part 4: leading 1 chapter 8 foundations of individual and group behavior...
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Part 4: LeadingPart 4: Leading
Chapter 8Chapter 8
Foundations of Individual and Group Foundations of Individual and Group BehaviorBehavior
個人與群體行為的基礎個人與群體行為的基礎
Foundations of Individual and Group Foundations of Individual and Group BehaviorBehavior
個人與群體行為的基礎個人與群體行為的基礎
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OutlineOutline1. Organizational behavior組織行為2. Individual Behavior個人行為
• Attitudes and their components態度• Personality and its use性格• Perception and how it can be shaped知覺
• Learning: shaping employee behavior學習
3. Group behavior群體行為
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心若改變 .... 你的態度跟著改變 ~ 態度改變 .... 你的習慣跟著改變 ~~ 習慣改變 .... 你的性格跟著改變 ~~~ 性格改變 .... 你的人生跟著改變 ~~~~
態度決定高度性格決定格局腦袋決定口袋
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Organizational Behavior (OB)Organizational Behavior (OB) 組織行為組織行為
• The study of the actions of people at work• The focus of OB
– Individual behaviors 個人行為。包括態度、人格特性、知覺、學習和動機
• Personality, perception, learning, and motivation
– Group behaviors 群體行為,包括規範、角色、團隊建立和衝突。
• Norms, roles, team-and conflict
• The goals of OB– To explain– To predict behavior OB
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The Organization as an Iceberg MetaphorThe Organization as an Iceberg Metaphor
EXHIBIT 8.1
態度
認知
規範
非正式互動
人際間與群體間之衝突
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OB’s InterestOB’s Interest
• Employee productivity 生產力– The efficiency and effectiveness of employees
• Absenteeism 曠職– The election by employees not to attend work
• Turnover 離職– The exit of an employee from an organization
• Organizational citizenship 組織的優質員工– Employee behaviors that promote the welfare
of the organization
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• K N O W L E D G E 11 + 14 + 15 + 23 + 12 + 5 + 4 + 7 + 5 = 96
• H A R D W O R K 8 + 1 + 18 + 4 + 23 + 15 + 18 + 11 = 98
• A T T I T U D E 1 + 20 + 20 + 9 + 20 + 21 + 4 + 5 = 100
• B U L L S H I T
2 + 21 + 12 + 12 + 19 + 8 + 9 + 20 = 103
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AttitudesAttitudes 態度態度• Valuative statements concerning objects,
people, or events 對於某些物品、人物、事件所作的評價
• 三要素( components) :– Cognitive component認知要素
• The beliefs, opinions, knowledge, and information held by a person 一個人所持有的信念、意見、知識或資訊
– Affective component情感要素• The emotional, or feeling, segment of an attitude 某種態度在
情緒或感情上的因素– Behavioral component行為要素
• An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something 針對某些人或事所表現出的一特定行為意圖。
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Job-related AttitudesJob-related Attitudes• Job satisfaction 工作滿意度
– An employee’s general attitude toward his or her job.
• Job involvement 工作參與– The degree to which an employee identifies with
his or her job, actively participates in it, and considers his or her job performance important for self-worth.
• Organizational commitment 組織付出– An employee’s orientation toward the organization
in terms of his or her loyalty to, identification with, and involvement in the organization.
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PersonalityPersonality 性格性格• Combination of the psychological traits 心理
特質 that characterize that person.
• Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)– A method of identifying personality types uses
four dimensions of personality to identify 16 different personality types
• Big Five model– Five-factor model of personality that includes
extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience
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Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
• Extroversion versus introversion (EI) 外向vs. 內向– An individual’s orientation toward the external
world of the environment (E) or the inner world of ideas (I).
• Sensing versus intuitive (SN) 感官 vs. 直覺– An individual’s preference on gathering data
focusing routine facts (S) or on the big picture among the facts (N).
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Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) (cont’d)(cont’d)
• Thinking versus feeling (TF) 思考 vs. 感覺– One’s preference for evaluating information in a
logical and analytical manner (T) or on the basis of values and beliefs (F).
• Judging versus perceiving (JP). 判斷 vs. 認知– Reflects an attitude toward the external world that
is either in a planned and ordered way 講求規畫及順序 (J) or preferring to remain flexible and spontaneous 保持彈性或順其自然 (P).
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Characteristics Frequently Associated with Myers-Briggs Characteristics Frequently Associated with Myers-Briggs TypesTypes
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The Big Five Model of PersonalityThe Big Five Model of PersonalityExtroversion 外向性 A personality dimension that describes the degree to
which someone is sociable, talkative, and assertive.
Agreeableness A personality dimension that describes the degree to which someone is good-natured, cooperative, and trusting.
Conscientiousness A personality dimension that describes the degree to which someone is responsible, dependable, persistent, and achievement oriented.
Emotional stability A personality dimension that describes the degree to which someone is calm, enthusiastic, and secure (positive) or tense, nervous, depressed, and insecure (negative).
Openness to experience A personality dimension that describes the degree to which someone is imaginative, artistically sensitive, and intellectual.
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五大性格模式五大性格模式 • 外向性格構面:描述一個人喜好社交、交談與專斷程
度。• 適合性格構面:描述一個人良好本質、合作性與信任
程度。• 正直性格構面:描述一個人負責、可信賴、堅毅與成
就取向程度。• 情緒穩定構面:描述一個人鎮靜、熱忱、穩定(正面
的)或壓力、緊張、沮喪及不安(負面的)的程度。• 對經驗的開放性格構面:描述一個人富想像力、對藝
術的敏感度與智力程度。
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Emotional intelligence (EI)Emotional intelligence (EI) 情緒智商 情緒智商 or or EQEQ
• An assortment of noncognitive skills, capabilities, and competencies that influence a person’s ability to cope with environmental demands and pressures
– Self-awareness own feelings
– Self-management of own emotions
– Self-motivation in face of setbacks
– Empathy for others’ feelings
– Social skills to handle others’ emotions
• 知覺自己情感• 自我管理情緒• 自我激勵面對
挫折• 同理心• 處理他人情緒
之社交技能
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Personality Traits And Work-related Personality Traits And Work-related BehaviorsBehaviors
• Locus of control– A personality attribute that measures the
degree to which people believe that they are masters of their own fate
• Machiavellianism (“Mach”)– A measure of the degree to which people
are pragmatic 務實 , maintain emotional distance, and believe that ends can justify means 目標可以合理化任何手段
• 命運之內外控傾向
• 馬基維利主義
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Personality Traits And Work-related Personality Traits And Work-related Behaviors (cont’d)Behaviors (cont’d)
• Self-esteem (SE)– An individual’s degree of life dislike
for him- or herself
• Self-monitoring– A measure of an individual’s ability to
adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors
• Propensity for risk taking– The willingness to take chances—a
preference to assume or avoid risk
• 自尊
• 自我監控
• 冒險傾向
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Matching Personalities And JobsMatching Personalities And Jobs
PersonPerson JobPerformancPerformancee
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Personality Characteristics of Personality Characteristics of EntrepreneursEntrepreneurs
• Proactive Personality– High level of motivation
• Internal locus of control
• Need for autonomy
– Abundance of self-confidence• Self-esteem
– High energy levels• Persistence
– Moderate risk taker• Problem solver
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PerceptionPerception 知覺知覺
A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.
• 個人經由整理及解釋感官印象,並賦予環境意義的過程。
• 每個人對同樣的事物,產生不同的知覺。
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Influences on PerceptionInfluences on Perception 知覺的影響知覺的影響
• Personal characteristics 個人特質– Attitudes– Personality– Motives– Interests– Past experiences– Expectations
• Targetcharacteristics 目標特質– Relationship of a target
to its background– Closeness and/or
similarity to other things– The context in objects is
seen– Other situational factors.
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Perceptual Challenges: What Do You See?Perceptual Challenges: What Do You See?
EXHIBIT 8.5
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Attribution theoryAttribution theory 歸因理論歸因理論 ((How How Managers Judge Employees)Managers Judge Employees)
• A theory based on the premise that we judge people differently depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behavior 解釋我們對於人的判斷不同,乃基於我們對特定行為有不同的歸因。– Internally caused: believed to be under the control
of the individual. 內在引發的行為,是那些被認為在個人控制之下的行為。
– Externally caused: results from outside causes; having been forced into the behavior by the situation. 外在引發的行為,是外界原因所造成的結果,也就是個人迫於情境而產生的行為。
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Interpreting BehaviorInterpreting Behavior 解讀解讀行為行為• Distinctiveness 特異性
– Whether an individual displays a behavior in many situations or whether it is particular to one situation. 是否在許多不同情境下,或只有在特定情境下,才有這樣的行為表現。
• Consensus共通性– If the individual responds in the same way as everyone
else faced with a similar situation responds. 每個人面對相似情境時,是否以同樣的方式應對
• Consistency 一致性– The individual engages in the same behaviors regularly
and consistently over time. 是否表現出一致的行為
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EXHIBIT 8–6 The Process of Attribution Theory
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Judgment ErrorsJudgment Errors
• Fundamental attribution error 基本歸因錯誤– The tendency to underestimate the influence of
external factors and overestimate the influence of internal or personal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others.
• Self-serving bias 自我滿足的偏見– The tendency for individuals to attribute their own
successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors.
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Distortions in Shortcut Methods in Judging Distortions in Shortcut Methods in Judging OthersOthers 判斷扭曲偏頗的情形判斷扭曲偏頗的情形
EXHIBIT 8.7
Selectivity選擇性
Assumed similarity假設有類同經驗
Stereotyping刻板(先入為主)印象
Halo effect光環效應
Self-fulfilling prophecy自我實現預言
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LearningLearning 學習學習Any relatively permanent change in behavior
that occurs as a result of experience 任何經由經驗所產生的較持久的行為改變。
Operant conditioning操作性制約 (B. F. Skinner)– Voluntary, or learned, behavior is a function of
its consequences 行為是其結果的函數• Reinforcement強化 increases the likelihood that
behavior will be repeated; behavior that is not rewarded or is punished is less likely to be repeated.
• Rewards 獎勵 are most effective if they immediately follow the desired response.
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Learning (cont’d)Learning (cont’d)• Social learning theory社會學習理論
– People can learn through observation and direct experience; by modeling the behavior of others 人們經由觀察和直接經驗來學習的理論;透過模擬別人行為的方式
• Modeling processes– Attentional processes– Retention processes– Motor reproduction processes– Reinforcement processes
• 注意• 留意• 動作重現• 強化
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How to Shape BehaviorHow to Shape Behavior 如何如何塑造行為塑造行為• Shaping behavior
– Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to a desired behavior系統化的強化每一系列的步驟,使個人逐漸趨近目標行為
• Four ways to shape behavior:– Positive reinforcement– Negative reinforcement– Punishment– Extinction.
• 正向強化• 負向強化• 處罰• 消弱
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Steps in Shaping BehaviorSteps in Shaping Behavior
1. Identify the critical behaviors that have a significant impact on an employee’s performance.
2. Establish a baseline of performance.
3. Analyze the contributing factors to performance and their consequences.
4. Develop a shaping strategy.
5. Apply the appropriate strategy.
6. Measure the change that has occurred.
7. Reinforce desired behaviors.
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Foundations Of Group BehaviorFoundations Of Group Behavior• Group 群體
– Two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve particular objectives
• Role 角色– A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to
someone in a given position in a social unit 某人在社會中擔任職位的一套行為模式 。
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Foundations Of Group Behavior Foundations Of Group Behavior (cont’d)(cont’d)
• Norms 規範– Acceptable standards (e.g., effort and performance,
dress, and loyalty) shared and enforced by the members of a group 群體中成員互相認同的標準
• Status地位– A prestige grading, position, or rank within a group 群體中較具聲望的成績、職位、階級
• May be informally conferred by characteristics such as education, age, skill, or experience.
• Anything can have status value if others in the group admire it.
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Why do People Join Groups?Why do People Join Groups?
Security
Status
Self-esteem
Affiliation
Power
Goal achievement
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Examples of Cards Used in Asch StudyExamples of Cards Used in Asch Study
EXHIBIT 8.9
Solomon Asch and Group Conformity:Does the desire to be accepted as a part of a group leave one susceptible to conforming to the group’s norms? Will the group exert pressure that is strong enough to change a member’s attitude and behavior? According to the research by Solomon Asch, the answer appears to be yes.
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Group EffectsGroup Effects 群體效應群體效應• Social loafing社會虛擲
– The tendency of an individual in a group to decrease his or her effort because responsibility and individual achievement cannot be measured由於個人的責任及成就無法量測,成員會有降低自己努力的傾向。
• Group cohesiveness凝聚力– The degree to which members of a group are
attracted to each other and share goals• Size, work environment, length of time in existence, and
group-organization goal congruency affect the degree of group cohesiveness.
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The Relationship Between Group The Relationship Between Group Cohesiveness and ProductivityCohesiveness and Productivity
EXHIBIT 8.10
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