of a direct quotation is included within a sentence, it is usually not begun with a capital letter : The accident victim said that he felt “badly shaken”, but he refused hospitalization.

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1.2.3 The first word following a colon, question mark, or exclamation point is capitalized

if it is a proper name or if it begins a complete sentence which expresses a

different idea from that preceding the mark of punctuation.

Examples : In suggesting that no one is indispensable Stevenson wrote : “Atlas was just a gentleman with a protracted nightmare”.

A wise man knows this : Advice when it is most needed is often least heeded. The first word following one of these three marks is usually not capitalized if it introduces a supplementary remark which is closely related to what preceded the mark : Wars are never accidental : they are planned. Who is coming ? Are you ? your father ? your mother ?

1.2.4 In quoting (or writing) poetry, capitalize the first word of each line. Examples : “And we are here as on a darkling plain, Swept with confused alarms of struggle, and flight

Where ignorant armies clash by night”. -Matthew Arnold-

1.2.5 The first word following a resolving or enacting clause is capitalized. The first word

following Whereas in contracts, resolutions, and the like is usually not capitalized :

Examples : Resolved, That the Congress do now……. Be it ordered, That………. Whereas the following parties…….. 1.2.6 Capitalize the first word and each noun in the salutation of a letter, but only the

first words in the complimentary close :

My dear Sir: ; Dear Mr. And Mrs. Brown : ; Very truly yours, Yours sincerely, Exercise :

I. Rewrite these following text using the correct capitalization !

Jack was building a doghouse for his new dog. his twin sister Judy was helping him. “Hand me that thing, Judy”, said jack. “i have to make some holes in these boards”. “What things do you mean?”, asked Judy. “that thing that works like an eggbeater ?”. “yes, that’s it”, said jack. “that one over there. Thank you, Judy”. Judy handed him the rotary drill. Neither Judy nor jack knew the exact name of the tool. had they known the exact name, jack could have simply said, “’please hand me the rotary drill, Judy”.

II. Rewrite these following letter using the correct capitalization ! 4409 dorothy street bellaire, texas december 28, 2002

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UNIT 2

SUPPORT OF CONTROLLING IDEA

I. WRITING

With the exception of the topic sentence, each sentence in a good paragraph may be classified into one of two groups: major support sentences or minor support sentences. MAJOR SUPPORT SENTENCES

A major support sentence has only one job: it develops the controlling idea of a paragraph by telling the reader something new or different about that idea. It directly supports the controlling idea by making that idea more easily understood. MINOR SUPPORT SENTENCES

A minor support sentence has two jobs: (I) it develops its major support. sentence by telling the reader something new or different

about that sentence, and (II) at the same time it helps its support sentence develop the controlling idea. It directly

support its major support sentence by making it more easily understood It indirectly supports the controlling idea of the paragraph by helping its major support sentence make that idea more easily understood. Therefore, a minor support sentence must be closely related both to its major support sentence and the controlling idea of the paragraph.

Now study the following paragraph:

White's is a good drugstore.' It is very modem and clean inside. Drugstores should always be clean. Housewives like to sit, have tea, coffee, or a soft drink, and gossip there after shopping. White's is a good place to buy soap, razor blades, shaving cream, toothbrush toothpaste, and -other toilet articles. There is always a large choice, and the Prices are always reasonable. The topic sentence of this paragraph is, 'White's is a good drugstore.' The topic is White’s drugstore and the controlling idea is good. Therefore, each of its major support sentences should develop this controlling idea by giving a new or different reason why it is a good drugstore. Each of the minor support sentences should develop a major support sentence, and help that major support sentence develop the controlling idea. The second sentence, 'It is very modern and clean inside' gives one reason why White's is a good drugstore. Modernity and cleanliness are essential wherever medicines and drugs are sold. Therefore, this is a major support sentence because it develops the controlling idea by giving one reason why White's is a good drugstore. The third sentence, 'Drugstores should always be clean, does not say anything new about White's drugstore so it is not a major support sentence. Furthermore, it does not tell the reader anything new or different about a major support sentence. Since it neither develops nor helps to develop the controlling idea of the paragraph, the third sentence is irrelevant and should be omitted. The fourth sentence, 'Housewives like to sit, have tea, coffee, or a soft drink, and gossip there after shopping', is not a major support sentence because it says nothing new or different about the controlling idea. If the reader does not like the company of gossiping women, far from persuading him that White's is a good drugstore, this sentence might persuade him that it is not. Nor does it help to develop the controlling idea by supporting a major support sentence. Consequently, it should be omitted. The fifth sentence, 'White's is a good place to buy soap, razor blades, shaving cream, toothbrushes, tooth-paste, and other toilet articles', gives the reader another reason why White's is a good drugstore. Therefore, it is a major support sentence. The sixth sentence, 'There is always a large choice, and the prices are always reasonable', explains why White's is a good place to buy toilet articles. In addition it helps to explain why people describe White's as a good drugstore. Thus, the sixth sentence not only directly supports a major support sentence, it also indirectly supports the controlling idea of the paragraph by helping its major support sentence develop that idea. Therefore, it is a minor support sentence.

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As the following imaginary conversation between Reader and Writer shows the fifth and sixth sentences can be said to prove the controlling idea of the paragraph: READER : Why is White's a good drugstore? WRITER : It's a good place to buy soap, razor blades, shaving cream, toothbrushes tooth-

paste, and other toilet articles. READER : Why is White's a good place to buy these things? WRITER : Because there is always a large choice and the prices are always reasonable. Having tested the example paragraph to see if each sentence really did support and develop the controlling idea, and having decided that sentences three and four had to be omitted, the writer revised the paragraph as follows:

White's is a good drugstore. It is very modern and clean inside. It has air conditioning and the most up-to-date refrigeration equipment. Housewives like to sit, have tea, coffee, or soft drinks, and gossip there after doing their shopping because it is quiet and the shop assistants are very friendly and polite. White's is a good place to buy soap, razor blades, shaving cream, toothbrushes, toothpaste, and other toilet articles. There is always a large choice, and the prices are always reasonable. If we test the revised third sentence for unity by asking what it does in the paragraph, we find that it develops the major support sentence, 'It is very modern and clean inside', by telling the reader something about its modernity and cleanliness. In addition, it indirectly supports the controlling idea by helping to explain why people describe White's as a good drugstore. Therefore, like all major and minor support sentences, these two can be thought of as a team, or as a unit of information helping to prove or explain the controlling idea of the paragraph. Thus, our imaginary conversation between Reader and Writer might be as follows: READER : Why is White's a good drugstore? WRITER : It is very modem and clean inside. READER : Can you give me some examples of its modernity and

cleanliness? WRITER :Yes. They have air conditioning and the most up-to-date refrigeration equipment. The fourth sentence, 'Housewives like to sit, have tea, coffee, or oft drinks, and gossip there after doing their shopping because it is quiet and the shop assistants arc very friendly and polite’, is a major support sentence because it gives another reason why people think White's is a good drugstore. The revised paragraph is now completely unified and well developed. The controlling idea, the major support sentences, and the minor support sentences are all clear and easily understood. Each major support sentence directly supports the controlling idea by telling the reader something new about it. Each minor support sentence directly supports its major support sentence by developing it and making it more easily understood, and indirectly supports the controlling idea by helping its major support sentence develop that idea. II. PRACTICE

A. Study the following paragraph and decide whether there are irrelevant

sentences and then revise it.

In general, the closer a region is to the equator, the warmer its climate will be, but other factors

also have an influence on temperature. for example, distance from the sea is important because although water absorbs heat more slowly than land, it retains it longer. Consequently, throughout the cold months of winter the sea warms the nearby land just as a radiator warms a room. This is why it takes longer to heat a pound of water through one degree Centigrade than it does to heat a pound of earth the same amount. Another important factor is the height of a region above sea level. The higher you go up a mountain, the less dense the air is. Finally, physical features such as high mountains influence the temperature of nearby regions. If mountains cause rain to fall frequently, the nearby regions become cooler than other regions in the same latitude. If mountains block the passage of cold winds, nearby regions become warmer than unsheltered regions in the same latitude. B. Write two or three topic sentences for each of the following topics. In other words, give

two or three controlling ideas for the same topic.

Example

Topic: Television's effects on children Topic sentences: (1) Television is harmful to children because it teaches them

violence as a way of solving problems.

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(2) Television retards a child's reading ability. Smoking cigarettes Foreign travel Prejudice Pollution Touring your hometown C. With your classmates, choose three topics that interest you as a group. Write a topic

sentence for each topic. Be sure to include a controlling idea.

D. Choose one topic sentence you’ve written and develop it into a good paragraph

II. SENTENCE SKILLS

Sentence Fragments

Every sentence must have a subject and a verb and must express a complete thought. A word group that lacks a subject or a verb and that does not express a complete thought is a fragment. Listed below are a number of fragments and sentences. See if you can complete the statement that explains each fragment. 1. Children. Fragment Children cry. Sentence "Children" is a fragment because, while it has a subject (Children), it lacks a___________ (cry) and so does not express a complete thought. 2. Dances. Fragment

Lola dances. Sentence

"Dances" is a fragment because, while it has a verb (Dances), it lacks a ________ (Lola) and so does not express a complete thought. 3. Staring into the window. Fragment Bigfoot was staring into the window. Sentence “Staring into the window” is a fragment because it lacks a _____________ (Bigfoot) and also part of the __________(was) and because it does not express a complete thought. 4. When the dentist began drilling. Fragment When the dentist began drilling, I closed my eyes. Sentence “When the dentist began drilling” is a fragment because we want to know what happened when the dentist began drilling. The most common types of fragments that people write: 1. Dependent-word fragments 2. -ing and to fragments 3. Added-detail fragments 4. Missing-subject fragments Once you understand the specific kind or kinds of fragments that you may write, you should be able to eliminate them from your writing. The following pages explain all four fragment types. 1. DEPENDENT-WORD FRAGMENTS

Some word groups that begin with a dependent word are fragments. Here is a list of common dependent words: After if, even if when, whenever although, though in order that where, wherever as since whether because that, so that which, whichever before unless while even though until who how what, whatever whose Whenever you start a sentence with one of these words, you must be careful that a fragment does not result. The word group beginning with the dependent word After in the selection below is a fragment.

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After I stopped drinking coffee. I began sleeping better at night. A dependent statement one starting with a dependent word like After-cannot stand alone. It depends on another statement to complete the thought. "After 1 stopped drinking coffee- is a dependent statement. It leaves us hanging. We expect in the same sentence to find out what happened after the writer stopped drinking coffee. When a writer does not follow through and complete a thought, a fragment results. To correct the fragment, simply follow through and complete the thought: After I stopped drinking coffee, I began sleeping better at night. How to Correct Dependent-Word Fragments

1. In most cases, you can correct a dependent-word fragment by attaching it to the sentence that comes after it or the sentence that comes before it:

After I stopped drinking coffee, I began sleeping better at night. (The fragment has been attached to the sentence that comes after it.) Brian sat nervously in the dental clinic while waiting to have his wisdom tooth pulled. (The fragment has been attached to the sentence that comes before it.) 2. Another way of correcting a dependent-word fragment is simply to eliminate the dependent word: I stopped drinking coffee. He waited to have his wisdom tooth pulled. They had accumulated for years in the basement. Do not use this second method of correction too frequently, however, for it may cut down on interest and variety in your writing style. Practice

A. Turn each of the dependent-word groups into a sentence by adding a

complete thought. Put a comma after the dependent-word group if a dependent word

starts the sentence. Examples:

After I got out of high school

After I got out of high school, I spent a year traveling 1. After I got home from the party ______________________________. 2. Because I finished all my all assignments ______________________. 3. When my grandfather died __________________________________. 4. The discount store that just opened ___________________________. 5. Although my daughter is Only five years old _____________________. B. Underline the dependent-word fragment (or fragments) in each selection. Then correct

each fragment by attaching it to the sentence that comes after __ whichever sounds more

natural. Put a comma after the dependent-word group if it starts the sentence.

1. Since she was afraid of muggers. Barbara carried a small can Of Mace on her key ring. A hatpin was hidden under her coat lapel.

2. When I began watching the TV mystery movie. I remembered that I had seen it before. I already knew who had murdered the millionaire.

3. Tulips had begun to bloom. Until a freakish spring snowstorm blanketed the garden. The flowers perished in the unseasonable cold.

4. Whenever I'm in the basement and the phone rings. I don't run up to answer it. If the message is important. The person will call back.

5. Since she is a new student. Carla feels shy and insecure. She thinks she is the only person. Who doesn't know anyone else.

2. -ING AND TO FRAGMENTS

When an -ing word appears at or near the start of a word group, a fragment may result. Such fragments often lack a subject and part of the verb. Underline the word groups in the selections below that contain -ing words. Each is a fragment. Selection I

I spent all day in the employment office. Trying to find a job that suited me. The prospects looked bleak.

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Selection 2

Lola surprised Tony on the nature hike. Picking blobs of resin off pine trees. Then she chewed them like bubble gum. Selection 3

Mel took an aisle seat on the bus. His reason being that he had more leg room. How to Correct -ing Fragments

1 Attach the fragment to the sentence that comes before or the sentence that comes after it, whichever makes sense. Selection 1 above could read, “I spent all day in the employment office , trying to find a job that suited me.”

2 Add a subject and change the -ing verb part to the correct form of the

verb. Selection 2 could read, "She picked blobs of resin off pine trees.” 3 Change being to the correct form of the verb be (am, are, is, was, were) . Selection 3 could

read,---His reason was that he had more leg room.” How to Correct to Fragments When to appears at or near the start of a word group, a fragment sometimes results.

To remind people of their selfishness. Otis leaves handwritten notes on cars that take up two parking spaces.

The first word group in the selection above is a fragment. It can be corrected by adding it to the sentence that comes after it:

To remind people of their selfishness, Otis that take up two parking spaces. Practice

C. Underline the -ing fragment in each of the following selections. Then make the fragment a

sentence by rewriting it, using the method described in parentheses.

Example The dog eyed me with suspicion. Not knowing whether its master was at home. 1 hesitated to open the gate. (Add the fragment to me preceding sentence.)

Not knowing whether its master was at home, I hesitated to open the gate.

1. Julie spent an hour at her desk. Staring at a blank piece of paper She

didn’t know how to start her report. (Add the fragment to the preceding sentence.) 2. Rummaging around in the kitchen drawer. Bob found the key he had misplaced a year ago. (Add the fragment to the sentence that comes after it.) 3. I went back to get a carton of Fresca. As a result, losing my place in the] checkout line. (Add the subject I and change losing to the correct form of the verb. lost 3. ADDED-DETAIL FRAGMENTS

Added-detail fragments lack a subject and a verb. They often begin with one of the following words: Also except including especially for example such as Locate and underline the one added-detail fragment in each of the following selections: Selection I

Tony has trouble accepting criticism. Except from Lola. She has a knack for tact.

Selection 2

My apartment has its drawbacks. For example, no hot water in the morning. Selection 3

I've worked at many jobs while in school. Among them, busboy, painter, and security guard.

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How to Correct Added-Detail Fragments

I Attach the fragment to the complete thought that precedes it. Selection I could read: "Tony has trouble accepting criticism, except from Lola."

2 Add a subject and a verb to the fragment to make it a complete sentence. Selection 2 could read:

"My apartment has its drawbacks. For example, there is no hot water in the morning. " 3 Change words as necessary to make the fragment part of the preceding sentence. Selection 3

could read: "Among the many jobs I've worked at while in school have been busboy, painter, and security guard."

PRACTICE

D. Underline the fragment in each selection below. Then make it a sentence by rewriting

it, using the method described in parentheses.

Example: My husband and I share the household chores. Including meals. I do the cooking and he does the eating. (Add the fragment to the preceding sentence.) My husband and I share the household chores, including meals.

1. My father has some nervous habits. For instance, folding a strip of paper

into the shape of an accordion. (Correct the fragment by adding the subject he and changing folding to the proper form of the verb, folds.)

2. Marco stuffed the large green peppers. With hamburger meat, cooked rice, and chopped parsley. Next, using toothpicks, he reattached the stemmed pepper tops. (Add the fragment to the preceding sentence.)

3. My little brother is addicted to junk food. For example, Bugles and Doritos. If something is good for him, he won't eat it. (Correct the fragment by adding the subject and verb He craves.) E. Underline the added-detail fragment in each selection. Then rewrite that part of the

selection needed to correct the fragment.

1. My husband keeps all his old clothes. For instance, his faded sweatshirt from high school. He says it's the most comfortable thing he owns.

2. My sister has some very bad habits. For example, borrowing my sweaters. She also returns them without washing them.

3. To improve her singing, Donna practiced some odd exercises. Such as flapping her tongue and fluttering her lips.

4. When she spotted her ex-husband, Leona left the party. She did not want him to see how much she had changed. For example, put on forty pounds.

5. Stanley wanted a big birthday cake. With candles spelling Out STAN. He wanted to see his name in lights.

4. MISSING-SUBJECT FRAGMENTS Underline the word group in which the subject is missing in each selection below.

Selection I

One example of my father's generosity is that he visits sick friends in the hospital. And takes along get-well cards with a few dollars folded in them. Selection 2

The weight lifter grunted as he heaved the barbells into the air. Then, with a loud groan, dropped them. How to Correct Missing-Subject Fragments

1. Attach the fragment to the preceding sentence. Selection I could read: "One example of my father's generosity is that he visits sick friends in the hospital and takes along get-well cards with a few dollars folded in them."

2. Add a subject (which can often be a pronoun standing for the subject in the preceding sentence). Selection 2 could read: "Then, with a loud groan, he dropped them.

E. Underline the missing-subject fragment in each selection. Then rewrite that part of the

selection needed to correct the fragment. Use one of the two methods of correction described

above.

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1. Embarrassed, Sandra looked around the Laundromat. Then quickly folded her raggedy towels and faded sheets.

2. Wally took his wool sweaters out of storage. And found them full of moth holes. 3. My sister is taking a word processing course. Also, is learning two computer languages. Machines

don't frighten her. 4. When someone comes to the door, my dog races upstairs. Then hides under the bed. Strangers

really terrify him. 5. A tiny bug crawled across my paper. And sat down in the middle of a sentence. There was

suddenly one comma too many. F. Underline the fragment in each selection. Then correct the fragment in the space

provided. Example: Sam received all kinds of junk mail. Then complained to the post office. Eventually,

some of the mail stopped coming.

Then he complained to the post office. 1. Since she was afraid of mussing her hair. Terry refused to go swimming. 2. The first time I took a college course, I was afraid to say anything in class. I didn't open my

mouth. Not even to yawn. 3. Looking like a large dish of vanilla fudge ice cream. Our black-and-white cat went to sleep on the

table. 4. Fran read that a sure sign of age is forgetting things. She wanted to show the article to her

doctor. But couldn't remember where it was. 5. Dave insisted on wearing a silly hat. Which his girl friend hated. It had two horns like a Viking

helmet. 6. A box of frozen vegetables slipped out of Mark's grocery bag. And split open on the sidewalk.

Little green peas rolled in every direction, while hard white onions bounced down the street.

1. FUNCTION :

1.1 Capital letters for Geographical Terms

Normally, use capital letters for the names of countries, domains, territories, regions. Localities, and geographic features. Examples : the Seine River (but : the river Seine) New York State (but : the state of New York) the Far East the Solid South

the Sahara Desert Lake Huron the Torrid Zone the Gulf of Mexico

1.2 Capital Letters for Governmental Terms

The names of administrative, legislative, and judiciary bodies and departments on both national and local levels are usually capitalized : Examples : the House of Representatives the British Embassy the United Nations . the federal Congress (but : the federal government) 1.3 Capital Letters for Historic Events, Eras

Commonly accepted names for historic events and eras are normally capitalized. If the term includes the word days or era or epoch or period, the name itself is capitalized and so is the following word if there is any possibility of confusion, but not otherwise. Thus you might correctly write in Colonial days but refer to the Colonial Period in United States history. Examples : Revolutionary War

Cenozoic era The Middle Ages Christian Era

1.4 Capital Letters for Holidays, Festivals

The name of most holidays and of many feast, festivals, and fast days are capitalized : Christmas

Holy Week The Fourth of July Boxing Day

Exercise : Please give the capitals !

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1. new york city 2. the swiss confederation 3. the south atlantic states 4. American samoa 5. an american republic 6. the north pole 7. the british embassy 8. the u.s. army

9. the general assembly of utah 10. stone age 11. second world war 12. the renaissance 13. easter 14. veterans day 15. mother day

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UNIT 3

A CONCLUDING SENTENCE

I. WRITING

A concluding sentence is not absolutely necessary; in fact, a concluding sentence is not customary for every paragraph in a multi paragraph essay. However, for single paragraphs, especially long ones, a concluding sentence is helpful to the reader because it signals the end of the paragraph and because it is a reminder of the important points. A concluding sentence serves three purposes: 1. It signals the end of the paragraph. 2. It summarizes the main points of the paragraph. 3. It gives a final comment on the topic and leaves the reader with the most

important ideas to think about. Use one of the following end-of-paragraph signals to introduce your concluding sentence: END-OF-PARAGRAPH SIGNALS

These are followed by a comma These are not followed by a comma Finally, As a result, In conclusion, Indeed, In summary, In brief, Therefore, In short, Thus,

We can see that It is clear that These examples show that There can be no doubt that The evidence suggests that

The examples that follow demonstrate two different types of concluding sentences. The first one paraphrases the topic sentence; that is, the concluding sentence repeats the main idea of the topic sentence in different words. The second example summarizes the two main points of the paragraph, which were not specifically stated in the topic sentence.

Synonyms

Synonyms, words that have the same basic meaning, do not always have the same emotional meaning. For example, the words stingy and frugal both mean "careful with money" However, to call a person stingy is an insult while the word frugal has a much more positive connotation. Similarly a person wants to be slender but not skinny, and aggressive but not pushy. Therefore, you should be careful in choosing words because many so-called synonyms are not really synonymous at all.

Gold

Gold. a precious metal. is prized for two important characteristics. First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins, and ornamental purposes. Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. For example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the day it was minted twenty-three centuries ago. Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science. For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications. The most recent use of gold is in astronauts' suits. Astronauts wear gold-plated heat shields for protection outside spaceships. In conclusion, treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility. STEP I Underline the topic sentence in each paragraph.

STEP 2 Determine the main idea of each paragraph. STEP 3 Add a good concluding sentence to each. You may either

paraphrase the topic sentence or summarize the main points. STEP 4 Begin each concluding sentence with an end-of-paragraph signal. Paragraph I

You can be a good conversationalist by being a good listener. When you are conversing with someone, pay close attention to the speaker's words while looking at his or her face. Show your interest by smiling and/or nodding. Furthermore, don't interrupt while someone is speaking; it is impolite to do so. If you have a good story wait until-the speaker is finished. Also, watch your body language; it can affect your communication whether you are the speaker or the listener. For instance, don't sit slumped in a chair or make nervous hand and foot movements. Be relaxed and bend your body slightly forward to show interest in the person and the conversation. _____________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Paragraph 2

Modern communication technology is driving workers in the corporate world crazy. They feel buried under the large number of messages they receive daily. In addition to telephone calls, office workers receive dozens of E-mail and voice mail messages daily. In one company, in fact, managers receive an average of 100 messages a day. Because they don't have enough time to respond to these messages during office hours, it is common for them to do so in the evenings or on weekends at home. II. Sentence Skills

RUN-ONS

A run-on occurs when two sentences are run together with no adequate sign given to mark the break between them. Shown below are four run-on sentences and four correctly marked sentences. See if you can complete the statement that explains how each run-on is corrected. 1. A man coughed in the movie theater the result was a chain reaction of copycat coughing. Run-on

A man coughed in the movie theater. The result was a chain reaction of copycat coughing. Correct The run-on has been corrected by using a ________and a capital letter to separate the two complete thoughts.

2. I heard laughter inside the house, no one answered the bell. Run-on

I heard laughter inside the house, but no one answered the bell. Correct The run-on has been corrected by using a joining word, _______, to connect the two complete thoughts.

Here are three common methods of correcting a run-on:

1. Use a period and a capital letter to separate the two complete thoughts. (In other words, make two separate sentences of the two complete thoughts.)

Rita decided to stop smoking. She didn't want to die of lung cancer.

The exam was postponed. The class was canceled as well.

2 Use a comma plus a joining word (and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet) to connect the two complete

thoughts.

Rita decided to stop smoking, for she didn't want to die of lung cancer.

The exam was postponed, and the class was canceled as well.

3 Use a semicolon to connect the two complete thoughts.

Rita decided to stop smoking; she didn't want to die of lung cancer.

The exam was postponed; the class was canceled as well.

A fourth method of correcting a run-on is to use subordination. The following pages will give you practice in the first three methods. The use of subordination will be described fully on page 383, in a section of the book that deals with sentence variety. METHOD 1:

PERIOD AND A CAPITAL LETTER

One way of correcting a run-on is to use a period and a capital letter at the break between the two complete thoughts. Use this method especially if the thoughts are not closely related or if another method would make the sentence too long. PRACTICE

A. Locate the split in each of the sentences on the next page. Reading each sentence aloud will help you "hear" where a major break or split in the thought occurs. At such a point, your voice

will probably drop and pause.

Correct the run-on by putting a period at the end of the first thought and a capital letter at the start of the second thought. Example Gary was not a success at his job his mouth moved faster than his hands. 1. Michael gulped two cups of strong coffee his heart then started to flutter. 2. Ellen defrosted the freezer she hacked at the thick ice with a screwdriver. 3. The engine was sputtering and coughing a strong smell of gas came from under the hood.

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4. A bright-yellow Volkswagen pulled up beside me it looked like a deviled egg on wheels. 5. The phone in the next apartment has rung at least fifty times I'm beginning to get used to it. METHOD 2: AND A JOINING WORD

Another way of correcting a run-on is to use a comma plus a joining word to connect the two complete thoughts. Joining words (also called coordinating conjunctions) include and, but, for, or, nor, so, and yet Here is what the four most common joining words mean: 1. and , in addition, along with

Lola was watching Monday night football, and she was doing her homework as well. (And means in addition: Lola was watching Monday night football; in- addition, she was doing her homework as well.) 2. but , however, except, on the other hand, just the opposite

I voted for the president two years ago, but I would not voted for him today. (But means however: I voted for the president two years ago; however, 1 would not vote for him today.) 3.for, because, the reason why, the cause for something

Saturday is the worst day to shop, for people jam the stores. (For means because: Saturday is the worst day to shop because people jam the stores.) If you are not comfortable using for, you may want to use because instead of for in the activities that follow. If you do use because, omit the comma before it. 4. so, as a result, therefore

Our son misbehaved again, so he was sent upstairs without dessert. (So means as a result: Our son misbehaved again; as a result, he was sent upstairs without dessert.) PRACTICE

B. Insert the comma and the joining word (and, but, for, so) that logically connects the two

thoughts in each sentence.

Example: A trip to the zoo always depresses me hate to see animals in cages. 1. We knew the old desk had a secret drawer no one could find it. 2. I had to retype my term paper my little boy had scrawled on it with a purple crayon. 3. Last year my nephew needed physical therapy the whole family pitched in to work with him. 4. My new car is a pleasure to drive there isn't the -slightest -squeak or rattle. 5. A cat food commercial came on Marie started to sine along with the jingle. C. Add a complete and closely related thought to go with each of the following

statements. Use a comma plus the italicized joining word when you write the second thought.

Example but I was sick with the flu, but I still had to study for the test. so 1. I couldn't resist the banana cream pie ___________________. but 2. We tried to follow the directions _______________________ . and 3. Bob took three coffee breaks before lunch __________________. for 4. The car seat was drenched ______________________________. but 5. I don't usually pick up hitchhikers _________________________ . METHOD 3:

Semicolon

A third method of correcting a run-on is to use a semicolon to mark the break between two thoughts. A semicolon (;) is made up of a period and a comma and is sometimes called a strong comma. The semicolon signals more of a pause than a comma alone but not quite the full pause of a period. Semicolon Alone

Here are some earlier sentences that were connected with a comma plus a joining word. Notice that a semicolon, unlike the comma, can be used alone to connect the two complete thoughts in a each sentence:

Something was obviously wrong with the meat loaf; it was glowing in the dark. Fred remembered to get the hamburger; he forgot to buy the hamburger rolls. I decided to go back to school; I felt my brain was turning to slush.

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Practice

D. Insert a semicolon where the break occurs between the two complete thoughts in each of

the following sentences.

Example She had a wig on; it looked more like a hat than a wig. 1. Alan had to go up the ramp backwards his wheelchair’s strongest gear is reverse. 2. A cockroach is almost indestructible it can live for weeks with its head cut off. 3. Pat read the funny birthday cards she laughed aloud in the quiet store. Semicolon with a Transition

A semicolon is sometimes used with a transitional word and a comma to Join two complete thoughts: I figured the ball game would cost me about five dollars; however, I didn't consider the high price of food and drinks, Fred and Martha have a low-interest mortgage on their house; otherwise, they would move to another neighborhood. Sharon didn't understand the teacher's point; therefore, she asked him to repeat it. Here is a list of common transitional words (also known as adverbial conjunctions). Brief meanings are given for the words. Word Meaning

However but Nevertheless however On the other hand however Instead as a substitute Meanwhile in the intervening time Otherwise under other conditions Indeed in fact In addition also, and Also in addition Moreover in addition Furthermore in addition As a result thus, therefore Thus as a result Consequently as a result Therefore as a result Note: Sometimes transitional words do not join complete thoughts but are merely interrupters in a sentence. My parents, moreover, plan to go on the trip. I believe, however, that they'll change their minds.

F. Choose a logical transitional word from the box on the opposite page and write it in the

space provided. In addition, put a semicolon before the transition and a comma after it.

Example It was raining harder then ever ;however, Bobby was determined to go to the

amusement park. I Most people can do without food for a month_____________ they need two quarts of water a

day to survive. 2. Jean's son was sick ________________she delivered his newspapers for him. 3. Linda felt safe living near a fire hydrant __________________she wished the neighborhood dogs didn't like it so much. 4. The bride's father apologized to the waiting guests_____________ he

promised to return all the wedding gifts. 5. Mindy thinks gift wrapping paper is a waste of money________________ she wraps presents in shelf paper.

A NOTE ON SUBORDINATION

A fourth method of joining together related thoughts is to use subordination. Subordination is a way of showing that one thought in a sentence is not as important as another thought. Here are three earlier sentences that have been recast so that one idea is subordinated to (made less emphatic than) the other idea:

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Because Rita didn't want to die of lung cancer, she decided to stop smoking. The wedding reception began to get out of hand when the guests started to throw food at each other. Although Suzie wanted to watch a Star Trek rerun, the rest of the family insisted on turning to the network news.

A REVIEW: HOW TO CHECK FOR RUN-ONS

I To see if a sentence is a run-on, read it aloud and listen for a break marking two complete thoughts. Your voice will probably drop and pause at the break.

2 To check an entire paper read it aloud from the last sentence to the first. Doing so will help you hear and see each complete thought.

3 Be on the lookout for words that can lead to run-on sentences: I he, she, it they this then you we there that next

4 Correct run-on sentences by using one of the following methods: • period and a capital letter • comma and a joining word (and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet) • semicolon

• subordination 1. FUNCTION :

1.1 Capital letters for Initials, Abbreviations

Many abbreviation for titles and degrees and several miscellaneous one-letter symbols are capitalized. Examples : Mr. Smythe

Gen. George Washington James Wilson, Sr. Samuel Slade, Ph.D

1.2 Capital Letters for Interjections

Interjections (exclamation of surprise, anger, etc) often appear at the beginning of sentence and are capitalized for this reason only. However, the single-letter interjection O is always capitalized regardless of its position in the sentence : Please come early and, oh, be sure to bring some food. “Sail on, O Ship of State”. Oh, she cried, and O ! I replied. 1.3 Capital Letters for Names

Names of people and of titles used to refer to specific people are always capitalized, so also are names of specific places. Also capitalize the names of organized bodies and groups. So many categories are involved that it may help to classify those which require capitalization. 1.3.1 Proper names : Theodore Roosevelt, President Reagan, Margaret 1.3.2 Derivatives of proper names : Asian, Roman, Elizabethan 1.3.3 Common nouns and adjectives in proper names : Sunset Boulevard, Yellow River 1.3.4 Organized bodies and groups and members of same : Cornell University, University Club, the

Southern Railway System 1.4 Capital Letters Political Parties, Alliances The specific names of political organizations, associations, and movements are always capitalized :

the Democratic party a Communist Fascist Bolsheviki

Exercise :

Give the capital letters ! 1. mr. Glenn verick, ph.d, my thesis supervisor received a grant from fullbright association. 2. suddenly she turned around and o ! she’s so pretty ! 3. do you know who build the suez canal ? 4. she mentioned some names from Elizabethan but i could not hear her voice clearly. 5. the Italian ministry of foreign affairs was holding a meeting at j.w marriot hotel.

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UNIT 4

UNITY

I. WRITING Another important element of a good paragraph is unity. Every good paragraph has a unity,

which means that only one main idea is discussed. For example, if your paragraph is about the advantages of owning a compact car, discuss only that. Do not discuss the disadvantages. Furthermore, it is a good idea for beginning academic writer to discuss only one advantage, such as gas economy, in each paragraph. If you begin to discuss another advantage, start a new paragraph. Sometimes it is possible to discuss two or even three aspects of the same idea in one paragraph if they are closely related to each other. For example, you could discuss gas economy and low maintenance costs in the same paragraph because they are closely related, but you should not discuss both gas economy and easier parking in the same paragraph because they are not closely related.

The second part of unity is that every supporting sentence must directly explain or prove the main idea that is stated in the topic sentence. Do not include any information that does not directly support the topic sentence. Sometimes students write supporting sentences that are "off the topic." These are called irrelevant sentences For example, if you are writing a paragraph about the high cost of college tuition, you could mention inflation' as a factor. However, if you write several sentences about inflation, you are getting off the topic, and your paragraph will not have unity, II. PRACTICE

A. Study the three paragraphs that follow. All of them discuss the same topic in which

paragraph has unity and which two do not? Which paragraph discusses more than one

topic? Which paragraph has irrelevant sentences?

Paragraph 1

The HIV/AIDS epidemic is still growing explosively in most parts of the world. In Central and Eastern Europe, HIV is spreading rapidly in countries that had almost no cases a few years ago. In China, there were an estimated 10,000 HIV-infected persons at the end of 1993, and this total grew ten-fold, to 100,000, by the end of 1995. In the countries of sub-Saharan Africa, the HIV/AIDS epidemic rages on." In Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, 10 percent of the women visiting postnatal clinics in urban areas are infected with HIV, and in some areas, the rate is 40 percent. Mothers can give the HIV, virus to their children during pregnancy and childbirth or when breast-feeding. The virus is also transmitted through blood and blood products. For example, drug users who share needles may become infected. The main method of transmission is, of course, unprotected sex, which accounts for 75 to 85 percent of infections. Paragraph 2

The HIV/AIDS epidemic is still growing explosively in most parts of the world. In Central and Eastern Europe, HIV is spreading rapidly in countries that had almost no cases a few years ago. In China, there were an estimated 10,000 HIV IV infected persons at the end of 1993, and this total grew ten-fold, to 100,000, by the end of 1995. In the countries of sub-Saharan Africa, the HIV/AIDS epidemic rages on. In Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, 10 percent of the women visiting postnatal clinics in urban areas are infected with HIV and in some areas, the rate is 40 percent. Around the world, HIV infection rates are skyrocketing among sex workers.' In Nairobi, Kenya, 80 percent of sex workers are infected, and in Vietnam, the rate of infection climbed from 9 percent to 38 percent between 1992 and 1995. These statistics illustrate with frightening clarity that HIV/AIDS is still a major health problem in most areas of the world. Paragraph 3

The HIV/AIDS epidemic is still growing explosively in most parts of the world. In Central and Eastern Europe, HIV is spreading rapidly in countries that had almost no cases a few years ago. In China, there were an estimated 10,000 HIV infected persons at the end of 1993, and this total grew ten-fold, to 100,000, by the end of 1995. There is evidence that in the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand, HIV infection rates are declining, at least among males. This is a result of a combination of prevention methods. In the countries of sub Saharan Africa, the HIV/AIDS epidemic rages on. In Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, 10 percent of the women visiting postnatal clinics in urban areas are infected with HIV, and in some areas, the rate is 40 percent. Although there is no cure for HIV/AIDS, new medicines are available that prolong the lives of people with HIV.

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B. The following short essay has not been divided into paragraphs, but

it should contain six: an introductory paragraph, four body paragraphs, and a concluding

paragraph.

STEP 1 Read the entire essay once or twice.

STEP 2 Decide where each new paragraph should begin- (Where does the author begin to discuss a different topic?)

STEP 3 Underline the first sentence of each paragraph. Culture, Logic, and Rhetoric

Logic, which is basis of rhetoric, comes from culture; it is not universal. Rhetoric, therefore, is not universal either but varies from culture to culture. The rhetorical system of one language is neither better nor worse than the rhetorical system of another language, but it is different. English logic and English rhetoric, which are based on Anglo-European cultural patterns, are linear - that is, a good English paragraph begins with a general statement of its content and then carefully develops that statement with a series of specific illustrations. A good English paragraph may also use just the reverse sequence: It may state a whole series of examples and then summarize those examples in a single statement at the end of the paragraph. In either case, however, the flow of ideas occurs in a straight line from the opening sentence to the last sentence. Furthermore, a well-structured English paragraph is never digressive. There is nothing that does not belong to the paragraph and nothing that does not support the topic sentence. A type of construction found in Arabic and Persian writing is very different. Whereas English writers use a linear sequence, Arabic and Persian writers tend to construct a paragraph in a parallel sequence using many coordinators such as and and but. In English, maturity of style is often judged by the degree of subordination rather than by the degree of coordination. Therefore, the Arabic and Persian styles of writing, with their emphasis on coordination, seem awkward and immature to an English reader. Some Asian writers, on the other hand, use an indirect approach. In this kind of writing, the topic is viewed from a variety of angles. The topic is never analyzed directly; it is referred to only indirectly. Again, such a development in an English paragraph is awkward and unnecessarily vogue to an English reader. Spanish rhetoric differs from English rhetoric in still another way. While the rules of English rhetoric require that every sentence in a paragraph relate directly to the central idea, a Spanish-speaking writer loves to fill a paragraph with interesting digressions. Although a Spanish paragraph may begin and end on the same topic, the writer often digresses into areas that are not directly related to the topic. Spanish rhetoric, therefore, does not follow the English rule of paragraph-unity. In summary, a student who has mastered the grammar of English may still write poor papers unless he/she has also mastered the rhetoric of English. Also, the student may have difficulty reading an essay written by the rules of English rhetoric unless he/she understands the "logical" differences from those of his/her own native tongue. C. Both of the following paragraphs break the rule of unity because they contain one -or more

irrelevant sentences-sentences that do not directly support the topic sentence.

STEP I Locate and underline the topic sentence of each paragraph. STEP 2 Find the irrelevant sentence(s) and cross them out.

Paragraph I

Adventure travel is the hot trend in the tourism industry. Ordinary people axe no longer content to spend their two weeks away from the office resting on a sunny beach in Hawaii. More and more often, they axe choosing to spend their vacations rafting down wild rivers, hiking through steamy rain forests, climbing the world's highest mountains, or traversing slippery glaciers. People of all ages axe choosing educational study tours for their vacations. Paragraph 2

Daredevil sports are also becoming popular. Young people especially are increasingly willing to risk life and limb while mountain biking, backcountry snowboarding, or high-speed skateboarding. Soccer is also becoming popular in the United States, where it was not well known until recently. One of the riskiest new sports is skysurfing, in which people jump out of airplanes with graphite boards attached to their feet. Skysurfing rivals skydiving and bungee jumping for the amount of thrills- and risk. D Both of the following paragraphs have not only two or more topics, but

also irrelevant sentences.

STEP I Decide where each paragraph should be divided into two or more paragraphs.

Underline the topic sentence of each. STEP 2 Find the irrelevant sentence(s) and cross them out.

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Paragraph I

Because the Internet makes the world a smaller place, the value of having a common language is greatly increased. The question is-which language? Because the Internet grew up in the United States, the largest percent, age of its content is now in English. Bill Gates, Microsoft's president, believes that English will remain valuable for a long time as a common language for international communication. His company spends $200 million a year translating software into other languages. He says, "Unless you read English passably well, you miss out on some of the Internet experience." Someday, software may be available to instantly translate both written and spoken language so well that the need for any common language could decline. That day is decades away, however, because flawless machine translation is a very tough problem. Software that does crude' translations already exists. It is useful if all you are trying to do is understand the general idea of something you see on your computer screen. However, if you are trying to negotiate a contract or discuss a scientific subject where details are important, machine translation is totally useless. Computer spelling checkers also exist for various languages.

Paragraph 2

Even when you try to be polite, it's easy to do the wrong thing inadvertently in a new culture. For example, when someone offers you food or a beverage in America, accept it the first time it is offered. If you say "No, thank you" because it is polite to decline the first one or two offers in your culture, you could become very hungry and thirsty. An American thinks that "no" means "no" and will usually not offer again. American meals are usually more informal than meals in other countries, and the times of meals may be different. Although Americans are usually very direct in social matters, there are a few occasions when they are not. If an American says, "Please drop by sometime," he may or may not want you to visit him in his home. Your clue that this may not be a real invitation is the word "sometime.” In some areas of the United States, Americans do not expect you to visit them unless you have an invitation for a specific day and time. In other areas of the United States, however, "dropping by" is a friendly, neighborly gesture idioms are often difficult for newcomers to understand. II. SENTENCE SKILLS

Subject-Verb Agreement

As you read each pair of sentences below, place a check mark beside the sentence that you think uses the underlined word correctly. ________There was many applicants for the position. ________There were many applicants for the position. ________The pictures in that magazine is very controversial. ________The pictures in that magazine are very controversial. ________Everybody usually watch the lighted numbers while riding in the

elevator. ________Everybody usually watches the lighted numbers while riding in the

elevator. On the basis of the above examples, see if you can complete the following statements: 1. In the first two pairs of sentences, the subjects are ________and_______. Since both these subjects

are plural, the verb must be plural. 2. In the last pair of sentences, the subject, Everybody, is a word that is always (singular, plural) and so

that verb must be (singular, plural). A verb must agree with its subject in number. A singular subject (one person or thing) takes a singular verb. A plural subject (more than one person or thing) takes a plural verb. Mistakes in subject-verb agreement are sometimes made in the following situations: 1 When words come between the subject and the verb 2 When a verb comes before the subject 3 With indefinite pronouns 4 With compound subjects 5 With who, which, and that WORDS BETWEEN

THE SUBJECT AND THE VERB

Words that come between the subject and the verb do not change subject-verb agreement. In the following sentence,

The breakfast cereals in the pantry are made mostly of sugar.

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the subject (cereals) is plural and so the verb (are) is plural. The words in the pantry that come between the subject and the verb do not affect subject-verb agreement. To help find the subject of certain sentences, you should cross out prepositional phrases.

One of the crooked politicians was jailed for a month. The posters on my little brother's wall included rock singers, monsters, and blonde television stars.

Following is a list of common prepositions:

About before by inside over above behind during into through across below except of to among beneath for off toward around beside from on under at between in onto with Practice

A. Underline the subject and lightly cross out any words that come between the subject and

the verb. Then double-underline the verb choice in parentheses that you believe is correct.

1. The leaders of the union (has, have) called for a strike. 2. One of Robin's pencil sketches (hangs, hang) in the art classroom. 3. Three days of anxious waiting finally (ends, end) with a phone call. 4. The members of the car pool (chips, chip) in for the driving expenses. 5. The woman with the teased, sprayed hairdo (looks, look) as if she were wearing a plastic helmet. 6. The addition of heavy shades to my sunny windows (allows, allow) me to sleep during the day. 7. Several houses in the old whaling village (has, have) been designated as historical landmarks. 8. The stack of baseball cards in my little brother's bedroom (is, are) two feet high. 9. Gooey puddles of egg white (spreads, spread) over the stove as Mike cracks the shells against the

frying pan. 10. The giant-size box of Raisinets (sells, sell) for three dollars at the theater's candy counter. VERB BEFORE THE SUBJECT

A verb agrees with its subject even when the verb comes before the subject. Words that may precede the subject include there, here, and, in questions, who, which, what, and where.

Inside the storage shed are the garden tools. At the street comer were two panhandlers. There are times I'm ready to quit my job. Where are the instructions for the microwave oven?

If you are unsure about the subject, ask who or what of the verb. With the first sentence above, you might ask, "What are inside the storage shed?" The answer, garden tools, is the subject. B. Underline the subject in each sentence. Then double-underline the correct verb in

parentheses. 1. Lumbering along the road (was, were) six heavy trucks. 2. There (is, are) now wild coyotes wandering the streets of many California suburbs. 3. Lining the country lanes (is, are) rows of tall, thin poplar trees. 4. At the back of my closet (is, are) the high platform boots 1 bought ten years ago. 5. Helping to unload the heavy sofa from the delivery truck (was, were) a skinny young boy. 6. Nosing through the garbage bags (was, were) a furry animal with a hairless tail. 7. Here (is, are) the rug shampooer 1 borrowed last month. 8. Along the side of the highway (was, were) a sluggish little stream. 9. Where (is, are) the box of kitchen trash bags? 10. On the door of his bedroom (is, are) a sign reading, “Authorized personnel only.” INDIFINITE PRONOUNS

The following words, known as indefinite pronouns, always take singular verbs: (-one words) (-body words) (-thing words)

one nobody nothing each anyone anybody anything either everyone everybody everything neither someone somebody something

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C. Write the correct form of the verb in the space provided.

1. Neither of those last two books on the list (is, are) required for the course. 2. Nobody (remembers, remember)seeing a suspicious green car cruising the street. 3. Both of these belts no longer (fits, fit). 4. Somebody (has, have) been playing my records. 5. Nobody (wanders, wander in those woods during hunting season without wearing bright-

colored clothing. 6. Each of those dogs (needs, need) to be inoculated against rabies. 7. One of my friends (keeps, keep) a pet iguana in her dorm room. 8. Everyone (sneaks, sneak) stationery and pens out of our office. 9. Either of those motels (is, are)clean and reasonably priced. 10. One of my children (eats, eat) raw onions as if they were apples.

COMPOUND SUBJECTS

Subjects joined by and generally take a plural verb. • Yoga and biking are Lola's ways of staying in shape. • Ambition and good luck are the keys to his success.

When subjects are joined by either . . . or, neither . . . nor, not only . . . but also, the verb agrees with the subject closer to the verb.

• Either the restaurant manag r or his assistants deserve to be fired for the spoiled meat used in the stew.

The nearer subject, assistants, is plural, and so the verb is plural. Practice

D. Choose the correct form of the verb in the brackets. 1. This coat and scarf (looks, look) warm, but the wind seems to go right through them. 2. The bridge and the tunnel (is, are) closed for repairs. 3. The pitcher's unusual stance and strange grip (confuses, confuse) his opponents. 4. The footnotes and one picture in this book (is, are) printed upside down. 5. Either a giant jellyfish or oversize lobsters (stars, star) in this Japanese monster movie.

WHO, WHICH, AND THAT

When who, which, and that are used as subjects, they take singular verbs if the word they stand for is singular and plural verbs if the word they stand for is plural. For example, in the sentence

• Gary is one of those people who are very private. (the verb is plural because who stands for people, which is plural. On the other hand, in the sentence)

• Gary is a person who is very private. (the verb is singular because who stands for person,

which is singular) F. Write the correct form of the verb in the space provided.

1. The dogs which(roam, roams)around this area are household pets abandoned by cruel owners.

2. A sharp pain that (begin, begins) in the lower abdomen may signal appendicitis. 3. The heavy trucks that (thunder, thunders) past my Honda make me feel as though I'm

being blown off the road. 4. The canyon tour isn't for people who (fears, fear)heights. 5. This drink, which (taste, tastes) like pure sugar, is supposed to be100 percent fruit

juice. F. Underline the correct word in the Parentheses.

1. The number Of commercials between television shows (is, are) increasing. 2. Joan and Phil (works, work) all night at the motel's registration desk. 3. A report on either book (counts, count) as extra credit. 4. Both the mattress and the box spring on this bed (is, are) filled with rusty, uncoiling springs. 5. Nobody in that class ever (argues, argue) with the professor. 6. Remembering everyone's birthday and organizing family reunions (is, are) my sister's main hobbies. 7. Lying like limp little dolls on the bed (was, were) the exhausted children. 8. The woman from the telephone company who (empties, empty) the pay phones wears a photo ID tag

around her neck. 9. The illegal dogfights which (occurs, occur) regularly in our town are being investigated by the SPCA. 10. Sewn into the sweater's seam (was, were) an extra button and a small hank of matching yam for

repairs.

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1. FUNCTION :

1.1 Capital Letters for Ordinal Numbers

An ordinal number (first, second, third, etc) is capitalized when used with the name of a person or a period of time. Such numbers are spelled out if they precede the name ; Roman numerals may follow the name of the person or era. Examples : the Forty-ninth Congress George VI

Pope John XXIII The Second New York Regiment

1.2 Capital Letters for people and Races

The names of so-called divisions of humanity based on such matters as skin color and head shape, geographical origin, and other classifications are always capitalized. Examples : Aryan Celtic

Anglo Saxon Nordic

1.3 Capital Letters for Personification

Personification involves attributing to an abstract idea or non-living object the features and characteristics of personality, of human life. Poets, especially those of an earlier day, were fond of this figure of speech. You will probably rarely need to capitalize for this somewhat unusual purpose. Examples : “The Angel of Death is abroad in the land…” There Honor comes, a pilgrim gray,

To bless the turf that wraps their clay; And Freedom shall a while repair, To dwell a weeping hermit there ! -William Collins-

1.4 Capital Letters for Religions, Sacred Writings

Most religious terms are usually capitalized. These include names of the Deity and personal pronouns referring to the Deity; names for the Bible and other sacred writings, and the names of religions and religious groups. Even Satan is not neglected; he gets a capital letter, too. Examples : God Jesus Christ

the Almighty Hinduism Roman Catholic

Exercise : Rewrite these following sentences with the correct punctuation !

1. queen elizabeth II visited this chapel twenty years ago. 2. he was the second child of mr. brown. 3. moses received the ten commandments at the top of that mountain. 4. diana is the rose of my hearth. 5. every Friday the moslem always gather in this mosque. For sentences number 6 until 10, please write C if the sentence uses correct capital letter

and I if the capital letter is incorrect.

6. Some people said that The Indian had lived in this area since the Stone Age. 7. The priest quoted this sentence from the book of genesis. 8. Pope John XXIII would celebrate christmas in Jerusalem. 9. Heavenly father, be praised thy name. 10. Igloo is the house of Eskimos.

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UNIT 5

OUTLINING

I. WRITING

An outline is like an architect's plan for a house. An architect plans a house before it is built to make sure that all the parts will fit. Like an architect, you should plan a paragraph before you write it to make sure that all of your ideas will fit.

Learning to outline will improve your writing for three reasons. First of all, it will help you organize your ideas. Specifically, an outline will ensure that you won't include any irrelevant ideas, that you wont leave out any important points, and that your supporting sentences will be in logical order. Second, learning to outline will help you write more quickly It may take some practice at first, but once you become used to outlining your ideas before you start to write, you will be surprised at how you will actually be able to write. Preparing an outline is 75 percent of the actual writing becomes easier because you don't have to worry about what to say, you already have a well-organized plan to follow. Finally, your grammar will improve because you will be able to concentrate on it, not on your thoughts or organization. Improved organization, speed, and grammar make learning to outline well worth the effort.

There are several different outline forms that can be used. The form used in this book is particularly helpful for students who have never practiced outlining before. However, your instructor may recommend a different form. A simple outline for a short paragraph might look like this:

Topic sentence

A. First Major Supporting Sentence 1.Minor Supporting Sentence 2. Minor Supporting Sentence E. Second Supporting Sentence

1.Minor Supporting Sentence 2. Minor Supporting Sentence

F. Third Supporting Sentence 1.Minor Supporting Sentence 2. Minor Supporting Sentence

Concluding Sentence

Of course, the number of major supporting sentences(A, B, C) and minor supporting sentences will vary widely from paragraph to paragraph. This particular paragraph has three main supporting points; others may have only two or as many as ten. Also, some paragraphs may not have a concluding sentence, and in others, the topic sentence may not be the first sentence. Study the simple outline below for the second paragraph above. Then reread the paragraph to see how the writer used this plan to write a well-organized paragraph that is easy to understand. Learning to outline will improve your writing for three reasons. A. It will help you organize your ideas. B. It will help you write more quickly. C. It will help you improve your grammar. Improved organization, speed, and grammar make learning to outline well worth the effort Equal parts of an outline should be written in parallel form. This means that all ideas with the same kind of letter or number should have the same grammatical form; that is, they all should be complete sentences, or all nouns, or all adjectives, or all prepositional phrases, etc. In the first outline that follows, point A is a sentence. What are points B and C? 1. The English language is constantly changing. A. Pronunciation has changed in the past 500 years. B. Some grammatical changes. C. Vocabulary.

Indeed, English, like all living languages, is continually changing in pronunciation, grammar, and especially vocabulary.

The outline above is wrong

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In the next outline, points A, B, and C are all nouns. This outline has parallel form. 2. The English language is constantly changing.

A. Pronunciation. B. Grammar. C. Vocabulary. Indeed, English, like all living languages, is continually changing in pronunciation, grammar, and especially vocabulary.

In the following outline, points A, B, and C are all sentences. This outline also has parallel form. 3. The English language is constantly changing.

A. Pronunciation has changed in the past 500 years. B. Some changes in grammar have occurred and are still occurring.

C. Vocabulary is the area of greatest change. Indeed, English, like all living languages is continually changing in pronunciation, grammar, and especially vocabulary.

The following is an example of detailed paragraph outline. 4. Learning to outline will improve your writing for three reasons.

A. It will help you organize your ideas. 1. You won't include irrelevant ideas. 2. You won't leave out important points. 3. Your supporting sentences will be in logical order.

B. It will help you write more quickly. 1. It may take practice. 2. Seventy-five percent of the work is done. 3. You don't worry about what you are going to say.

C. It will help you improve your grammar. You will be able to concentrate on it.

Improved organization, speed, and grammar make learning to outline well worth the effort. Note: The detail under point C has no number because there is only one detail for it. A further outlining rule states, "If there is no B, there cannot be an A; if there is no 2, there cannot be a 1.” II. PRACTICE

A. Rewrite each of these outlines to make the support part parallel in form of parallel.

1. San Francisco is famous for its tourist attractions. A. Golden Gate Park is very famous. B. Chinatown. C. Fisherman's Wharf attracts hundreds of tourists. D. Riding the cable cars. For these four attractions alone, San Francisco is well worth a visit.

2. Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics.

A. It is beautiful. B. Usefulness to science and industry. In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility.

3. Medical researchers will produce some amazing advances in the very near future.

A. By the year 2009, a vaccine against the common cold. B. Cloning of the first human in the same year. C. By the year 2014, parents will be able to create designer children. D. By 2020, most diseases diagnosed and treated at home. E. By the year 2030, cancer and heart disease wiped out. These are just a few examples of medical miracles that are expected in the next few decades.

B. Choose one of the suggested topics that follows, and write a paragraph that is

ten to fifteen sentences in length. Remember the steps in the writing process:

STEP 1 Brainstorm a topic for ideas, STEP 2 Develop an outline that includes a topic sentence and a concluding

Planning sentence (if necessary). Underline them. STEP 3 Write a rough draft. Make sure your paragraph has unity STEP 4 Have a classmate check your rough draft STEP 5 Write a second draft, and proofread it for grammar and mechanics. STEP 6 Write a final copy to hand in.

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II. Sentence Skills

A. Faulty Parallelisem

Read aloud each pair of sentences below. Put a check mark beside the sentence that reads more smoothly and clearly and sounds more natural.

Pair 1 _____ I use my TV remote control to change channels, to adjust the volume,

and for turning the set on and off. _____ I use my TV remote control to change channels, to adjust the volume,

and to turn the set on and off .

Pair 2 _____One option the employees had was to take a cut in pay; the other was

longer hours of work. _____One option the employees had was to take a cut in pay; the other was to

work longer hours.

Pair 3 _____The refrigerator has a cracked vegetable drawer, one of the shelves is

missing, and a strange freezer smell. _____The refrigerator has a cracked vegetable drawer, a missing shelf, and a

strange freezer smell. PARALLELISM EXPLAINED Words in a pair or a series should have a parallel structure. By balancing the items in a pair or a series so that they have the same structure, you will make your sentences clearer and easier to read. Notice how the parallel sentences that follow read more smoothly than the nonparallel ones. Nonparallel (Not Balanced) Parallel (Balanced)

Fran spends her free time reading, Fran spends her free time reading. listening to music, and she works listening to music, and working in in the garden, the garden. (A balanced series of -ing words:

playing, reading, working.)

After the camping trip I was ex- After the camping trip I was ex- hausted, irritable, and wanted to eat. hausted, irritable, and hungry. (A balanced series of descriptive

words: exhausted, irritable, hungry.)

My hope for retirement is to be My hope for retirement is to be healthy, to live in a comfortable healthy, to live in a comfortable house, and having plenty of money. house, and to have plenty of money. (A balanced series of to verbs: to be, to live, to have.) Nightly, Fred puts out the trash, Nightly, Fred puts out the trash, checks the locks on the doors, and checks the locks on the doors, and the burglar alarm is turned on. turns on the burglar alarm. (Balanced verbs and word order: puts out the trash, checks the locks, turns on the burglar alarm.) Balanced sentences are not a skill you need worry about when writing first drafts. But when you rewrite, you should try to put matching words and ideas into matching structures. Such parallelism will improve your writing style. Practice

A. The unbalanced part of each sentence is italicized. Rewrite this part so that it matches

the rest of the sentence.

1. As the home team scored the winning touchdown, the excited fan screamed, cheered, and pennants were waved.

2. Would you prefer to go for a walk outside or staying indoors? 3. Before Pete could assemble the casserole, he had to brown the meat, dice the vegetables, and a

cream sauce had to be made. 4. Please feed the dog, the heat must be turned down, and lock the doors.

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5. That restaurant specializes in hamburgers that are overdone, wilted salads, and stale pastries. 6. The old Ford sputtered, was coughing, and finally stopped altogether. 7. The hospital patients can sometimes be cranky, make a lot of demands, and ungrateful. 8. After eating a whole pizza, two milkshakes, and sampling a bag of chips, Jerome was still hungry. 9. As soon as she gets up, she starts the coffee machine, turns on the radio, and a frozen waffle is

put in the toaster. 10. The boss told Vern that he had only two options: to work harder or leaving the company B. Complete the following statements. The first two parts of each statement are parallel in

form; the part that you add should be parallel in form as well.

1. The movie was terrible: the scenery was fake, the plot was ridiculous, and________. 2. My New Year's resolutions were to lose weight, to stop smoking, and________. 3. The people in the long checkout line flipped through magazines, stared at the cashier,

or__________. 4. During my first day as a waitress, I learned how to fold napkins, how to use the coffee machine,

and________. 5. My best friend is honest, dependable, and C. Cross out the unbalanced part of each sentence. Then rewrite the unbalanced

part so that it matches the other item or items in the sentence.

1. The traffic cop blew his whistle, was waving his hands, and nodded to the driver to start moving. 2. Mike's letter of application was smudged, improperly spaced, and it had wrinkles. 3. Nick spoke vividly and with force at the student government meeting. 4. I like Barry Manilow; Mick Jagger is preferred by my sister. 5. Darkening skies, branches that were waving, and scurrying animals signaled the approaching

storm. 6. The pitcher wiped his brow, straightened his cap, and he was tugging at his sleeve. 7. The driving instructor told me to keep my hands on the wheel, to drive defensively, and the use

of caution at all times. 8. The customer made choking noises, turned red, and was pointing to his throat. 9. My sister eats spaghetti without sauce, cereal without milk, and doesn't put mustard on hot dogs. 10. The scratches on my car's hood were caused by rocks hitting it, people who sat on it, and cats

jumping on it. D. There are six nonparallel parts in the following passage, find and correct them.

Consumers have several sources of information they can use in the never-ending war against poor services and merchandise that is shoddy. For one thing, consumers can take advantage of the Better Business Bureau. If you plan to contract the Fly-By-Night Company to paint your house or the replacement of siding, you should first phone your local Better Business Bureau to learn about any complaints against that company. Second, consumers can refer to helpful information available from the U.S. Government Printing Office. You can learn, for instance, how to buy a house, shopping for health insurance, or to protect yourself from auto repair ripoffs. Finally, careful buyers can turn to Consumer Reports, an independent magazine and one which is nonprofit, that tests and rates a wide range of consumer products. For example, if you are thinking about buying a certain car, Consumer Reports will give you information on its comfort level, safety features, fuel economy, and record for repair. If consumers remember to look before they leap and are taking advantage of the above sources of information, they are more likely to get a fair return on their hard-earned dollars. B. Consistent Verb Tense

See if you can find and underline the two mistakes in verb tense in the following selection. When Stereo Warehouse had a sale, Alex decided to buy a video cassette recorder. He thought he would plug the machine right in and start taping his favorite shows. When he arrived home, however, Alex discovers that hooking up a VCR could be complicated and confusing. The. directions sounded as if they had been written for electrical engineers. After two hours of frustration, Alex gave up and calls a TV repair shop for help. Now try to complete the following statement: Verb tenses should be consistent. In the above selection, two verbs have to be changed because they are mistakenly in the (present, past) tense while all the other verbs in the selection are in the (present, past) tense.

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KEEPING TENSES CONSISTENT

Do not shift tenses unnecessarily. If you begin writing a paper in the present tense, don't shift suddenly to the past. If you begin in the past, don't shift without reason to the present. Notice the inconsistent verb tenses in the following selection: Smoke spilled from the front of the overheated car. The driver opens up the hood, then jumped back as steam billows out. The verbs must be consistently in the present tense:

Smoke spills from the front of the overheated car. The driver opens up the hood, then jumps back as steam billows out. Or the verbs must be consistently in the past tense:

Smoke spilled from the front of the overheated car. The driver opened up the hood, then jumped back as steam billowed out. Practice

In each selection one verb must be changed so that it agrees in tense with the other verbs. Cross out the incorrect verb and write the correct form in the space at the left. 1. Dana swabbed the inside of her cheek with a Q-tip, smears the cells on a glass slide, and then

looked at them through the microscope. 2. Debbie, a moody adolescent, threw the blouse down, shouted at her mother, and then starts to

cry. 3. On the highway, one rescuer rolled the unconscious man onto his back, pinched his nostrils shut,

and then breathe into his mouth. 4. In this neighborhood, the kids play stickball in the street; they sawed off broom handles for bats

and borrow garbage can lids for bases. 5. Because the kitchen lacks an exhaust fan, cooking fumes fill the house and thin layers of grease

coated the ceilings.

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UNIT 6

COHERENCE

I. WRITING

Another element of a good paragraph is coherence. The Latin verb cohere means "hold together." In order to have coherence in writing the sentences must hold together; that is, the movement from one sentence to the next and in longer essays, from one paragraph to the next) must be logical and smooth. There must be no sudden jumps. Each sentence should flow smoothly into the next one. There are four ways to achieve coherence. The first two ways involve re ' repeating key nouns and using pronouns that refer back to key nouns. The third way is to use transition signals to show how one idea is related to the next. The fourth way to achieve coherence is to arrange your sentences in logical order. You will practice the first three ways to achieve coherence in this chapter, and you Will learn about logical order as well. A. Repetition of Key Nouns

The easiest way to achieve coherence is to repeat key nouns frequently in your paragraph. Look at the model paragraph about gold to see how it uses this technique to achieve coherence. The key noun in this paragraph is gold. Circle gold pronouns that refer to it. Paragraph with coherence

Gold

Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. First of all, go gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins, and ornamental purposes. Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. For example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the day it was minted twenty-three centuries ago. Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science. For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications. The most recent use of gold is in astronauts' suits. Astronauts wear gold-plated heat shields for protection outside spaceships. In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility.

You should have circled the noun gold seven times, the pronoun it twice, and the pronoun its three times. (The word it in line 5 refers to coin, not gold, so you should not have circled it.)

There is no fixed rule about how often to repeat key nouns or when to substitute pronouns. At the very least, you need to repeat a key noun instead of using a pronoun when the meaning is not clear. Throughout the following paragraph, the word gold has been replaced by pronouns, making the paragraph much less coherent.

Gold

Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. First of all, it has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins, and ornamental purposes. It never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. For example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the day it was minted twenty-three centuries ago. Another of its important characteristics is its usefulness to industry and science. For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications. Its most recent use is in astronauts' suits. Astronauts wear heat shields made from it for protection outside spaceships. In conclusion, it is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility.

B. Use of Consistent Pronouns

When you use pronouns instead of key nouns, make sure that you use the same person and number throughout your paragraph. Don’t change from you to he or she (change of person), or from he to they (change of number).

C. Transition Signals

1. Transition signals are words such as first, second, next, finally, therefore, and however, or phrases such as in conclusion, on the other hand, and as a result.

2. Think of transition signals as traffic signs that tell your reader when to go forward, turn,

slow down, and stop. In other words, they tell the reader when you are giving a similar idea (similarly, moreover, furthermore, in addition), an opposite idea (on the other hand, however, in contrast), an example (for example), a result (as a result), or a conclusion (in conclusion).

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3. Using transition words as a guide makes it easier for your reader to follow your ideas. Transition words give your paragraph coherence. 4. You should not use a transition signal in front of every sentence in

a paragraph. Using too many transition signals can be just as confusing as using too few. However, good writing requires that you use enough transition signals to make the relationships among your ideas clear.

The following is a chart showing some of the most common transition signals Learn to use all of them, for they can be used with all kinds of writing.

Sentence Connectors Clause Connectors Mening /function Transition

Phrases Conjunctive Adverbs

Coordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating Conjunctions

Others

To introduce an additional idea

in addition Furthermore Moreover Besides Also Too

And Another (+noun) An additional (+noun)

To introduce an opposite idea

On the other hand In contrast

However Nevertheless Instead Still Nonetheless

But Yet

Although Though Even though Whereas While

In spite of(+noun) Despite (+noun)

To introduce a choice or alternative

Otherwise Or If unless

To introduce a restatement or explanation

Inn fact Indeed

That is

To introduce an example

For example For instance

An example of (+noun) Such as (=noun)

To introduce a conclusion or summary

In conclusion In summary In brief In short Indeed

To introduce a result

Accordingly As a result As a consequence

Therefore Consequently Hence Thus

So

I. Sentence Connectors

• For example, the Baltic Sea in Northern Europe is only one-fourth as saline as the Red Sea in the Middle East.

• The Baltic Sea in Northern Europe, for example, is only one-fourth as saline as the Red Sea in the Middle East.

• The Baltic Sea in Northern Europe is only one-fourth as saline as the Red Sea in the Middle East, for example,

• Conjunctive adverbs (except too) may also appear at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of sentences, and are separated by commas.

• Furthermore, the runoff created by melting snow adds a considerable amount of fresh water to dilute the saline sea water.

• The runoff created by melting snow, furthermore, adds a considerable amount of fresh water to dilute the saline sea water.

• My parents want me to become an engineer, however. Conjunctive adverbs are also often used with a semicolon and a comma to join two independent clauses' to form a compound sentence.

• In warm climate zones, water evaporates rapidly; therefore, the concentration of salt is greater.

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• The company's sales increased last year; nevertheless, its net profit declined. Most transition phrases may also follow this pattern.

• Many societies in the world are matriarchal; that is, the mother is head of the family. • Some English words do not have exact equivalents in other languages; for example, there is

no German word for the adjective fair, as in fair play.

II. Clause Connectors

A. Coordinating Conjunctions

The five coordinating conjunctions in the chart (plus two additional ones, for and nor) are used with a comma to join two independent clauses to form a compound sentence.

• In a matriarchy, the mother is the head of the family, and all of the children belong to her clan.

• In warm climate zones, water evaporates rapidly, so the concentration of salt is greater. • The company's sales increased last year, yet its net profit declined.

Yet and but have similar meanings: They both signal that an opposite idea is coming. Yet is preferred when the second clause is an unexpected or surprising contrast to the first clause. When the two clauses are direct opposites, but is preferred.

• Thomas Edison dropped out of school at age twelve, yet he became a famous inventor. • I want to study art, but my parents want me to become an engineer.

Yet is similar in meaning to nevertheless, and but is similar to however. B. Subordinating Conjunctions

These words (and many others including because, when, and so that) introduce a dependent clause,' which is joined to an independent clause to form a complex sentence. There are two possible positions for the dependent clause: If the dependent clause comes before the independent clause, use a comma after it.

• Although the company's sales increased last year, in net profit declined. If the independent clause comes first, do not use a comma.

• The company's net profit declined last year although its sales increased. III. Others

The transition signals in this group include adjectives such as additional. preposition such as in spite of, and nouns such as example. There are no special punctuation rules for this group.

• The company's net profit declined last year in spite of increased sales. • Despite increased sales, the company's net profit declined last year. (The comma is

necessary because the prepositional phrase comes before the subject of the sentence.) • An additional reason for the company's bankruptcy was the lack of competent management. • Examples of vocabulary differences between British and American English include

bonnet/hood, petrol/ gasoline, windscreen/windshield, and lorry/truck.

D. Logical Order

In addition to using transition signals and repeating key nouns and pronouns, a fourth way to achieve coherence is to arrange your sentences in some kind of logical order. Your choice of one kind of logical order over another will, of course, depend on your topic and on your purpose. You may even combine two or more different logical orders in the same paragraph. The important point to remember is to arrange your ideas in some kind of order that is logical to a reader accustomed to the English way of writing. Some common kinds of logical order in English are chronological order, logical division of ideas, and comparison/contrast. In this chapter, you will learn to recognize some of the logical orders; in later chapters, you will learn to write them. Each kind of order has its own special words and phrases to show the relation ships among the ideas. For example, in a piece of writing using chronological order you would expect to find a lot of time expressions: first, next, after that, finally, before the last war, after 1990, since then, in 20 10, while working on the project, etc. In a Paragraph describing differences (contrast), you would find these expressions:

the most noticeable difference, larger than, unlike, on the other hand, in contrast, differ from

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In a paragraph showing similarities (comparison), you would find these expressions:

similarity, similarly, as expensive as, just as, just like, compare with, in comparison Logical division of ideas is another common method of organizing ideas to give a paragraph coherence. Ideas are put into groups, and each group is discussed one after the other. Transition words such as first, second, third introduce each group. II. Sentence Skill

PRACTICE

A. In the following paragraph, the key noun is never repeated. Replace the pronoun it

with the key noun English wherever you think doing so would make the paragraph

more coherent.

English

English has almost become an international language. Except for Chinese, more people speak it them any other language. Spanish is the official language of more countries in the world, but more countries have it as their official or unofficial second language. More than 70 percent of the world's mail is written in it. It is the primary language on the Internet. In international business, it is used more than any other language, and it is the language of airline pilots and air traffic controllers all over the world. Moreover, although French used to be the language of diplomacy, it has displaced it throughout the world. Therefore, unless you plan to spend your life alone on a desert island in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, it is a useful language to know. B. In the following passage about dolphins, replace some of the pronouns with

appropriate singular or plural nouns.

Dolphins

Dolphins are interesting because they display almost human behavior at times. For example, they display the human emotions of joy and sadness. During training, when they do something correctly, they squeal excitedly and race toward their trainer. When they make a mistake, however, they droop noticeably and mope around their pool. Furthermore, they help each other when they are in trouble. If one is sick, it sends out a message, and others in the area swim to help it. They push it to the surface of the water so that it can breathe. They stay with it for clays or weeks-until it recovers or dies. They have also helped trapped or lost whales navigate their way safely out to the open sea. They are so intelligent and helpful, in fact, that the U.S. Navy is training them to become underwater bomb disposal experts. C. In the following paragraph, the pronouns are not consistent. Correct them to make this

paragraph more coherent.

Olympic Athletes

Olympic athletes must be strong both physically and mentally. First of all, if you hope to compete in an Olympic sport, you must be physically strong Furthermore, an aspiring Olympian must train rigorously* for many years. For the most demanding sports, they train several hours a day, five or six days a week for ten or more years. In addition to being physically strong he or she must also be mentally tough.. This means that you have to be dedicated to your sport, often giving up a normal school family, and social life. Being mentally strong also means that he or she must be able to withstand the intense of international competition with its media coverage. Finally, not everyone can win a medal, so they must possess the inner strength to live with defeat.

D. Compare paragraphs 1 and 2 that follow. Both paragraphs give the same information, yet

one paragraph is easier to understand than the other because it contains transition signals to

lead the reader from one idea to the next. Which paragraph contains transition signals and is

more coherent? Circle all of the transition signals that you can identify.

Paragraph 1

A difference among the world's seas and oceans is that the salinity varies in different climate zones. The Baltic Sea in Northern Europe is only one-fourth as saline as the Red Sea in the Middle East. There axe reasons for this. In warm climates, water evaporates rapidly. The concentration of salt is greater. The surrounding land is dry and does not contribute much fresh water to dilute the salty sea water. In cold climate zones, water evaporates slowly. The runoff created by melting snow adds a considerable amount of fresh water to dilute the saline sea water.

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Paragraph 2

Another difference among the world's seas and oceans is that the varies in different climate zones. For example, the Baltic Sea in North Europe is only one-fourth as saline as the Red Sea in the Middle East. There are two reasons for this. First of all, in warm climate zones, water evaporates rapidly; therefore, the concentration of salt is greater. Second surrounding land is dry and, consequently, does not contribute much ~L water to dilute the salty sea water. In cold climate zones, on the other hand water evaporates slowly. Furthermore, the runoff created by melting snow adds a considerable amount of fresh water to dilute the saline sea water.

E. Circle all of the transition signals in the following paragraphs and punctuate the transition

signals if necessary

Genetic Engineering

Genetic research has produced both exciting and frightening possibilities. Scientists are now able to create new forms of life in the laboratory due to the development of gene splicing. On the one hand the ability to create life in the laboratory could greatly benefit humankind. For example it is very expensive to obtain insulin from natural sources, but through genetic research, scientists have now developed a way to manufacture it inexpensively in the laboratory. Another beneficial application of gene splicing is in agriculture. Genetic engineers have created a new tomato that doesn't spoil quickly. Consequently tomato farmers can now let the tomatoes ripen on the plant and develop full flavor and color before they are picked-no more green, flavorless tomatoes in grocery. In addition genetic engineers have created larger fish, frost-resistant strawberries, and more productive cows.

On the other hand not everyone is positive about gene-splicing technology. Some people feel that it could have terrible consequences. A laboratory accident for example might cause an epidemic of an unknown disease that could wipe out humanity. Furthermore the ability to clone human beings is a possibility that frightens many people. In 1993, a researcher at George Washington University Medical Center cloned human embryos' by splitting single embryos into twins and triplets. These embryos did not develop into babies but it is possible that they could do so in the future. Because human embryos can be frozen and used at a later date, it could be possible for parents to have a child and then, years later, to use a cloned, frozen embryo to give birth to its identical twin. G. Choose the transition signal that best shows the relationship between the sentences in

each group from the choices given in parentheses. Write the signal in the space.

Add punctuation and change capital letters to small letters if necessary.

Note: All of the transition signals in this practice are sentence connectors.

This is to give you more practice in using and punctuating this type of transition signal

correctly.

Example: A recent article in Era magazine suggested ways to reduce inflation. The article suggested that the president reduce the federal budget; furthermore it suggested that the government reduce federal, state, and local taxes. (however, in contrast, furthermore) 1. The same article said that the causes of inflation were easy to find ________

the cure for inflation was not so easy to prescribe. (however, for example, therefore) 2. Era also suggested that rising wages were one of the primary causes of

inflation _______________the government should take action to control wages. (however, therefore, for example)

3. In physics, the weight of an object is the gravitational force 2 with which the Earth attracts it_________ if a man weighs 150 pounds, this means that the earth pulls him down with a force of 150 pounds. (moreover, therefore, for example)

4. The farther away from the Earth a person is, the less the gravitational force of the Earth _________a man weighs less when he is 50,000 miles from the Earth than when he is only 5,000 miles away. (in conclusion, therefore, however)

5. A tsunami is a tidal wave produced by an earthquake on the ocean floor.. The waves are very long and low in open water, but when they get close to land, they encounter friction because the water is shallow ____________the waves Increase in height and can cause considerable damage when they finally reach land. (on the other hand, as a result, for example)

H. Fill in each blank with an appropriate transition signal from the list provided. Use each only

once. Then use correct punctuation.

for instance moreover furthermore in conclusion however but for example such as

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International on of Japan

For many years Japanese consumers have been very slow in accepting foreign goods, mainly because they are very selective and will only purchase high-quality products. Lately ______the consumer market has been changing. According to a recent article in The Wall Street Journal, koku-saika, which is defined as "internationalization," is influencing young Japanese consumers, who are very eager to purchase and enjoy products from countries around the world. The greatest access into the Japanese market has been by the food Industry. Traditionally, the protein staples in Japan has been fish products, _______in the last decade or so, the Japanese have been consuming more beef. In fact, annual per capita consumption is expected to be about seven kilos in the next decade. __________ they have acquired a taste for imported beverages, both of the nonalcohol or low alcohol varieties, like beer drinks and "light" wines imported from England, Germany, Switzerland, the United States, and Australia.________ young people, especially women who are aware of the Importance of health and fitness, are eating Western-style breakfasts. __________ they enjoy fruit, milk, and bran-type cereals imported from the United States.

Not only Western countries but also Asian nations __________South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, and Thailand have been benefiting from the changing diet of the Japanese consumer. __________Japan is Importing eels (fish) from Taiwan, asparagus (vegetable) from Thailand, and mangoes (fruit) from the Philippines. ____________the Japanese trend toward internationalization should become even greater as we approach the twenty-first century. It will certainly increase international trade, which will definitely be advantageous to many countries of the world. I. Improve the coherence of the following] paragraph by adding transitions at key places

Women’s Liberation and English

The -women's lib' movement toward greater equality for women has produced some permanent changes in the vocabulary of English. New words have been added. The words feminist, sexist, and male chauvinist have become common during the past thirty-five years or so. Another new word is the title Ms., which is often used in place of both Miss and Mrs. A change is that sexist titles of many occupations have been neutralized. A chairman is now a chairperson (or sometimes simply chair), a waiter/waitress is now a waitperson, and a high school or college freshman is now a first-year student. A mailman is now a mail carrier, and an airline stewardess is now a flight attendant. In time, English pronouns may also change as a result of women's desire for equality. Attempts to give equal treatment to masculine and feminine pronouns in English have led to the search for a new pronoun form to replace he (such as he/she or s/he) when referring to neutral nouns like student and manager. Some of the new words such as Ms. are quite useful; you can use Ms. to address a woman when you don't know if she is married. The lack of a clear neutral pronoun can lead to awkward sentence construction. J. Read the following paragraphs and decide which kind of logical order is used in each:

comparison/contrast, chronological order, or logical division of ideas. Be able to discuss the

reasons for your choice. Circle all transition signals.

Paragraph 1

Powerful computers capable of translating documents from one language into another have recently been developed in Japan. The process of machine translation is complex. To translate a document from English into Japanese, for example, the computer first analyzes an English sentence, determining its grammatical structure and identifying the subject, verb, objects, and modifiers. Next, the words are translated by an English-Japanese dictionary. After that, another part of the computer program analyses the resulting awkward jumble of words and meanings and Produces an intelligible sentence based on the rules of Japanese syntax and the machine's understanding Of what the original English sentence meant. Finally, the computer-produced translation is polished by a human bilingual editor. Paragraph 2

French and American business managers have decidedly different management styles. French meetings, for example, are long and rambling, and rarely end on time. Furthermore, meetings often end without closure. Americans, on the other hand, make an effort to start and stop a meeting on time, and American business meetings typically end with decisions and action plans. Another difference involves documentation. Americans adore documentation; they have a procedure manual for everything. The French, in contrast, think this is childish. French managers find It difficult to stick to a schedule, but American managers are intolerant of delays. In addition, the French prefer to work alone, whereas Americans like to work in teams. Another major difference in management style is that in French companies, authority comes from the top; French managers do not share information with subordinates and make decisions with little participation by employees beneath them. In American companies, however, top managers share information and frequently Solicit input from subordinates. Kind of logical order:_______________________________________________

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Paragraph 3

It took more than 2,500 years to develop the calendar used in most Western countries today. In about 700 B.C.E the ancient Romans used a calendar that had 304 days divided into ten months; March was the beginning of each year. There were more than 60 days missing from the calendar, and so very soon, the calendar didn't match the seasons at all. Spring arrived when the calendar said that it was still winter. A few decades later, the Romans added the months of January and February to the end of the year. This calendar lasted -about 600 years. Then in 46 B.C.E., Julius Caesar, the Roman ruler, made a new calendar. His calendar had 365 days, with one day added to every fourth year. He also moved the beginning of the year to January 1, and he renamed a month for himself: Julius (July). In Caesar's calendar, February had 29 days. The very next emperor, Augustus, not only renamed a month for himself (August), but he also took one day from February and added it to August so that "his" month would be just as long as Caesar's. This is calendar worked better than the previous ones, but it still wasn't perfect. By 1580, the first calendrical day of spring was ten days too early, so in 1582,Pope Gregory XIII, the leader of the Roman Catholic religion, made a small change to make the calendar more accurate. In the Gregorian calendar, the year is still 26.3 seconds different from the solar year. but it will be a long 20 time before this causes a problem. Kind of logical order:______________________________________________ Paragraph 4

The many different calendars used throughout the world are all based either on the phases of the moon, on the revolution of the Earth around the sun, or on a combination of these. The first kind of calendar is the lunar calendar, which is based on the phases of the moon. A month is calculated as s the time between two fall moons, 29.5 days, and a year has 354 days. The Islamic calendar used in Muslim countries is a lunar calendar. It has twelve months and a cycle of thirty years in which the 2nd, 5th, 7th, 10th, 13th, 16th, 18th, 21st, 24th, 26th, and 29th years have 355 days, and the others 354 days. A second kind of calendar is the solar calendar, which is based on to the revolution of the Earth around the sun. The ancient Egyptians used a solar calendar divided into twelve months of thirty days each, which left five uncounted days at the end of each year. A very accurate calendar developed by the Mayan Indians in Worth America was also a solar calendar. It had 365 days, 364 of which were divided into 28 weeks of 13 days each. The new is year began on the 365th day. Because the solar year is exactly 365 days, 5hours, 48 minutes, and 46 seconds long, however, a solar calendar is not totally accurate, so many cultures developed a third kind of calendar, the lunisolar calendar. In a lunisolar calendar, extra days axe added every so often to reconciles the lunar months with the solar year. The Chinese, 20 Hebrew, and Gregorian calendars used today are lunisolar calendars. Kind of logical order: _______________________________________________

K. Choose one of the topic sentences below and write a paragraph that develops it. Use

transition signals to connect the supporting sentences smoothly. You may use the

transition signals suggested for each topic, or you may use others not listed. Add other

sentences without transitions if you need to in order to explain the topic completely.

Topic Suggestions

• Drinking laws • The effects of divorce • Working mothers

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UNIT 7

KINDS OF LOGICAL ORDER

I. WRITING

you learned that writing your ideas in some kind of logical order is necessary to achieve coherence. You also learned to recognize three of the common kinds of logical orders in English---chronological order, logical of ideas, and comparison/ contrast. In this chapter, you will practice using them - paragraphs. Chronological Order

Chronological order is one of the easiest methods of organization to master. Chronos is a Greek word meaning time. Chronological order, therefore, is a way of organizing the ideas in a paragraph in the order of their occurrence in time. Chronological order is used for something as simple as a recipe and for something as complex as a history book. In academic writing, chronological order has many uses. One of the primary ways you might use it is to write a historical narrative about the subject of a term paper. For example, you might review the history of labor unions before you discuss the current situation. However, chronological order is not just used for historical narratives: it is ;:I so used in business, science, and engineering to explain processes and procedures For example, chronological order would be used to explain how to take a photograph how to perform a chemistry experiment, or how to setup an accounting system. Such paragraph are called "how to" or "process" paragraphs. There are two keys to writing a good chronological paragraph:

1. Discuss the events (in a narrative) or the steps (in a process) in the order in which they occur. 2. Use chronological transition signals to indicate the sequence of events or steps. Analyze the following model paragraphs for their organization by time. Circle any words or expressions that indicate time order (first, next, after that, in 1971, etc.). The first model reviews very briefly the history of computers. The second model is an example of a process paragraph. It explains the process of cloning.

The Evolution' of Computers

In the relatively short span of sixty years, there has been an incredible evolution narration in the size and capabilities of computers. Today, computer chips smaller than the tip of your fingernail have the same capabilities as the room-sized machines of years ago.The first computers were developed around 1945.They were so large that they required special air-conditioned rooms. About twenty years later, in the 1960s, desksized computers were developed. This represented a gigantic advance. Before the end of that same decade, however, a third generation of computers, which used simple integrated circuits and which were even smaller and faster had appeared. In 1971, the first microprocessor, less than one square centimeter in size, was developed.Today. modern microprocessors contain as many as 10 million transistors, and the number of transistors and the computational speed of microprocessors doubles every eighteen months.

Cloning Technology

Background information: In 1997, a lamb born in Scotland became an instant celebrity. An exact duplicate of her six-year-old mother, Dolly was the first animal cloned from the cells of an adult. Other animals had previously been cloned from the cells of embryos, but Dolly was the first animal to come from an adult. Her birth represented a giant step in cloning technology. The cloning of Dolly involved several steps. First, cells that had previously been taken from Dolly's mother were starved for five days, which caused them to stop dividing. This interruption of the cells' division cycle made it easier for them to reprogram themselves to start growing a new organism.' After five days, the nuclei of these cells were removed and transferred into an unfertilized sheep egg, from which the natural nucleus had previously been removed. In the next step, the egg was grown in the laboratory for a period of time. Then the egg was implanted into a different sheep, where it grew normally. When the sheep finally gave birth, the lamb was an exact genetic copy, or clone, of the sheep that had provided the to transferred nucleus, not of the sheep that had provided the egg. Writing Technique Questions

1. What are the two uses of chronological order that the two model paragraphs,exemplify? 2. What are the main time divisions in the paragraph about computers? How would you

outline it? 3. What transition signals and time expressions are used in the first model to show chronological

order?

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4. What transition signals and time expressions are used in the second model to show the steps in the process?

Topic Notice that the topic sentence of a chronological paragraph in some way indicates the time order. In paragraphs such as the one on computers, phrases such as in the rela tively short span of sixty years and evolution give the reader a hint that this is a chronological paragraph. In a "how to," or process, paragraph such as the one about cloning technology, the process to be described is named in the topic sentence and tells the reader to expect a chronological paragraph. PRACTICE A

• STEP 1 Put a check in the space to the left of every topic sentence suggesting that a chronological paragraph will follow.

• STEP 2 In the sentences you have checked, circle the word or words that indicate chronological order.

organism: any form of life 2 nuclei plural of nucleus, the part of a cell that contains its hereditary material and con- trols its metabolism, growth, and reproduction Transition signals for chronological for more on time clauses bat to help show time order. Example (in the past sixty years developments in the field of electronics have revolutionized the computer industry. 1. A person's intelligence Is the product of both heredity and environment. 2. The tensions that led to last year's student riots had been building for several years. 3. The life cycle of the Pacific salmon is a fascinating phenomenon 4. There are two main reasons I believe women in the army should not be allowed in a war zone

along with men. S. Surviving a major earthquake is possible if you follow certain procedures. 6. The worst day in my life was the day I left my family and my friends to come to the United

States. 7. American directness often conflicts with Asian modesty. 8. The two most publicized holidays in the United States are first, Christmas and second,

Thanksgiving. 9. The traditions of Christmas originated in several different countries. 10. Every year, our family celebrates the Muslim holiday Ramadan in the same way. 11. The preparation of the poisonous puffer fish for eating is not for amateur chefs. 12. You can avoid jet lag after a long flight if you follow these suggestions. Transition signals are especially important in a chronological paragraph. You have to be very clear about the sequence of events: Did one event happen before, at the same time as, or after another event? Chronological transition signals include the following:

first first of all soon when during the night,.. second after that gradually before next finally meanwhile while now last as the first step,.. then since until in the second step,.. after as soon as when on the third day,.. Keep in mind that any time expression can serve as a chronological transition signal. Here are

some examples:

Later that morning, Twenty-five years ago, In 2001. In the next fifteen years, From June through August Before the invention of the fix machine, Division of Ideas/Order of Importance

Logical division is one of the most common ways to organize ideas in English. When you use logical division, you group related ideas together and discuss each group, one after the other. In everyday life, things are divided into groups. Grocery stores separate items into groups: produce (fresh fruits and vegetables) is in one section, milk products (milk, butter, cheese) are in another section, meats in another, and so on. Similarly, corporations divide themselves into departments: marketing, research, accounting, etc., and authors divide books into chapters.

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There is usually more than one way to divide things. Suppose, for example, you are asked to divide the members of your class into groups. How many different ways could you divide them? Make a list: By gender (male, females) By age If the groups are all more or less equally important in the mind of the writer, they can be discussed in any order. However, each group should be unified within itself In other words, you shouldn't put meat in the produce section.

2. Comparison/Contrast

Comparison/contrast involves analyzing the similarities and differences between two or more items. Almost every decision you make involves weighing similarities and differences. Every time you decide which jacket to buy or which apartment to rent, you compare and contrast features and prices. In the business world, employers compare job applicants, proposals from different advertising agencies, and employee health insurance policies from competing companies. Job applicants compare job offers in terms of salary, responsibilities, and benefit packages. In college classes, professors frequently test students' understanding of material by asking them to compare and contrast two theories, two methods, two economic policies, two historical periods, or two characters in a play or film. As with the other kinds of paragraphs, the keys to writing a comparison/ contrast paragraph are to put the ideas in some kind of order and to use appropriate transition signals. The content of a comparison/contrast paragraph can vary Some paragraphs emphasize similarities, while others emphasize differences. You can also discuss both similarities and differences in one paragraph if you dont have many points to discuss. Study the model paragraphs that follow and determine whether they discuss similarities, differences, or both.

COMPARISON TRANSITION SIGNALS

Similarly likewise also too and both ... and not only ... but also as just as like just like alike as ... as (be) similar similar to the same (as) compare to/with… CONTRAST TRANSITION SIGNALS

However on the other hand on the contrary in contrast in (by) comparison but yet although though even though while whereas unlike differ from (be) dissimilar compare to compare with

Transition Signals for Logical Division of Ideas

Transition signals used in logical division include many that you already know. first, next, moreover, second, last, furthermore, third, finally in addition, also,

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haredity: characteristics received from one's parents (hair color, eye color, height, etc.) 4 tensions ' phenomenom am unusual or scientific fact or event Part 1 Writing a Paragraph PRACTICE G. Add appropriate chronological transition signals to the following essay and punctu- ate them. Use the signals listed in the chart or others you know Chronological Transition Signals R~ to Reduce the Danger of smoking The Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW) has outlined some steps to take some of the danger out of smoking for those people who axe unable to quit smoking outright.' choose a cigarette with less tar and nicotine to reduce your intake of these pollutants. 5 don't smoke your cigarette all the way down. Smoke halfway, and you will inhale only about 40 percent of the total tar and nico- tine. Remember, 60 percent of these substances is contained in the last half of the cigarette. take fewer draws on each cigarette; that is, reduce the number of puffs on each cigarette. This will cut down on 80 your smoking. reduce your inhaling. Don't open your lungs by inhaling deeply. Take short, shallow puffs. smoke fewer cigarettes each day. This may be the most difficult step of all. think about the terrible diseases you axe opening your- self up to each time you smoke a cigarette. if you follow is each of these steps without cheating, you should be able to at least control the number of cigarettes you smoke daily. Who knows, this might be the beginning of the end-of your smoking, that is. Practice V±Tcb 15 Choose one of the suggested topics and follow the steps listed below to write a para a Chronological graph using chronological order. Both narrative and process topics are suggested. paragraph STEP 1 Make a simple outline that lists the events (in a narrative) or the steps (in a process) in the order of their occurrence. STEP 2 Add transition signals at appropriate points in the left margin of your outline. STEP 3 Write a topic sentence that names the event or the process. STEP 4 Write your paragraph, following your outline. Add enough details to make the chain of events or steps in the process very clear. STEP 5 Ask a classmate to check your paragraph using the Peer Editing Checklist at the end of the chapter (page 70) before you hand it in- 1 outright: all at once 2 substances: materials 3 DHEW Publication No. (CDC) 78-8705, U.S. Government Printing office 1 0-252-573. Topic Suggestions A. ProcessTopics How to get a driver's license How to break a bad habit How to make someone you know angry or happy How to flirt How to get an A B. NarrativeTopics How to get an I How to jump-start a car How to cook a special dish from your culture How to buy a used car

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How to soothe a crying baby • brief autobiography (You may write more than one paragraph.) • brief biography of a well-known person • recent journey • wedding ceremony An important event in your life An important decision you have made The historical development of (automobiles, air travel, a sport, a type of music, telecommunications-any topic you have information about) 1 Division of Ideas/Order of Importance Logical division is one of the most common ways to organize ideas in English. When you use logical division, you group related ideas together and discuss each group, one after the other. In everyday life, things are divided into groups. Grocery stores separate items into groups: produce (fresh fruits and vegetables) is in one section, milk products (milk, butter, cheese) are in another section, meats in another, and so on. Similarly, corporations divide themselves into departments: marketing, research, accounting, etc., and authors divide books into chapters. There is usually more than one way to divide things. Suppose, for example, you are asked to divide the members of your class into groups. How many different ways could you divide them? Make a list: By gender (male, females) By age If the groups are all more or less equally important in the mind of the writer, they can be discussed in any order. However, each group should be unified within itself In other words, you shouldn't put meat in the produce section. Read the model paragraph on the next page and then answer the questions that follow. ~1 Division of Ideas Transition Signals for Logical Division of Ideas 1 Life in Space Living aboard a station in orbit around the Earth for months at a time poses pm~ for astronouts bodies as well as for their minds. One major problem is maintaining astronauts' physical health. Medical treatment may be days or even weeks away, as there may not be a doctor on board. Illnesses such as appendicitis or ulcers, routinely treated on Earth, could be fatal in space because of the delay in getting to a doctor. Furthermore, surgery may be impossible because blood would float around inside the operating room. Another health problem is the potential for bone deterioration.' In a weightless environment, the body produces less calcium. Astronauts must exercise at least three hours a day to 10 prevent bone loss. A second major problem is maintaining astronauts' mental health. Being confined for long periods of time in dark and hostille space undoubtedly produces anxiety Loneliness and boredom are other psychological concerns. Finally, how can astronauts "let off steam` when interpersonal conflicts develop? It is clear that space-station duty will require astronauts who are not only is physically but also mentally strong. Writitig.Technique Questions A How many main groups is the topic of this paragraph divided into? What are they?

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2. Does the topic sentence of the paragraph tell you the topics of these groups? Does the concluding sentence? 3. What transition signals indicate the divisions? Where else are transition signals used? 4. In your opinion, would it make any difference if mental health were discussed before physical health? Do you think that one is more important than the other, or are they approximately equal in importance? Transition signals used in logical division include many that you already know. first, second, third, etc. next, last, finally in addition, moreover furthermore also 'deterioration: reduction in amount 2 hostile: unfriendly the first (+ noun) the/a second (+ noun) one (+ noun) another (+ noun) an additional (+ noun) anxiety. fear; worry "let off steam: get rid of anger, frustration (idiom) Chapter 5 Kinds of Logical Order Examples First, maintaining astronauts' physical health is a concern. in addition, sanitation 5 is a problem in weightless space. A second concern is maintaining astronauts' mental health. Transition Signals for order of Importance if some of your points are more important than others, you can indicate their relative importance by using these transition signals: more importantly most significantly above all primarily a more important (+ noun) the most important (+ noun) the second most significant (+ noun) the primary (+ noun) Astronauts in space experience loneliness and boredom; more importantly, they can suffer from anxiety. A. Reread the model paragraph "Life in space " on page 62 and circle all of the transition signals used to show logical division. show that one group of problems i on signals to B. Suggest changes in the transit' than the other. (physical or psychological) is more important The topic sentence of logical division and order of importance paragraphs often indicates the number of groups the topic is divided into. Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. Inflation has three causes. The topic sentence may even tell what the groups are. Gold, a precious metal, is prized not only for its beauty but also for its utility. Inflation has three causes: an increase in the supply of paper Money, excessive government spending, and unrestrained consumer borrowing. The topic sentence for order of importance differs only in that it may contain an order of importance transition signal, Gold, a precious metal, is prized not only for its beauty but, more impor- for its utility.

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Part I Writing a Paragraph P RACTICE 5 A. Put a check (V) in the space to the left of every topic sentence that suggests Topic Sentences for logical division as a method of organization. Put a double check (vv) if the Logical division/Order sentence suggests order of importance. Some are neither, so leave these of Importance unchecked. 1. My eighteenth birthday was a day I will never forget. 8. On their eighteenth birthdays, Americans receive two important rights/responsibilities : they can vote, and they can sign legal contracts 5. In most occupations, women are still unequal to men in three a a~, power, and status. 4. Living in a dormitory offers several advantages to a newly arrived international student. 5. Photosynthesis Is the process by which plants manufacture their food. 6. Television game shows are boring for the educated viewer because are poorly disguised commercials but more importantly, because they require such a minimal level of knowledge. 7. Earthquake prediction is still an inexact science although seismologists, learn more each time they monitor2 a quake. - 8. A college degree in international business today requires first, a knowledge of business procedures and second, a knowledge of cultural differences in business methods. - 9. A computer Is both faster and more accurate than a human. 10. Teenagers demonstrate their independence In several ways. B. Suggest changes to the topic sentence of the model paragraph "Life in Space" on page 62 to show that one group of problems (physical or psychological) is more important than the other. T wo T ips3 opic SentenceT Here are two tips to help you write topic sentences for logical division and order of importance paragraphs: 1. Use a colon (:) in front of the names of the groups. (For more information about the use of colons, see Appendix A, page 25 l.) In one shocking week of 1997, the world lost two remarkable women who, although they lived very different lives, shared a common compassion for the sick and injured: Princess Diana of Britain and Mother teresa of India. 2. Use paired (correlative) conjunctions when there are only two groups. Paired conjunctions are both ... and... ; not only... but also ... ; either... or...; neither ... nor... Parallelism is explained in Remember that paired (correlative) conjunctions follow the rule of parallelism. if Chapter 1 you put a noun after the word both, you must put a noun after the word and. if you use a prepositional phrase after not only, you must use one after but also. seismologists: scientists who study earthquakes 3 tip: helpful advice monitor: observe; check with instruments Chapter 5 Kinds of Logical Order I

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Here are some examples of logical division topic sentences with these special conjunctions. Gold, a precious metal, is prized not only for its beauty but also for its utility. (prepositional phrases) To stay healthy, you should both eat nutritious food and exercise daily (verbs) In my opinion, neither wealth nor beauty guarantees happiness. (nouns) Most people buying a personal computer for the first time will consider either a PC or a Macintosh. (nouns) Comparison/Contrast Comparison/contrast involves analyzing the similarities and differences between two or more items. Almost every decision you make involves weighing similarities and differences. Every time you decide which jacket to buy or which apartment to rent, you compare and contrast features and prices. In the business world, employers compare job applicants, proposals from different advertising agencies, and employee health insurance policies from competing companies. Job applicants compare job offers in terms of salary, responsibilities, and benefit packages. In college classes, professors frequently test students' understanding of material by asking them to compare and contrast two theories, two methods, two economic policies, two historical periods, or two characters in a play or film. As with the other kinds of paragraphs, the keys to writing a comparison/ contrast paragraph are to put the ideas in some kind of order and to use appropriate transition signals. The content of a comparison/contrast paragraph can vary Some paragraphs emphasize similarities, while others emphasize differences. You can also discuss both similarities and differences in one paragraph if you dont have many points to discuss. Study the model paragraphs that follow and determine whether they discuss similarities, differences, or both. PCs versus Macs Comparison/Contrast Paragraph I If you are planning to buy a personal computer, you should know some of the basic similarities and differences between PCs and Macs First of all, both PCs and Macs are composed of the same elements: a CPU," the electronic circuitry to run the computer; memory (hard and/or floppy disk drives) for storing information; 5 input devices such as a keyboard or mouse for putting information into the computer, and output devices such as a monitor, printer, and audio speakers for conveying information. They also have the same uses: PCs are used to communicate on computer networks, to write (with the help of word processing and desktop publishing software), to track finances, and to play games. Macs are likewise used to to communicate, write, calculate, and entertain. 4 CPU central processing unit 1 Part 1 writing a paragraph Paragraph 2 There are some differences however. Whereas you will find more PCs in business offices, you will find more Macs in classrooms. Although Macs are the computers of choice of people who do a lot of art and graphic design in their work, PCs seem to be the choice of people who do a lot of "number crunching.", 5 Finally, there is a difference in the availability of software, vendors, and service for the two computers. In general, there is a lot of PC-compatible 2 software, but relatively little Mac software. Furthermore, for a Mac, you must purchase your machine and get service from a Macintosh-authorized dealer, whereas many different computer stores sell and service PCs. writing Technique Questions 1. Which paragraph shows comparison? Which paragraph shows contrast? Turn back to the paragraph about French and American management styles on page 52. Which type of paragraph is it? 2. On how many points are the two computers compared? On how many points are they contrasted?

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3. What transition signals are used to show similarities? To show differences? (Refer to the following charts.) Transition Signals for Comparison/ Contrast COMPARISON TRANSITION SIGNALS similarly likewise also too and both ... and not only ... but also as just as number crunching : mathematical calculations 2 PC-compatible: can be used in PC computers like just like alike as ... as (be) similar similar to the same (as) compare to/with 1 Chapter 5 Kinds of Logical Order 1 CONTRAST TRANSITION SIGNALS however on the other hand on the contrary in contrast in (by) comparison but yet although though even though while whereas unlike differ from (be) dissimilar compare to compare with A. Circle all of the comparison/contrast transition signals in the two paragraphs about arison/Contrast PCs versus Macs on pages 65-66 and in the paragraph about French and American management styles on page 52. B. Review the topic sentence practice (Practice 5) on page 64. Find two topic sen tences that could indicate comparison/contrast order. Review 1 1 Prewriting PRACTICE These are the important points you should have learned from this chapter: 1. You can achieve coherence in writing by stating your ideas in logical order There are several kinds of logical order: chronological order, logical division o ideaslorder of importance, and comparison/contrast. 2. Each kind of logical order has special words and expressions, or transition signals that will support your logic. braistorming Essay brain questions Below is a list of fifteen possible essay questions that might be asked on a typical col- examination. The first five are general questions that might be asked on a college writing test. The last ten are specific to a field of study. Get together with a group of one or two other students and brainstorm: Which logical order might you use to answer each question-chronological order, logical division of ideaslorder of importance, or comparison/ contrast? 1. What do you hope to gain from your college education? a. Evaluate a significant experience or achievement that ha meaning for you.

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3. Discuss some issue of personal, local, national, or inter national concern and its importance to you. 4. Write about your idea of a perfect day. 5. How do you think the world will be different fifty years from now? What changes do you expect to witness? Part I Writing a Paragraph 6. Compare and contrast the relationship between the two pairs of lovers in Shakespeare's Much Ado about No 7. In James Joyce's novel Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man identify the three major incidents that affect Stephen Dedalus emotionally in Chapter 1. Which incident do you think changes him most? Why? a. Explain the electrical conductivity of an electrolyte solution. Use an example to illustrate. 9. Consider a mixture of 10 million 02 molecules and 20 million H2 molecules. In what way is this mixture similar to 20 million water molecules? In what way is it dissimilar? 10. Describe the steps necessary for a proposed bill to become a law in the United States. 11. Explain the cash and accrual methods of accounting. 12. Describe the procedure for taking a year-end inventory in a small retail business. 23. Discuss the goals of American foreign policy before and after the fall of the Berlin Wall. 14. Explain the differences between a sole proprietorship, a partnership, and a corporation. Is. Explain how a hurricane forms. WRITING Choose one of the suggested topics that follow and write a paragraph that is ten to PRACTICE fifteen sentences in length. Use logical division of ideas, order of importance, or com- parison and/or contrast to organize your ideas. Your instructor may wish to limit your choice in order to give you practice in a specific type of paragraph. Remember the steps in the writing process: STEP I Brainstorm a topic for ideas, using the listening, freewriting, or cluster Prewriting ing techniques you have learned. STEP 2 Develop an outline that includes a topic sentence and a concluding Planning sentence (if necessary). Underline them. STEP 3 Write a rough draft. Be sure to use transition signals. Writing STEP 4 Have a classmate check your draft against the Peer Editing Checklist. Editing STEP 5 Write a second draft, and proofread it for grammar and mechanics. Rewriting STEP 6 Write a final copy to hand in.

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II. Sentence Skills

Pronoun Reference, Agreement, and Point of View INTRODUCTORY PROJECT Read each pair of sentences below. Then see if you can choose the correct letter in each of the statements that follow. 1. a. None of the nominees for---bestactress- showed their anxiety as the names were being read. b. None of the nominees for -best actress- showed her anxiety as the names were being read. a. At the mall, they are already putting up Christmas decorations. b. At the mall, shop owners are already putting up Christmas decorations. a. 1 go to the steak house often because you can get inexpensive meals there. b. 1 go to the steak house often because 1 can get inexpensive meals there. in the first pair, (a, b) uses the underlined pronoun correctly because the pronoun refer to None, which is a singular word. in the second pair, (a, b) is correct because otherwise the pronoun reference would be unclear. is the third pair, (a, b) is correct because the pronoun point of view should not be straited unnecessarily. 105 106 Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns person places. or things In fact, the word pronoun means for a noun. Pronouns are shortcuts that keep from unnecessarily repeating words in writing. Here are some examples -4 pronouns: Martha shampooed her dog. (Her is a pronoun that takes the place of Martha.) As the door swung open, it creaked. (It replaces door.) When the motorcyclists arrived at McDonald's, they removed their helmets (They and their replace motorcyclists.) This section presents rules that will help you avoid three common mistakes people make with pronouns. The rules are as follows: I A pronoun must refer clearly to the word it replaces. 2 A pronoun must agree in number with the word or words it replaces. 3 Pronouns should not shift unnecessarily in point of view. PRONOUN REFERENCE

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A sentence may be confusing and unclear if a pronoun appears to refer to more than one word, or if the pronoun does not refer to any specific word. Look at this sentence: We never buy fresh vegetables at that store, because they charge too much. Who charges too much? There is no specific word that they refers to. Be clear: We never buy fresh vegetables at that store, because the owners charge too much. Here are sentences with other kinds of faulty pronoun reference. Read the explanations of why they are faulty and look carefully at the ways they are corrected. Faulty Clear Lola told Gina that she had gained Lola told Gina, "You've gained weight. weight. " (Who had gained weight: Lola or (Quotation marks, which can some- Gina? Be clear.) times be used to correct an unclear reference, are explained on page 168.) PRONOUN REFERENCE, AGREEMENT, AND POINT OF VIEW 107 Faulty Clear My older brother is an electrician, My older brother is an electrician, but I'm not interested in it. but I'm not interested in becoming (There is no specific word that it one. refers to. It would not make sense to say, "I'm not interested in elec- trician. ") Our teacher did not explain the I was angry that the teacher did not assignment, which made me angry. explain the assignment. (Does which mean that the teacher's failure to explain the assignment made you angry, or that the assign- itself made you angry? Be clear.) Rewrite each of the following sentences to make clear the vague pronoun reference. Add, change, or omit words as necessary. Example Lana thanked Rita for the gift, which was very thoughtful of her. Lana thanked Rita for the thoughtful gift. 1. At the gas station, they told us one of our tires looked soft. 2. Nora dropped the heavy ashtray on her foot and broke it. 3. Ann asked for a grade transcript at the registrar's office, and they told her it would cost three dollars. -4. Don't touch the freshly painted walls with your hands unless they're dry.

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108 SENTENCE SKILLS 5. Maurice stays up half the night watching Chiller Theater, which really annoys his wife. 6. Robin went to the store's personnel office, where they are interviewing for sales positions. 7. Matt told his brother that he needed to lose some weight. 8. 1 wrote to the insurance company, but they haven't answered my letters. 9. Because my eyes were itchy and bloodshot, I went to the doctor to see what he could do about it. 10. 1 took the loose pillows off the chairs and sat on them. PRONOUN AGREEMENT A pronoun must agree in number with the word or words it replaces. If the word a pronoun refers to is singular, the pronoun must be singular; if the word is plural, the pronoun must be plural. (Note that the word a pronoun refers to is known as the antecedent.) Lola agreed to lend her Billy Joel albums. The gravediggers sipped coffee duringebreak. In the first example, the pronoun her refers to the singular word Lola; in the second example, the pronoun their refers to the plural word gravediggers. PRONOUN REFERENCE, AGREEMENT, AND POINT OF VIEW 109 p .7 ractice Write the appropriate pronoun (they, their, them, it) in the blank space in each of the following sentences. Example My credit cards got me into debt, so I burned 1. 1 peeled off my sweaty bandanna and dipped into the cool stream. 2. Jamie sanded the cabinets and coated with clear varnish.

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3. Since my parents retired, have started to share the household chores. 4. Waiting in the stalled schoolbus, the children threw books out the windows and lobbed potato chips at each other. 5. The dog pawed at the flower and p oiled out of the ground. finite Pronouns The following words, known as indefinite pronouns, are always singular: (-one words) (-body words) one nobody each anyone anybody either everyone everybody neither someone somebody Either of the apartments has its drawbacks One of the girls lost her skateboard. Everyone in the class must hand in i paper tomorrow. In each example, the pronoun is singular because it refers to one of the indefinite pronouns. There are two important points to remember about indefinite pronouns. 10 SENTENCE SKILLS Point 1: In the last example above, if the job applicants were all female, 1 pronoun would be her. If the students were a mixed group of men and worn( the pronoun form would be his or her: Everyone in the class must hand in his or her paper tomorrow. Some writers follow the traditional practice of using his to refer to both and women. Some use his or her to avoid an implied sexual bias. Perhaps 1 best practice, though, is to avoid using either his or the somewhat awkward j or her. This can be done by rewriting a sentence in the plural: All students in the class must hand in their papers tomorrow. Here are some examples of sentences that can be rewritten in the plural: A young child is seldom willing to share her toys with others. Young children are seldom willing to share their toys with others. Anyone who does not wear his seatbelt will be fined. People who do not wear their seatbelts will be fined. A newly elected politician should not forget his or her campaign promise Newly elected politicians should not forget their campaign promises. Point 2 : In informal spoken English, plural pronouns are often used with 1 indefinite pronouns. Instead of saying

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Everybody has his or her own idea of an ideal vacation. we are likely to say Everybody has their own idea of an ideal vacation. Here are other examples: Everyone in the class must pass in their papers. Everybody in our club has their own idea about how to raise money. No one in our family skips their chores. In such cases, the indefinite pronouns are clearly plural in meaning. Also, 1 use of such plurals helps people to avoid the awkward his or her. In time, 1 plural pronoun may be accepted in formal speech or_ writing. Until that happen however, you should use the grammatically correct singular form in your writing PRONOUN REFERENCE, AGREEMENT, AND POINT OF VIEW 111 P ractice Underline the correct pronoun. Example Neither of those houses has (its, their) own garage. 1 . Girls! Did everyone remember to bring (her, their) insect repellent? 2. Anyone can pass our men's physical education course if (he, they) will laugh at all the instructor's jokes. 3. Each of the jockeys wore (his, their) own distinctive racing silks. 4. Neither of the relief pitchers was able to get (his, their) curve ball across. 5. If any student wants to apply for the scholarship offered by the women's college, (she, they) will need two recommendations. 6. Either type of video recording system has (its, their) drawbacks. 7. Each woman rushed to pick up (her, their) forms and secure a place in line. 8. Three boys were suspected, but nobody would confess to leaving (his, their) fingerprints all over the window. 9. All women leaving the room should pick up (her, their) lab reports. 10. During the fire, any one of those men could have lost (his, their) balance on that narrow ]edge. N POINT OF VIEW Pronouns should not shift their point of view unnecessarily. When writing a paper, be consistent in your use of first-, second-, or third-person pronouns. Type of Pronoun Singular Plural First-person pronouns 1 (my, mine, me) we (our, us) Second-person pronouns you (your) you (your) Third-person pronouns he (his, him) they (their, them) she (her) it (its)

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Note: Any person, place, or thing, as well as any indefinite pronoun like one, anyone, someone, and so on (page 109), is a third-person word. For instance, if you start writing in the first person I, don't jump suddenly to the second person you. Or if you are writing in the third person they, don't Shift unexpectedly to you. Look at the examples. Inconsistent Consistent One reason that I like living in the One reason that I like living in the city is that you always have a wide city is that I always have a wide choice of sports events to attend. choice of sports events to attend. (The most common mistake people make is to let a you slip into their writing after they start with another pronoun.) Someone dieting should have the Someone dieting should have the help of friends; you should also have help of friends; one (or he or she) plenty of willpower. should also have plenty of will- power. Students who work while they are Students who work while they are going to school face special prob- going to school face special prob- lems. For one thing, you seldom lems For one thing, they seldom have enough study time. have enough study time. Cross out inconsistent pronouns in the following sentences and write the correction above the error. me Example I work much better when the boss doesn't hover over V< with instructions on what to do. 1. As we drove through the Pennsylvania countryside, you saw some of the horse-drawn buggies used by the Amish people. 2. One of the things I like about the comer store is that you can buy homemade sausage there. 3. In our family, we had to learn to keep our bedrooms neat before you were given an allowance. 4. No matter how hard we may be working, the minute you relax, the supervisor will be watching, PRONOUN REFERENCE AGREEMENT, AND POINT OF VIEW 113 5. People shouldn't discuss cases outside of court if you serve on a jury. 6. As I read the daily papers, you get depressed by all the violent crime occurring in this country. 7. 1 never eat both halves of a hamburger bun, because you save calories that way. 8. If someone started a bakery or doughnut shop in this town, you could make a lot of money. 9. Fran likes to shop at the factory outlet because you can buy discount clothing there. 10. 1 can't wait for summer, when you can stop wearing heavy coats and itchy sweaters. Review Test 1

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Underline the correct word in the parentheses. I Leon spent all morning bird-watching and didn't see a single (one, bird). 2. Of the six men on the committee, no one was prepared to give (his, their) report, so the deadline was extended. 3. If a student in that women's college wants to get a good schedule, (she, you) must enroll as soon as possible. 4. Neither of the luncheonettes near our office has a very wide choice of sandwiches on (its, their) menu. 5. My father has cut down on salt because it can give (you, him) high blood pressure. 6. Well, gentlemen, if anyone objects to the plan, (he, they) should speak up now. I put my wet umbrella on the porch until (it, the umbrella) was dry. I don't like that fast-food restaurant, because (they, the employees) are inefficient. Doctors make large salaries, but (you, they) often face the pressure of dealing A with life and death. PC, After eight hours in the cramped, stuffy car, I was glad (it, the trip) was -, er Review Test 2 Cross out the pronoun error in each sentence and write the correction above the error. People Examples anyone turning in their papers late will be penalized. Paul When Clyde takes his son Paul to the park, he enjoys himself. We From where we stood, you could see three states. I . In our company, you have to work for one year before getting vacation time. 2. Amy signed up for a word processing course because she heard they are in demand. 3. The Pancake House was closed, so we could not have some for dinner. 4. Since no student did well on their quiz, the grades will be dropped. 5. Eric visited the counseling center because they can help him straighten out his schedule. 6. If anyone wants a tryout, they should he at the gym at four o'clock. 7. After Lee put cheese slices on the hamburgers, the dog ate them. 8. If people feel that they are being discriminated against in jobs or housing, you should contact the appropriate federal agency. 9. Norma told her neighbor that her house needed a new coat of paint. 10. One of the actors forgot their lines and tried to ad-lib. Hint: Rewrite items 4 and 6 in the plural.

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Four Traditional Sentence matter Sentences have been traditionally described in English as being simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex. This section explains and offers practice in all four sentence types. The section also describes coordination and subordination the two central techniques you can use to achieve different kinds of emphasis in your writing. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE A simple sentence has a single subject-verb combination. Children play The game ended early. My car stalled three times last week. The lake has been polluted by several neighboring streams. A simple sentence may have more than one subject: Lola and Tony drove home. The wind and water dried my hair. or more than one verb: The children smiled and waved at us. The lawn mower smoked and sputtered or several subjects and verbs: Manny, Moe, and Jack lubricated my car, replaced the oil filter, and cleaned the spark plugs. On separate paper, write: Three sentences with a single subject and verb Three sentences with a single subject and a double verb Three sentences with a double subject and a single verb In each case, underline the subject once and the verb twice. (See page 10 if necessary for more information on subjects and verbs.) THE COMPOUND SENTENCE A compound, or "double," sentence is made up of two (or more) simple sentences. The two complete statements in a compound sentence are usually connected by a comma plus a joining word (and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet). A compound sentence is used when you want to give equal weight to two closely related ideas. The technique of showing that ideas have equal importance is called coordination. Following are some compound sentences. Each sentence contains two ideas that the writer considers equal in importance. The rain increased, so the officials canceled the game.

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Martha wanted to go shopping, but Fred refused to drive her. Tom was watching television in the family room, and Marie was upstairs on the phone. I had to give up wood carving, for my arthritis had become very painful. Activity 1 Combine the following pairs of simple sentences into compound sentences. Use a comma and a logical joining word (and, but, for, so) to connect each pair. Note: If you are not sure what and, but, for, and so mean, review pages 40-41. Example We hung up the print. The wall still looked bare. We hung 4 the print, but the wall still looked bare. I I am studying computer science. My sister is majoring in communications. 2. The children started hitting each other. I made them turn off the TV. 3. Betsy put masking tape on her forehead at night. She wanted to stop wrinkles from forming. 4. The pizza was covered with salty anchovies and pepperoni. He picked up the salt shaker as usual. 5. She felt faint. She grabbed the metal lamppost. Activity 2 On separate paper, write five compound sentences of your own. Use a different joining word (and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet) to connect the two complete ideas in each sentence. A complex sentence is made up of a simple sentence (a complete statement a statement that begins with a dependent word.* Here is a list of list of dependent words: after if, even if when, whenever although, though in order that where, wherever as since whether

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because that, so that which, whichever before unless while even though until who how what, whatever whose A complex sentence is used when you want to emphasize one idea over another in a sentence. Look at the following complex sentence: Because I forgot the time, I missed the final exam. The idea that the writer wishes to emphasize here I missed the final exam-is expressed as a complete thought. The less important idea-Because I forgot the time-is subordinated to the complete thought The technique of giving one idea 9 less emphasis than another is called subordination. Following are other examples of complex sentences. In each case, the part starting with the dependent word is the less emphasized part of the sentence. While Sue was eating breakfast, she began to feel sick. I checked my money before I invited Tom for lunch. When Jerry lost his temper, he also lost his job. Although I practiced for three months, I failed my driving test. The two parts of a complex sentence are sometimes called an independent clause and a dependent clause. A clause is simply a word group that contains a subject and a verb. An independent clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone. A dependent clause does not express a complete thought in itself and "depends on" the independent clause to complete its meaning. Dependent clauses always begin with a dependent or subordinating word. Use logical dependent words to combine the following pairs of simple sentences into complex sentences. Place a comma after a dependent statement when it starts the sentence. Examples I obtained a credit card. I began spending money recklessly. When I obtained a credit carat, I began spending money recklessly. Alan dressed the turkey. His brother greased the roasting pot. Alan dressed the turkey while his brother greased Me roasting pot. I . The movie disgusted Karen. She walked out after twenty minutes. 2. The house had been burglarized. Dave couldn't sleep soundly for several months. 3. My vision begins to fade. I know I'd better get some sleep.

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4. The family would need a place to sleep. Fred told the movers to unload the mattresses first. 5. The hurricane hit the coast. We crisscrossed our windows with strong tape. ACTIVITY 2 Rewrite the following sentences, using subordination rather than Include a comma when a dependent statement starts a sentence. Example The hair dryer was not working right, so 1 returned it to the Because Me hair dryer was not working right, 1 returned Me store 1. The muffler shop advertised same-day service, but my car wasn't three days. 2. The high blood pressure pills produced dangerous side effects. so government banned them. 3. Phil lopped dead branches off the tree, and Michelle stacked on the ground below. 4. Anne wedged her handbag tightly under her arm, for she was afraid muggers. 5. Ellen counted the cash three times, but the total still didn't tally with the amount on the register tape. ACTIVITY 3 Combine the simple sentences on the opposite page into complex sentence-, Omit repeated words. Use the dependent words who, which, or that. Note The word who refers to persons. The word which refers to things. The word that refers to persons or things. Use commas around the dependent statement only if it seems to interrupt the flow of thought in the sentence. (See also page 180.) ACTIVITY 2 Rewrite the following sentences, using subordination rather than Include a comma when a dependent statement starts a sentence. Example The hair dryer was not working right, so 1 returned it to the

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Because Me hair dryer was not working right, 1 returned Me store 1. The muffler shop advertised same-day service, but my car wasn't three days. 2. The high blood pressure pills produced dangerous side effects. so government banned them. 3. Phil lopped dead branches off the tree, and Michelle stacked on the ground below. 4. Anne wedged her handbag tightly under her arm, for she was afraid muggers. 5. Ellen counted the cash three times, but the total still didn't tally with the amount on the register tape. ACTIVITY 3 Combine the simple sentences on the opposite page into complex sentence-, Omit repeated words. Use the dependent words who, which, or that. Note The word who refers to persons. The word which refers to things. The word that refers to persons or things. Use commas around the dependent statement only if it seems to interrupt the flow of thought in the sentence. (See also page 180.) COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE The compound-complex sentence is made up of two (or more) simple -,fTM1 and one (or more) dependent statements. In the following examples. is under the simple sentences and a dotted line is under the dependent When the power line snapped, Jack was listening to the stereo. was reading in After I returned to school following a long illness, the math teacher me make- up p . work but the . the the . history teacher made me drop her course Read through each sentence to get a sense of its overall meaning. Then logical joining word (and, or, but, for, or so) and a logical dependency 4 (because, since, when, or although). he had worked at the construction site all day. decided not to meet his friends at the diner, he too tired to think. 2. the projector broke for a second time, some people

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the audience hissed, others shouted for a refund 3. Nothing could be done the river's floodwaters rece the townspeople waited helplessly in the emerge shelter. 4. you are sent damaged goods, the store must rep the items, it must issue a full refund. 5. Sears had the outdoor grill I wanted, the clerk would sell it to me it was the floor sample. ACTIVITY 2 On separate paper, write five compound-complex sentences. REVIEW OF COORDINATION AND SUBORDINATION Remember that coordination and subordination are ways of showing the exact relationship of ideas within a sentence. Through coordination we show that ideas are of equal importance. When we coordinate, we use the words and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet. Through subordination we show that one idea is less important than another. When we subordinate, we use dependent words like when, although, since, while, because, and after. A list of common dependent words is given on page 378. Use coordination or subordination to combine the groups of simple sentences on the next pages into one or more longer sentences. Omit repeated words. Since a variety of combinations is possible, you might want to jot several combinations on separate paper. Then read them aloud to find the combination that sounds best. Keep in mind that, very often, the relationship among ideas in a sentence will he clearer when subordination rather than coordination is used. Example My car is not starting on cold mornings. 1 think the battery needs to be replaced. 1 already had it recharged once. 1 don't think it would help to charge it again. Because my - V car is not starting oh cold mornings, 1 Mink the battey needs to be replaced. 1 already had it recharged once, so 1 don't think it would help to charge if again. Comma Hints a Use a comma at the end of a word group that starts with a dependent word (as in -Because my car is not starting on cold mornings, -). b. Use a comma between independent word groups connected by and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet (as in - 1 already had it recharged once, so . . . -). 1. 1 needed butter to make the cookie batter.

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I couldn't find any. I used vegetable oil instead. 2. Gina had worn glasses for fifteen years. She decided to get contact lenses. She would be able to see better. She would look more glamorous. 3. The children at the day-care center - took their naps. They unrolled their sleeping mats. They piled their shoes and sneakers in a comer. 4. Jack dialed the police emergency number. He received a busy signal. He dropped the phone and ran. He didn't have time to call back. 5. Louise disliked walking home from the bus stop. The street had no overhead lights. It was lined with abandoned buildings. 6. The rain hit the hot pavement. Plumes of steam rose from the blacktop. Cars slowed to a crawl. The fog obscured the drivers' vision. 7. His car went through the automated car wash. Harry watched from the sidelines. Floppy brushes slapped the car's doors. Sprays of water squirted onto the roof. 8. The pipes had frozen.

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The heat had gone off. We phoned the plumber. He couldn't come for two days. He had been swamped with emergency calls. My car developed an annoying rattle. 9. 1 took it to the service station. The mechanic looked under the hood. He couldn't find what was wrong. Bibliography

Chaplen, Frank. 1970. Paragraph Writing. London: Oxford University Press. Langan, John.1987. Sentence Skills (3rd ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill. Oshima, Alice and Ann Hogue. 1997. Writing Academic English (2nd ed.)London:

Longman