parenting environment and scholastic achievement during adolescence a retrospective study
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International Journal of Adolescence an
ISSN: 0267-3843 (Print) 2164-4527 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.
Parenting Environment and ScholastAchievement During Adolescence: A
Study
Toon W. Taris & Inge A. Bok
To cite this article: Toon W. Taris & Inge A. Bok (1996) Parenting EnviAchievement During Adolescence: A Retrospective Study, Internationand Youth, 6:3, 223-244
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02673843.1996.974
Copyright Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Published online: 27 Mar 2012.
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IntertUlticnull Journal o Adolescence
and
Youth
1996,
Vo
0267-3843/96 10
© 1996 A B Academic Publishers
Printed
n
Great Britain
Parenting Environment and
Achievement
During
Adole
Retrospective Study
Toon W. Taris* and Inge
A.
Bok
Department o
Social
Psychology Free University Amste
ABSTRACT
The current paper examines how two parenting styl
parents provided an overly protective environment,
environment) relate to educational achievement. We ex
loving upbringing and an upbringing that is not over
tribute to success at school.
Data on th educational careers of
986
Dutch adult
gathered both retrospectively and longitudinally. The
using structural equation modelling. The results partly
tions: respondents who felt that their parents provi
upbringing dropped out less frequently than others wh
tective parents was associated with a longer stay at sch
education when leaving full-time education, even afteo a d e d b y [ 1 7
5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2
0 1 6
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224
under-age sex (among others: Barnes
and
Farr
Jessor, 1974; Steinberg,
1990;
Taris and Semin,
novelist
may
find inspiration in personal ex
matters, we know that for many other
behaviours just signal the beginning of
problems, extending into adolescence
and
ev
Weiner,
1982 .
The current
paper
presents the results of a
regarding the impact of (perceived) parental
upon educational career patterns, among a re
of 986 Dutch adults.
t
the core of this
study
that the development of a child's educational
good parenting styles (i.e., whether the
warm, loving,
and
not overly protective
Heesink,
1992;
Parker, Tupling
and
Brown
Thomas, 1979 . Though many studies addr
between the parenting environment and sch
(e.g., Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts,
Gottfried, Fleming
and
Gottfried, 1994; Groln
Grolnick, Ryan
and
Deci,
1991;
inter alia)
leaves two issues open for discussion. First
earlier studies is usually on
children
rather th
notable exception is Steinberg, Elmen and
during
adolescence the ties between parents
a
increasingly looser. As such, one may wonde
and
consistent influence of parental practi
upon
scholastic achievement reported
generalises to older populations.
Second, the dependent variables in many
o a d e d b y [ 1 7
5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2
0 1 6
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To obtain answers to these
and
other qu
several outcome variables in our study. Spec
upon
the relation between the parenting en
following four educational outcomes:
1)
initi
i.e. the level of education chosen after
education (usually at age
12).
In the Nether
have completed their primary education
m
two main levels of education. These t
differential labour market opportunities: su
lowest level of education (four years) are in
become blue collar workers, while the highe
(which takes six years to complete) prepar
university study. Appendix A provides a sho
Dutch educational system;
2)
number of
dropped out
(i.e., the number of times one
particular type of education, without receivin
educational qualification; after dropping ou
one's education
on
a lower level or on the
different direction; 3) level of education ob
full-time education;
and 4)
the total am
attending full-time education.
Below
we
first provide a short review of ea
relation between parenting styles
and
educati
Then
we
briefly discuss the impact of othe
upon
educational careers, after which a mo
links family variables (including parenting
outcome variables mentioned above.
o a d e d b y [ 1 7
5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2
0 1 6
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226
Rollins and Thomas,
1979;
Gottfried et al., 1
1991).
Grolnick and colleagues (Grolnick and Ry
al., 1991) proposed that parents contrib
resources of achievement of their children,
two ways. First, parents high in autonomy su
low
on
control/overprotection) would allo
develop a sense of themselves as the locus
actions (thus promoting more perceived
perceptions of competence, and higher co
Secondly, children of highly involved paren
are interested
in,
knowledgeable about, and
to their
children a
subset of behaviours be
involvement dimension) would
feel
more
greater control understanding, and more a
tional orientations than will those of les
Grolnick et al. 1991) were able to show t
indeed promoted or forestalled deve
motivational resources, which in
tum
i
performance. Thus, it appears that the often
between parenting styles and academic
Dornbusch et al.,
1987;
Rollins and Thomas, 1
must be interpreted in terms of motivationa
Other family-related variables, and proble
Apart from parenting styles, the literature i
o a d e d b y [ 1 7
5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2
0 1 6
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consumption (Taris
and
Semin, 1996). T
subsumed
under
SES
are a potentially pot
adolescent problem behaviour. Consistent wi
1982) showed in his meta-analytic review t
low socio-economic background usually obta
middle-
and
upper-class children. Children
class feel also less positive towards school
Regarding achievement motivations, Harve
reported that eighth-graders already showe
differences in their aspirations: those from
tended to have relatively high educational go
at prestige occupations, whereas those from
tended to have resigned themselves to less e
job status. Thus, in
our
study we expected t
level of education would covary positivel
parents from lower social class tend to plac
educational attainment cf. Katz, 1967), we h
level of education chosen after completing pri
the number of times dropped out would als
Living
with
single
parent
A substantial num
shown
that adolescents not living with both b
significantly more likely to be involved in
than
adolescents not living with both parent
Snarey, 1993),
and
that children's educat
significantly lower in one-parent families (D
1969; Astone
and
McLanagan,
1994;
Hause
There are several interpretations of this e
relative importance is unknown. Newcome
suggested that when a marriage is in the pro
o a d e d b y [ 1 7
5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2
0 1 6
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228
Personality: Sensation
seeking
The factors d
only account for
part
of the variance in
patterns, as individual difference variable
were excluded. A personality factor that is e
the
study
of educational problem behavio
which a person is a sensation seeker (Zuck
people pursue changes in their lives; they val
complex sensations and experiences and
physical
and
social risks for the sake of such
in
the context of employment careers it h
sensation seekers are usually less satisfied
more often,
and
they even experience m
changes (in terms of salary and job status) t
sensation seeking (e.g., Adler and Weiss,
19
Taris, 1994). We are not aware of any resear
seeking to the development of education
evidence touched
upon
above suggests tha
would
be
more prone to drop out of school,
need more time to obtain
an
equal education
non-sensation seekers. As such, it is of in
measure of sensation seeking in this study a
Educational career patterns
and
parenting s
Figure 1 presents a model that describes th
among family-bound
and
other back
variables discussed above,
and
the four
o a d e d b y [ 1 7
5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a
t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2
0 1 6
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background
variables:
parental home
SES
father
present
-parenting
styles
background
variables:
adolescent
sex
age
-sensation
seeking
level
of
education
at age 12
Figure
1.
The model to be tested in this study
and
the initial level of education chosen after
education, as the level one chooses will dete
o a d e d b y [ 1 7
5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a
t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2
0 1 6
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230
METHOD
ample
The data were gathered in a two-wave pan
wave was
conducted
during
fall/winter 1987
of 1775 young Dutch adults, evenly divid
cohorts (1961, 1965
and
1969), as well as
interviewed at their homes
by
trained interv
structured interview schedule. Topics of
attitudes, opinions,
and
behaviour with res
domains, such as relationships, employme
family formation. Additionally, the subjects
written questionnaire.
The second wave of the
study
(an almost
the first wave) was conducted exactly four
wave (fall/winter 1991/92). About
70
of the
also participated in this wave. Analysis o
showed that higher-educated were slight
participate in the second wave than others,
finding in survey research cf. Goyder's
[1
regard to other variables (including socio-eco
employment status, gender,
and
age)
no
im
were found.
During both waves information was c
number, nature,
and
timing of changes o
mentioned above, by means of retrospect
enabled
us
to re-create a fairly precise reco
o a d e d b y [ 1 7
5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a
t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2
0 1 6
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secondary education (i.e., at age 12), and the m
time education and did not return for at least
Level of
education when
leaving full time
ed
education at age 12 We distinguished betw
education, ranging from low (lower secondar
(e.g., college/university education,
cf.
Appen
education reached when leaving full-time edu
1 to 5, the level of education at age
12
range
Number of times of dropping out In the
people often find out that the type of educati
does not match their capacities or interests.
may decide somewhere half-term that the
complete this type of education: they drop
lack of interest is also among the major cau
Weiner, 1982). This does not mean that the
school at some later stage. Indeed, the numb
subjects dropped out in this way varied bet
some subjects tried again as often as five time
rather skew (skewness 1.35, mean .80). To
relating to the non-normal distribution of
computed its natural logarithm, yielding an u
ness of .26.
Family background variables This cluster o
several of the variables that have been shown
problem behaviour in general and educatio
particular. First, we included a variable ind
father
of the
child
was
present
in the family du
years of the child's life. Second, we include
o a d e d b y [ 1 7
5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a
t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2
0 1 6
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232
appeared to understand
my
problems
a
affectionate to me ,
and
did
not
understan
wanted , respectively (with scores 1 very
unlike ). All three items had to be judged
mother separately, yielding a total of six respo
of this six-item scale a.)
was
.82.
Similarl
selected to represent the protection
invaded
my
privacy , tried to make me
him ,
and
was overprotective of me (with
and
4 very unlike ). Again, all items
had
to
parents, resulting in another six responses. T
scale was
.74.
f
the responses for one o
missing, the remaining responses were us
subject's score
on
these variables.
Adolescent background variables
This c
included the subject's
age and sex
Additional
scales tapping the degree to which subjects
sensation seeking (Zuckerman, 1979), name
boredom susceptibility.
Disinhibition
is the ne
unhibited social activities with or without t
(other) drugs. Typical items of this six-item
wild parties and
I
feel good when I ha
drinks ,
and
its reliability was
.71.
Boredom
aversion to repetitive experience, routine w
people (Feij, Van Kampen, Van
den
Berg
Typical items were I quickly lose interest in
always remain the same ,
and
I would lik
allows me to see the world . The reliability o
was .81.
Disinhibition
and
Boredom
o a d e d b y [ 1 7
5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a
t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2
0 1 6
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Preliminary analyses revealed that the mea
the latent construct sensation seeking co
retained. Then we proceeded by estimating t
in
Figure 1, yielding a chi-square value
NNFI = 91. Though the chi-square value is
be due to the large sample size Bentler
Therefore, we attached more value to the NN
relatively independent from sample size
McDonald, 1988). As Bentler nd Bonett
198
a NNFI of less than
.90
may well be sub
Applying their rule of thumb, there is no
model. Non-significant paths were stepwisely
final model with a X
2
-value of 44.46 with 22 df
these values were acceptable given the samp
Moderator
analysis:
the
role of
gender.
A
suggested that the relations between the exp
the current study nd the outcome vari
education) might be different for males and f
Rollins
nd
Thomas, 1979), we examined the
relations among the variables were different
comparing the variance-covariance matric
females, using the
LISREL
multi-sample
Sorbom, 1993). We did not find significant
the covariance matrices for males and female
63.51,
>
.05).
Thus, it appeared that the rol
regarding the development of educational c
for both sexes.
o a d e d b y [ 1 7
5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a
t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2 0 1 6
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234
TABLE 1
Standardized least squares estimates for the
(N = 986, X
with 22 df = 44.46, NNF
duration of final level num
attending
of
t
variables school education drop
final level of
education
.28
...
number of times
dropped out .16 -.16
level of education
at age 12
.43
f mily
background variables
father present (high = present)
SES
.18
parents were
overprotective .07 -.10
parents cared .08 -
adolescent background variables
age .60
sex (high = male) .07 .07
sensation seeking-
.09 .11
Rz
.44 .36
•Latent variable, loading of Disinhibition = .86 (
purposes), loading of Boredom Susceptibility= .57 .
o a d e d b y [ 1 7
5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a
t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2 0 1 6
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(an effect of .08,
.05).
The variables inc
account for 44 percent of the variance in the d
school.
Table 1 shows that the level of education a
predictor of
final
level
o
education a standar
Subjects who dropped
out
often were more li
educational qualification than others. Males a
were likely to have a relatively high level of e
the effects of the family background variab
status had a profound influence on level
001),
even though SES also affected level
12.
Thus, SES had a lasting effect upon educa
·Finally, we found a small but significant n
overprotective parenting style (-.10,
overprotective parents may exert a negative
child s educational achievement.
Taken together, the variables in the model ac
of the variance in level of education. E
considerably lower than the figure mentioned
1995), we still consider this as satisfactory.
The number o times dropped
out
increased sl
education chosen after completing primary
.07,
.05). Thus, it appeared that some
secondary education at a level that demands
Older subjects
had
dropped out more often
due
to the fact that older subjects were in th
time; thus, they had more opportunity to dr
Regarding the family background variabl
o a d e d b y [ 1 7
5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a
t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2 0 1 6
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236
Together, these variables account for 24 perce
initial level of education.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
All in all, our study provided good suppor
that family variables in general
and
parentin
are systematically related to children s
patterns. However, the influence of in
variables on these career patterns must
underestimated.
Family
variables Earlier studies reported th
presence of the father) and educational achie
connected; our results supported these find
current
study
extends these findings by iden
that
mediate
the relationship between presen
educational achievement. Indeed, after c
education at age 12
and
the number of tim
direct effect between family status
and
remained. As indicated above, several expla
the explanation of these effects of presence
father may be a key figure in the transmissio
al., 1983); (b) the father may act as a deterre
to engaging in school-related problem behav
out); or c) that a single mother may be les
child s behaviour, possibly because she
emotional/practical problems.
Our
data cann
as to whether which of these interpretations io a d e d b y [ 1 7 5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a
t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2 0 1 6
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tend to stress educational achievement more
class parents (e.g., Katz,
1967).
As such,
SES
an outer resource of achievement (in con
al.'s, 1991, inner resources of achievement
Finally, we found that the two parenting s
were systematically related to three of
variables. In accordance with our expectation
parenting style was associated with a lowe
and a longer stay at school, apparently h
resources of achievement . The negative effe
loving parenting style
on
the number of tim
be interpreted
in
a similar fashion. What is re
is that the latter parenting style is also asso
duration of attending school, rather than a sh
initially expected. There are two alternative
finding. First, the correlation matrix in Appen
correlation between this parenting style and d
school is only -.01,
ns
Thus, it is likely that
a suppressor effect, caused by the high cor
two parenting styles
r
=
-.39, p < .001, se
second, more substantive, interpretation ma
may
indicate a hidden liability of childr
parenting environment. They may illustra
phenomenon (Bandura,
1979;
Seligman, 19
privileged parenting environment may wea
ness below the level necessary to perform w
Adolescent
background
variables
As already
effects of age
on
the duration of attending sc
o a d e d b y [ 1 7 5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a
t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2 0 1 6
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238
styles are different for boys and girls. Howev
is not so much the
mount
of control and l
that determines the differentials regarding e
ment,
but
rather what type of v lues the
children.
Finally, we found that sensation seeking
related to three of our four dependent m
seekers entered the system of secondary ed
higher level than non-sensation seekers;
education was also higher (note that earlier
1979;
Zuckerman, 1979 reported that sen
intelligence are positively correlated, imply
dealing here with the effect of ability, not pe
needed more time to complete their educati
stands out is that the only effect we did not fi
positive effect of sensation seeking on th
dropped out. There is no obvious explanati
Appendix B shows that the correlations bet
times one dropped out and the two indi
seeking are in the expected direction, but very
it appears that the effect of sensation seeking
times one dropped out is simply not strong
Limitations of the study
One obvious limitation of the current study
styles were subjectively and retrospectively m
o a d e d b y [ 1 7 5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a
t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2 0 1 6
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parenting behaviours and the development
careers, at least not during the interview itse
Second, as data from two waves were avai
the time one-time two development of the ed
those subjects who were still attending sch
perceived parenting styles, as measured at tim
comparable pattern of effects, though the
parameters was considerably lower due to a
less variance in the dependent variables. Thu
results reported above were not severely bia
temporal problems in the measurement of th
Regarding the possible objection that we
parenting styles instead of more objective m
educational achievement patterns, we
mu
children's perceptions of parenting styles are
correlated with parents' own ratings of their
not as highly as one would desire: see for exa
1991); and (b) that in explaining school ac
have argued that precisely the children's
ow
view of their parenting environment is wh
(e.g., Bronfenbrenner,
1977).
Stated differen
weakness from one view may be a strength fr
we would expect that actual parenting beha
educational achievement only indirectly,
parenting behaviours (and other possi
variables, cf. Grolnick et al., 1991). Thus, there
discount our results on the basis of using per
objective measures.o a d e d b y [ 1 7 5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a
t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2 0 1 6
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240
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242
APPENDIX A
An overview of the Dutch educational syste
Figure 2 presents a simplified flow diag
complicated Dutch educational system, wit
finesses.
primary
education
higher secondary
education
(5-6 years)
lower secondary
education, some
vocational training
(4 years)
•
L
_..:.....:.t
I
I
---t••
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school and
pre-university
training.
This type of
to six years to complete,
and
it is attend
primary education. The fourth level,
profes
takes four years to complete
and
is a n
completing either intermediate or higher sec
fifth level is the
univ rsity degree.
Subjects w
either higher secondary school and pre-un
have obtained a professional college degree
enter at this level.
Figure 2 shows clearly that subjects starti
level of education can in principle reach the h
this will take a considerable amount of time
who
fail to obtain a particular educational d
at
a lower level, or at the same level
but
in
i.e., a biology undergraduate may feel tha
more interesting
and
switch from one stud
level, different direction).
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2 0 1 6
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