part-iii...it has its origin in tamil nadu and bharat muni’s natya shastra gives a detailed...

P A R T - I I I

Indian Heritage

Art and Culture

Q. Recently, Alarmel Valli, an outstanding exponent of classical dance was conferred with M.N. Subramaniam award. Write a note on the dance form Alarmel Valli is associated with. Also, name other prominent exponents of the dance form.

Model Answer

Introduction

Alarmel Valli is associated with Bharatanatyam. Almost 2000 years old, it is one of the classical dances of India. It has its origin in Tamil Nadu and Bharat Muni’s Natya Shastra gives a detailed account of it. It grew

out of its primary temple dance form known as Sadir or Dasi Attam. It is the first of India’s tra-ditional dances to be refashioned as a theatre art and to be exhibit-ed widely both at home and abroad.

Principles of the Dance

Bharatanatyam rests on the prin-ciples of performance and aes-

thetics as set in classics. It has a rich repertoire of songs in Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit. The present-day format of a Bharatanatyam recital, as well as a valuable part of its musical compositions, was created by the famed ‘Tanjore Quartet’ of the nineteenth century – the brothers Ponniah, Chinnaiah, Sivanandam and Vadivelu. Bharatanatyam has a highly evolved language of nritta, abstract dance, and nritya, which unfolds the narrative. One dancer takes the multiple roles in a single performance (ekahraya).

Themes of the Dance

The themes include both human and divine love, and are classed un-der the rubric of shringara (romantic love) and bhakti (devotion). As a solo dance, it relies heavily on abhinaya. The music of Bharatanatyam belongs to the Carnatic system of southern India. The varnam, which is the most important composition of the Bharatnatyam repertoire, encompasses both nritta and nritya and epitomises the essence of this classical dance form. Wide array of musicians accompany the dancer in-cluding a dance recital that includes at least one vocalist, a Mridangam (drum)-player, and a flutist or violinist or Veena (lute)-player.

Key Points

• Natya Shastra• Classical dance grown out

of temple dance• Single dancer in multiple

roles• Tanjore Quartet• Includes Shringara & Bhakti

124 200 Quality Questions with Model Answers

Other famous exponents of Bharatanatyam include Mallika Sarabhai, Rukmini Devi Arundale, Sonal Mansingh.

Q. Globalisation has not only affected the economy and the society, it has emerged as a challenge for the performing arts in India. Discuss.

Model Answer

Introduction

The last two decades after liberalisation in India, witnessed an unprec-edented change in every section of society. In India, which was rather late in embracing globalisation, it has acted like a tidal wave sweeping

across the world of performing arts. However the rich tradition of culture in India has only adapted itself to the situation and undergone some transfor-mation, it has not vanished.

Art as entertainment

In the global world, performing art no more remained a person-

al expression of artistic urge; it became a part of entertainment industry. The creative urge had to be expressed in form, which could become part of an organised sector and entertain and amuse people. The shift is from substance to showcase. The Gharana culture, though in symbolic exis-tence, is replaced by a global industry market with dedicated television and radio channels broadcasting 24 ¥ 7. The biggest beneficiary is the Hindi film industry.

But despite these perceived weakness, this market has given classical music a global platform. The purists have transcended geographical and cultural boundaries taking their art to a world stage. The West, which has revered Indian classical music for years, is now increasingly becom-ing a mass consumer of such music.

Change within India

Internally the local and folk music, especially the music from Rajasthan and Punjab, is getting wider listenership, thanks to their Bollywood makeover. Artists from other countries are increasingly coming to India

Key Points

• Art as entertainment industry• Commercialisation of art• Platform for global exposure• Threat as well as opportunity• Hindi music industry biggest

gainer.

Indian Heritage Art and Culture 125

to pursue careers in music industry, exposing the listeners to different forms of music. Also, use of modern information technology in peda-gogic practices has come as a boon for beginners.

Conclusion

Globalisation works with its own set of paradoxes. The likes of Pt. Ravi Shankar and AR Rahman scaled new heights taking Indian music to untouched territories. On the other hand, due to commercialisation, it has forced the traditional artists and purists to conform to the market demands. The same music, which is revered outside, has no takers in India. Singers are becoming more and more mechanical and their de-pendence on technology is increasing with each passing day. Like any-thing else, globalisation has vices and virtues. It presents an opportunity as well as a threat.

Q. Kathak is not just a classical dance, it is a different art form, where there is more of abhinaya. Discuss and bring out its uniqueness when compared to other dance forms.

Model Answer

Introduction

Kathak is the principal dance of northern India, and is widely practiced in Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Delhi, Madhya Pradesh, and even parts of

western and eastern India today. It is connected with the narrative art of Kathakaras or story-tellers, whose narration is inspired from ancient texts, epics, legends and myths. Started as an oral tradition, this art form transited to a courtly milieu in medieval India, and achieved great

patronage under Mughal rule. Later, in the nineteenth century, Wajid Ali Shah founded Lucknow Gharana with strong emphasis on Bhava.

In the 20th century, public institutions played an important role in for-malisation of Kathak dance in terms of training and practice. Thematic content of Kathak mainly revolves around the lore of Krishna, especially after emergence of Raslila of Braj region.

Key Points

• Northern India • Patronage under Mughals• Connected to Thumri• Emergence of Gharanas


Uniqueness

The technique of movement makes the dance unique in itself. It is char-acterised by stylish footwork and pirouettes where the weight is evenly distributed across the vertical and horizontal axis. It is the only classical dance of India having links with Muslim culture. It is a testimony of unique synthesis of Hindu and Muslim art forms. Further, Kathak is the only form of classical dance connected to Hindustani or the North Indian music (Thumri).

Music and Musical Instruments

The music of traditional Kathak consists of the Thumri and other lyri-cal song-forms. Thumri gives an expression to various forms of roman-tic love. There are several different styles of singing thumri, the most prominent being the Punjabi, Purabi (of Lucknow), and Benaras styles.

The essential musical instruments are the Tabla, Pakhawaj, and Sarangi. The sitar and other plucked strings are also associated with Kathak performed today.

Q. Write a note on the classical dance forms of North east India.

Model Answer

Manipuri Dance

There are two classical dances-Manipuri and Sattriya -which originated from northeast India. Manipuri dance, evolved in Manipur, is anchored

in the Vaishnava faith. The geograph-ical seclusion of Manipur prevented any outside influence on Manipuri dance and preserved its ancient tex-ture. The temples of Manipur are still among the principal staging venues of the dance. Themes of dance in-clude lore of Radha – Krishna well as

Shiva-Parvati. Over the years, it has transited through various courses to become the sophisticated theatre art it is today.

The roots of Manipuri dance is Lai Haraoba which forms the basis of all stylised dances in Manipur and dates back to pre-Vaishaivite. Of the major forms, Ras, the Sankirtana and the Thang-Ta are the most popu-lar forms of Manipuri. Manipuri dance is more introvert and restrained compared to most other dances of India – the artist never establishes

Key Points

• Manipuri & Sattriya• Religious undertone• Role of bhakti movement• Importance of music


eye contact with the audience. The Manipuri classical style of singing is called Nat. The main musical instrument is the Pung.

Sattriya Dance

This dance drama developed in the sattras or monasteries of Assam since the sixteenth century. Saint and reformer Shankaradeva (1449-1586) used it as a powerful medium for propagation of the Vaishnava faith. It is a distinct genre within the fold of classical Indian dance, with an evolved language of hand gesture (hasta), footwork (pada karma), movement and expression (nritta and abhinaya), and a repertoire cen-tered on devotion to Krishna.

In the 20th century, artists outside the sattras embraced this monas-tic art. Sattriya dance has been practised also as a modern theatre art. The dancer may then present a mix of pure dance and abhinaya based upon the vast literature of the sattras. Group dances are also common in traditional and modern Sattriya dance, and these may be prefaced with a brief musical ‘interlude’ on drums, the Gayan Bayan, performed by a group of musicians. Entirely original dance dramas in the mould of the traditional Sattriya dance are also presented on the stage today. The musical component of the dance is rich and varied in its rhythmic, melodic, and lyrical aspects.

Q. Some dance forms in India are unique amalgamation of martial traditions and temple rituals. Write a short note on any such non-classical dance form of eastern India.

Model Answer

Introduction

The Chhau dance of Eastern India - Orissa, Jharkhand, and West Bengal – is a blend of martial traditions, temple rituals, and folk and popular performance of this region. Episodes from the epics like Mahabharata,

Ramayana, Puranas, traditional folklore, local legends form the theme of dance. Indigenous drums play accompanying mu-sic. In its traditional context, the dance is intimately connected with the festivals and rituals of this region.

Key Points

• Influence of martial tradition• No use of vocal music• Mayurbhanj School• Use of local musical

instruments


Festival

Important among these is the Chaitra Parva celebrated in the month of April. The month of Chaitra celebrates the advent of spring and the start of the harvesting season. The melody is interwoven and is provided by reed pipes like the Mohuri, Turi-Bheri and Shehnai. Though vocal music is not used in Chhau, the melodies are based on songs from the Jhumur folk repertoire, the devotional Kirtan, classical Hindustani ‘ra-gas’, and traditional Oriya sources. Dhol, Dhumsa, Nagada, Chadchadi and Jhanj provide accompaniment to Chhau dance.

Modern Form

There are three recognised schools of Chhau, namely Seraikella, Purulia and Mayurbhanj. Mayurbhanj Chhau dancers do not wear masks. In recent times, Mayurbhanj Chhau has become popular as a medium of choreography, with its wide range of postures and movements that adapt well to modern as well as traditional treatment.

Q. In terms of contribution to classical dances in India, no other state has made a bigger contribution than Kerala. Name a few dances forms of this state and also write a note on two major classical dances of Kerala.

Model Answer

Introduction

Some important dance forms of Kerala are Koothu, Koodiyattom, Patakom, Ashtapadiyattom, Krishnattom, Thullal, Mohiniattam and

Kathakali. Ministry of Culture and Sangeet Nataak Academi recognises Mohiniattam and Kathakali as clas-sical dances.

Mohiniattam

Mohiniattam takes its name from the mythic enchantress Mohini. It is dance of exquisite feminine grace,

and has grown out of performances connected with Kerala’s temples. Characterised as it is by femininity, Mohiniattam has no heavy steps or rhythmic tension. The footwork is gentle, soft, and sliding. The dancer’s

Key Points

• Mohiniattam & Kathakali• Connected to temple

traditions• Use of elaborate make up• Emphasis on expression


body rises and falls with an easy grace, with the emphasis mainly on the torso. Restraint in movement is the hallmark of the dance.

Rhythmic syllables used are those of the Maddalam, a drum which provides accompaniment for female roles in the Kathakali theatre. The main percussion instruments in the performance are the Edakka. The other musical instruments are the Mridangam, the Veena, the Flute, and the Kuzhitalam or Cymbals.

Kathakali

Kathakali or ‘story play’ took shape in Kerala in southern India in the seventeenth century under the patronage of the prince who wrote Ramayana in Malayalam. So this dance is relatively recent in origin. Kathakali is a blend of dance, music and acting and dramatises stories, which are mostly adapted from the Indian epics.

Characters in Kathakali are categorised according to their nature, and corresponding symbolic personalities are build up through elabo-rate and distinctive make up. The faces of actors are painted according to the type of character they represent – green for heroes, kings, and divinities, red and black for the evil and fierce, etc. The main feature of the costume is a large, billowing skirt for male characters and various elaborate headdresses. The actor’s performance in a Kathakali play is completely speechless. The story is enacted using a vocabulary of facial expressions and hand-gestures. It usually begins in the evening and con-cludes at daybreak.

Q. Write a short note on Kuchipudi.

Model Answer

Origin

Kuchipudi is one of the major dance forms of India which originated from Andhra Pradesh. It grew largely as a product of Bhakti movement

beginning in the 7th century AD. Kuchipudi derives its name from the village Kuchelapuram. It emerged from Yakashagana tra-dition.

Tradition

Siddhendra Yogi established Kuchipudi form of Yakshagana tradition. It was nurtured by great schol-

Key Points

• Product of Bhakti Movement• Yakshagana tradition. • Impersonation • Use of Carnatic Music


ars and artists who built up the repertoire and refined the dance tech-nique. Young Brahmin boys were trained in this art.

Theme

This is a tale based on a myth of the bringing of paarijaata flower for Sathyabhama, the most beloved queen of Krishna. Most actors are male and perform female impersonation of mainly Sathyabhama.

Dance

In a demonstration of dexterity of footwork, control and balance, tech-niques like dancing on a rim of a brass plate with pitcher full of water on head was introduced. Acrobatic dancing became part of the repertoire. The Kuchipudi is a dance-drama of Nritta, Nritya and Natya. Kuchipudi, combines speech, Abhinaya (mime) and pure dance. The Kuchipudi dancer is a multiple person on the stage and this multiplicity is achieved by the swift change of mime.


Carnatic music accompanies Kuchipudi dance. Mridangam and Veena are played simultaneously with cymbal and recitation of the sollukattus.

Contemporary Form

Kuchipudi today is performed either as a solo, duet or a group presenta-tion, but historically it was performed as a dance drama, with several dancers taking different roles.

Q. Write a short note on Odissi.

Model Answer

Origin

Odissi dance has its origins in Orissa. In its rudimentary form, it was performed as part of temple service by ‘maharis’ or female temple ser-

vants. The traditional dance was re-moulded as a theatre art towards the middle of the twentieth century with reference not only to the existing dance art, but representation of dance in Orissa’s medieval sculpture, painting and literature.

Key Points

• Maharis as repositories• Gotipua tradition• Vaishnava faith• Chowk & Tribhanga


Tradition

Traditionally maharis, who were temple dancers, were the chief reposi-tories of this dance. But their deployment in the royal courts led to the degeneration of the dance form. But at the same time this art form was transferred to a class of boys called gotipuas. They danced in the temples and also for general entertainment. Many of today’s gurus of this style belong to the gotipua tradition.

Theme

Love and passion find expression through this dance. It has lyrical and sensuous features. The Vaishnava faith of Orissa is intrinsic to Odissi dance and the love of Krishna and Radha supplies its content. Love lyr-ics from Jayadeva’s Sanskrit work Gitagovindam therefore have pride of place in the Odissi dance repertoire.

Dance

The movements are soft and graceful. The techniques of movement are built around the two basic postures of the Chowk and the Tribhanga. The Chowk is a position imitating a square - a very masculine stance- with the weight of the body equally balanced. The Tribhanga is a very feminine stance where the body is deflected at the neck, torso and the knees.


An Odissi orchestra essentially consists of a pakhawaj player, a singer, a flutist, a violin player and a Manjira player.

Q. Write short notes on

(a) Yakshagana (b) Khongjom Parba (c) Indian Ballet (d) Koodiyatam

Model Answer

(a) Yakshagana

Yakshagana literally means songs of Yaksha. This art form is popular in southern India, mostly in Malabar region. It is also called Indian opera. The performance is carried out from dusk to dawn. It includes dance,


music and dialogue with artists in elaborate make ups. The theme is mostly religious, where the epics, legends and mythical characters are enacted. However, recently there have been attempts to modernise it when Othello was played in Yakshagana group in Udupi, Karnataka. The music played is different from Hindustani music. The origin of Yakshagana is traced to the 11th and 12th century and has been influ-enced by Bhakti traditions. Maddale, Chande and Taala form the major music instruments.

(b) Khongjom Parba

Khongjom Parba is the popular ballad genre of Manipur, which depicts the valour of the local war heroes in the 1891 battle against the British. This art form traces its origin in the rich oral traditions of Northeast India, which depicts unique tryst of local community with British rule. Khongjom Parba depicts the heroic battle the Manipuris fought against the British in a place called Khongjom on the India-Burma Road in 1891. Being an oral tradition, Parba needs to be memorised and it is said that whole Parba takes 10-12 days to recite it once. So only a portion is performed at a time. The language is Bengali. The epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana are also depicted.

(c) Indian Ballet

Ballet in India has a history of over 3000 years and was nurtured with-in the precincts of the temples. Ballet in different regions of India has evolved in its own unique way but the religious theme has rarely de-serted it. For example in Kathakali, Bhagavat Mela, Yakshaganam and in the other ballets of the South as also those of Orissa, Manipur, Uttar Pradesh, Assam and other states, the basic religious structure remains the same. It is based on same legends of Purana, The Mahabharata, the Ramayana. Moreover, in the folk-ballets throughout the country, the common people’s belief in religion, social problems, joys and sorrows and toil and tribulations are similar. There is a distinct oneness.

(d) Koodiyattam

Koodiyattam is a form of theatre in Kerala that originated in an ancient past, dating back to about two millennia. One of the most remarkable traditions of world theatre, it draws on the plays of the eminent Sanskrit dramatists of India. In 2001, UNESCO declared Koodiyattam as among the “Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity”.

The performance practice of Koodiyattam follows the abstract rules of aesthetics described in the Natya Shastra. But it has its own distinc-


tive characteristics in terms of theatric conventions and method of act-ing. In the olden days, Koodiyattam was accessible only to Brahmins and other similar ‘higher’ castes, and until recently, it was restricted to the temple as sacred art. Another reason for the restrictive appeal of Koodiyattam is the highly complicated, long-drawn out acting method and theatric grammar, which conveyed meaning only to the select few who are conversant with its codes and conventions.

Q. Comment on the religion and religious life of the people of the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Model Answer

Introduction

The religious aspect of the inhabitants of the Harappan civilisation has been subject to multiple interpretations. However there is consensus

over a few aspects. Primarily, Harappans were nature worship-pers. Some of the monumental structures in Harappa and Mohenjodaro have been identi-fied with temples. Other sources of information include seals, ter-racotta figurines and copper tab-lets.

Female terracotta figurines have been equated with figure of Mother Goddess worshiped in West Asia since ancient times. Also, there is evi-dence of phallic worship. The chief male deity was Pasupati represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture with three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by four animals – elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo each facing a different direction. One seal shows a yogi and a rearing cobra, while in some others, a tree spirit is shown with a pipal or some other tree.

In Kalibangan, brick –lined pits containing ashes and animal bones have been found which might be fire altars. It signifies that the religious practices differed in different part of Indus Valley Civilisation. Linga worship developed in later times. Trees and animals were also revered by the Harappans. They believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amu-lets as protection against them.

The cemeteries discovered around cities like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal and Rupar suggests that these people had elaborate

Key Points

• Nature worshippers• Mother goddess & Pashupati• Fire altars for rituals• Linga worship• Elaborate burial practice


burial pattern. They believed in afterlife as they buried personal belong-ings of the dead. The common burial practices were – complete and post-cremation burial at Mohenjodaro, wooden coffins at Harappa and pot burials at Lothal.

Q. Analyse the elements of urbanisation in the Harappan Culture.

Model Answer

Introduction

The Harappan civilisation has been dated to the 2550 BC to 2050 BC pe-riod. Some date it between 2300 and 1750 BC. Harappan civilisa-tion is characterized by large cit-ies, specialised craftsmen, long distance trade, rich and poor class, writing system and cen-tralised power structure. These features make Harappan urban life comparable to contemporary urbanisation.

All the Harappan settlements did not have uniform town planning. But they all had some common features like presence of similar types of seals, sealings, bricks, weights, weapons and tools. It signified an institu-tional network articulated in the form of urbanism which is more than a physical space.

In Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan, the citadel area con-tained monumental structures – the most famous ‘The Great Bath’ of Mohenjodaro. These structures were probably used for civic, adminis-trative and religious purposes. The town planning was distinguished by its grid system where streets and lanes cut across each other at right angles. The remains of temple and residence of high officials have been found. It might also be suggested that hoarding of jewellery and seals mark prosperity of certain class.

In the economic life, there was great progress made in agriculture, industry, crafts and trade. However a significant part of the population engaged in non-food producing activity. These people performed ad-ministrative, religious, trading and manufacturing functions. Presence of uniform weights and measures even in the far flung sites indicates trade with regulated exchange. Many large towns indicate presence of granaries.

Key Points

• Large cities • Centralized administration• Urban institutions and

planning• Large monuments• Non-agricultural occupation


The construction and maintenance of elaborate drainage system, gra-naries, uniformity in designs of tools, weapon and bricks suggests that there existed a centralised decision – making system. Also the range and volume of products consumed any residents of the larger cities indicates presence of a ruling class. However it can be safely argued that the city emerged as the centre of politico – economic power in the Indus – Valley

Q. Critically analyse the factors responsible for the decline of Indus Valley Civilisation.

Model Answer

Introduction

There is no unanimity in the view pertaining to the cause of decline of Harappan civilization. Several theories have been postulated – from nat-

ural calamities to decreasing soil fertility to Aryan attacks. However the decline of this civilisation was gradual, not catastrophic as sug-gested. Cities like Mohenjodaro, Harappa and Kalibangan saw gradual decline in urban planning and construction of houses. With

the passage of time the major settlements were abandoned. Some im-portant features like writing, uniform weight, pottery and architectural style disappeared.

Flooding is believed to be one major cause of decline. Mohenjodaro habitations show at least three instances of deep flooding. There are evi-dences of deposits of salty clay and layers of collapsed building material mixed with clay. Some scholars said that proximity to river Indus was the prime reason for flooding to cities and geomorphically the Indus area is a disturbed seismic zone.

Some sites like Sutkagendor on Makran coast were on sea coast, but today they are away from the coast. This might be due to upliftment of coastal areas. Some scholars have conceded that floods did occur but they were not lined to tectonic uplift. Harappa has not shown any evi-dence of flooding. There is also speculation that changes in the course of the Indus led to the decline of Mohenjodaro.

Wheeler was of the opinion that the Indus Civilisation was de-stroyed by Aryan invaders. There is evidence of massacre in late phas-

Key Points

• Aryan attack• Flooding• Upliftment of coastal areas • Environmental catastrophe


es of Mohenjodaro. But there is 600 year gap between the desertion of Mohenjodaro by 1800 BC and the arrival of Aryans in 1200 BC. Environmental catastrophe due to ever increasing population of men and animals and its impact on ecology, is citied as another reason for the collapse of this civilization. However the enduring fertility of soil in the India subcontinent over the years disapproves this hypothesis.

Q. Sanskrit is the root of many Indian Languages. Comment.

Model Answer

Introduction

Sanskrit is the mother of many Indian langiages. The Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas and Dharmasutras are all written in Sanskrit. Not only religious but a range of secular and regional literature has also been written in

Sanskrit. Sanskrit is the most ancient of languages and today it is one of the classical languages of the country. Rig Veda – the oldest literary heritage of mankind is written in English.

Rigvedic Sanskrit is one of the early attestations of any Indo-Aryan lan-guage and one of the early members of Indo-European language family. Several languages spoken and written

today in India have been derivatives of Sanskrit. Bengali, Gurumukhi, Gujarati, Marathi, Oriya and Hindi have been derived from Sanskrit. Languages of the South have been influenced by Sanskrit.

Sir William Jones in his book – The Sanscrit Language – suggest-ed that Greek, Lation, Gothic, Celtic and even Persian is connected to Sanskrit. Even scholars like Voltaire and Kant acknowledged the rich-ness of Sanskrit and it’s contribution in the development of European languages.

Sanskrit has transcended regional as well as international boundar-ies. It is the only Indian language to do so. From the north to the South and the east to the west, there is no part of India that has not contrib-uted to or been affected by this language. Sanskrit has influential pres-ence in South Asian and South East Asian countries. Masterpieces like Rajatarangini by Kalhan gives a detailed account of the Kings of Kashmir while Jonaraja details the valour of Prithviraj. The famous Arthashastra

Key Points

• Religious and non – religious texts

• Modern languages • Similarity to European

language• Connects whole India


by Kautilya and Kamasutra by Vatsyayanna are another great literary work in Sanskrit.

Q. No other Indian book has gained as much popularity as Bhagvad Gita. It has been translated nearly in all the main languages of the word. Why?

Model Answer

Introduction

Bhagwad Gita is the part of the great epic Mahabharat. It contains the essence of divine wisdom and is truly a universal gospel. It is in dialogue

form – a dialogue between Arjuna and Lord Krishna. Despite being an ancient scripture, the teachings of Bhagvad Gita are as relevant today as it were then. This makes it very popular among contemporary schol-ars, thinkers and common man alike.

Besides being the classic Indian text that it is, and the summary of most Upanishadic information, Bhagwad Gita is the core of the deepest levels of spiritual knowledge. It is also like a handbook for life. In the book,

Lord Krishna explains to Arjuna his duties as a warrior and elaborates on different Yogic and Vedantic philosophies. This makes Gita a concise guide to Hindu philosophy and a parochial, self contained guide to life.

Gita itself can be divided into two parts – a) Bhakti Part b) Philosophical Part. Bhakti part deals with devotion to Lord Krishna and emphasizes on leelas of Krishna. Philosophical part is based on day to day life of individual in society and associated problems and its practical solution. In his explanation, Krishna emphasizes on ‘Karma’. He asks Arjuna to do his Karma without worrying about future and result.

Philosphical teachings of Gita have inspired many around the world. Arabs translated it in Arabic and Europeans in all Europeans languages. In modern times, Swami Vivekananda, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi and many others used the text to help inspire the Indian inde-pendence movement.

Q. Bring out the characteristic features of social life of early Vedic and later Vedic period.

Key Points

• Divine wisdom• Relevant in all age• Spiritual and

worldly knowledge• Guide to life• Bhakti part &

Philosophical part


Model Answer

Introduction

The early Vedic society or Rig Vedic society was patriarchal. Nevertheless, women were treated with dignity and honour. The basic unit of society was family or graham. The head of the family was called grahapati. Several families i.e. kula made a village or grama. A number of villages formed a tribe or jana which was ruled by chief called rajan, who used to protect tribe from external attacks. The purohita perfomed religious func-tions while senani looked after military activities.

In the common family life, monogamy was generally practised, while polygamy was prevalent among the royal and noble families. Women in general were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual and intellectual development. Women not only took care of households but also participated in all major ceremonies. Women also made literary contributions. There were women poets like Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra in this period. Purdah and sati was not prevalent.

In the later Vedic period, society was divided into four varnas – Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras – this system was called Varna-Vyavastha. This system was formed to denote people engaged in different types of occupation, but later this division became rigid and hereditary. The social mobility across the varnas became difficult. It helped Brahmans occupy apex position in the society.

In the same period, another social institution developed. It was called Chaturashrama– it was division of lifespan into 4 distinct stages. It was Brahmacharya, Grihasta, Vanaprastha and Sanyasa. This division was only for male in upper varnas. Women in this period were respected by society. They enjoyed freedom, had access to education and exercised choice to choose their husbands through swayamvara. The ultimate aim of life was to attain salvation through the pursuit of dharma, artha and kama.

Q. Throughout the Vedic period, the religion and religious practices underwent gradual but substantial transforma-tion. explain.

Key Points

• Patriarchy but respect to women

• Monogamy as well as polygamy

• Varna System• Chaturashram• Religious life


Model Answer

Introduction

From early Vedic period to later Vedic period, the religion and associ-ated rituals changed. The Rig Vedic Aryans worshiped the natural forces

like earth, fire, wind, rain and thunder. They personified these forces of nature as god & goddess. The important gods were Indra, Agni, Varuna, Maruti, while Usha, Aditi, Prthivi were the goddess. The most important was Indra, fol-lowed by Agni who was deemed as intermediary between the gods and the people.

There were no temples and idol worship during the early Vedic pe-riod. Yajna was perfomed along with chanting of Vedic hymns. Prayers were offered to the gods in the expectation of rewards. Ghee, milk and grain were given as offering. People prayed individually as well as col-lectively for the welfare of the jana. Rituals were elaborate.

There was change in the religious practices during the later Vedic pe-riod. Gods of the early Vedic period like Indra, Agni and Varuna lost their prominence. They were replaced by Trinity of Gods – Prajapathi or Brahma (the creator), Vishnu (the protector) and Rudra (the destroyer). The religion became extremely ritualistic.

Rituals became more elaborate. The importance of prayers declined and that of sacrifices increased. Priest hood became a profession and he-reditary – which is continued till date. Sanskrit mantras , monopolized by Brahmins, became part of all the rituals. This made the Brahmins very powerful and Yajnas expensive. Thus, towards the end of this pe-riod, there was strong reaction against priestly domination and sacrfices and rituals. It gave birth to new religions – Jainism and Buddhism. Also, the authors of Upanishads turned away from the useless rituals and in-sisted on true knowledge (jnana) for peace and salvation.

Q. Bring out the factors that led to the rise of Jainism and Buddhism.

Model Answer

Key Points

• Personification of forces of nature

• Prayers and Yajna• Trinity of God• Elaborate ritual• Emergence of priest class


Introduction

Towards the end of later Vedic period, resent towards Brahmanism start-ed taking shape. It was due to monopoly and arrogance of Brahmins.

They dominated sacrifices and rituals and made it very complex and expensive. The Brahmins had developed a ritual of demand-ing large charities at the end of sacrifices. They also considered themselves superior to other varnas. This led to unpopularity of Brahmanism and a need for reforms was felt.

The primary cause for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism was the religious unrest in Indian in the 6th century BC. People started to

denounce elaborate rituals as preached by Brahmins. The superstitious beliefs and mantras confused the people. The teachings of Upanishads were highly philosophical in nature which made it incomprehensible for common people.

Under these circumstances, there was need for a path which was sim-ple, short and intelligible way to salvation for all. The teachings should be in a language known to them unlike Sanskrit. This void was filled by the teachings of Buddha and Mahavira – both came from Kshatriya clan. Khastriya is particular resented the domination of the priestly class. They challenged the supremacy of Brahmins. They were aided by Vaisya’s who demanded for an improved social position.

Thus, caste system also played a crucial role in the rise of these two religions. The rigid caste system created tensions in the society. Higher classes enjoyed some privileges which were denied to others. The growth of trade led to improvement in the economic conditions of the Vaisyas which was not reflected in their social position. As a result they wanted to change their social position to which the rigid varna system proved to be a fetter. Thus they extended support to alternative religion – Jainism and Buddhism.

Q. Comment on the nature of Mauryan state in light of its administrative feature.

Model Answer

Introduction

Mauryan state had centralised administration with Monarch in the cen-ter. Kautilya supported the monarchial form of government but he did

Key Points

• Centralised administration• Council of Ministers• Amatyas• Land Revenue• Civil and criminal courts• More autonomy to

periphery

Key Points

• Brahmanisum• Varna System• Complex rituals• Resentment of

Khastriya• Caste system


Introduction

Towards the end of later Vedic period, resent towards Brahmanism start-ed taking shape. It was due to monopoly and arrogance of Brahmins.

They dominated sacrifices and rituals and made it very complex and expensive. The Brahmins had developed a ritual of demand-ing large charities at the end of sacrifices. They also considered themselves superior to other varnas. This led to unpopularity of Brahmanism and a need for reforms was felt.

The primary cause for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism was the religious unrest in Indian in the 6th century BC. People started to

denounce elaborate rituals as preached by Brahmins. The superstitious beliefs and mantras confused the people. The teachings of Upanishads were highly philosophical in nature which made it incomprehensible for common people.

Under these circumstances, there was need for a path which was sim-ple, short and intelligible way to salvation for all. The teachings should be in a language known to them unlike Sanskrit. This void was filled by the teachings of Buddha and Mahavira – both came from Kshatriya clan. Khastriya is particular resented the domination of the priestly class. They challenged the supremacy of Brahmins. They were aided by Vaisya’s who demanded for an improved social position.

Thus, caste system also played a crucial role in the rise of these two religions. The rigid caste system created tensions in the society. Higher classes enjoyed some privileges which were denied to others. The growth of trade led to improvement in the economic conditions of the Vaisyas which was not reflected in their social position. As a result they wanted to change their social position to which the rigid varna system proved to be a fetter. Thus they extended support to alternative religion – Jainism and Buddhism.

Q. Comment on the nature of Mauryan state in light of its administrative feature.

Model Answer

Introduction

Mauryan state had centralised administration with Monarch in the cen-ter. Kautilya supported the monarchial form of government but he did

Key Points

• Centralised administration• Council of Ministers• Amatyas• Land Revenue• Civil and criminal courts• More autonomy to

periphery

not advocate royal absolutism. According to him, King should be advised by ministry in running the administration. Council of Ministers called Mantriparishad consisted of Purohita, Mahamantri, Senapati and Yuvaraja. They had largest bureaucracy in ancient India. The civil servants were called Amatyas – quite similar to IAS of-ficers in independent India.

Mauryan kings called themselves Samrat and Devamampiya Piyadassi. According to Arthashastra , there were 18 Tirthas and 28 Adhyakshas. Samharta – the chief of the Revenue Department – was in charge of the collection of all revenues if the empire. The revenues came from land, irrigation, customs, shop tax, ferry tax, forests, mines and pastures. The land revenue was fixed at one-sixth of the produce. The army was well organized under Senapati.

Department of commerce and trade under the officers called Adyakshas controlled retail and wholeshale prices of goods and ensured steady supply. Kautilya mentions the existence of both civil and criminal courts. Chief Justice was called Dharmastheyi. There was provision for torture to extract truth. Mauryans minted currencies in silver, copper, bronze and potin. Currency was called Karshapna. The Mauryan em-pire was divided into five major provinces – Taxila, Suvarnagiri, Tosali ,Ujjaini and Patliputra – headed by Rajyagopal, generally a prince.

The Mauryan administration was very organised and structured. Bureaucracy was organized till village level. The land revenue was kept low at one-sixth of total revenue. Some historians have suggested that different parts of the empire were administered in different ways.. While the core and the metropolis were directly administered by the state; the periphery region was given more autonomy as more importance was given to the collection of taxes and tributes from these regions.

Q. The contribution of the Mauryans to art and architecture is monumental. Describe.

Model Answer

Introduction

The Mauryan rule marks an important phase of Indian cultural history. The splendour of power that the Mauryas tried to create is reflected in


an account of the capital city of Pataliputra given by Megasthenes. The art and architecture of Mauryan period can be divided into two types – Royal art and the Folk art. The pillars, stupas and the rock cut caves and the palace in Patliputra are evidences of Royal art, While the potteries, terracotta and wells of brick are evidences of folk art.

Pillars

Mauryan pillars made by Asoka was made up of sandstone of Chunar in UP. It was Asoka who first used stone in building monuments. The pillars were monoliths except the capital part which was added. They are round in shape, broader at base and narrow at top. The pillars are independent, not part of any building. These pillars are found in Delhi, Allahabad, Sarnath, Lauriya Araraj, Lauria Nandangarh and Rampurva. Some pillars are found in Nepal as well. Sanchi and Sarnath pillars has 4 lions at its capital which symbolises the power and Kshatriyahood of Buddha.

Stupa

These are hemispherical shaped building built over relics of Buddha or monks. Largest stupa in Asia was built by Asoka in Sanchi in 3rd CBC. It is made of mud and bricks. Railings and the gate were made of sand-stone, the upper part of building is called Harmika above which an umbrella like structure is also built symbolizing great, compassionate Buddha.

Rock Cut Caves

Among the Mauryan rulers, Asoka and his grandson Dasrath built these caves as present to the Ajivikas. The caves were built in the hills of Barabar and Nagarjuna in Gaya. Among them Vishwajhopri Cave, Karanchopad Cave and Lomus Rishi caves are most famous. These caves were cut in top to bottom and were used by Buddhist monks as Viharas and also by Ajeevika sect – a materialist sect founded by Maskariputra Gosala.

Palaces and Cities

Chandragupta Maurya built a magnificent city called Patliputra. He also built a palace of 80 pillars in 10 rows. One of the pillars is still in Kumhrar (Patna). The wooden thorne of Chandragupta Maurya was praised by Megasthenese and Fa-Hien.

Folk Art

In this period, pottery culture was developed better than painted grey-ware of Vedic period. These potteries are called New Black Painted


Ware(NBPW) – having designs of geometrical figures. Mauryan terra-cotta figurines of gods and goddess, animals and carts have also been found. Among them the terracotta figurine of Yaksha are found from Deedarganj in Patna.

Q. Write a note on Mathura school of art.

Model Answer

Introduction

Mathura school of art developed during 2nd BC and continued till 3rd century AD. These statues built during this period are associated with Buddhism, Jainism, Vaishnavism and Shaivism. Remains of these stat-

ues are found in Mathura and KankaliTila. In this art, Buddha stat-ues are made without hairs with a lock at the back. Among the Jain thir-thankars statues – Parshavnath and Mahavir statues figure most.

Statues of Surya, Vishnu, Kuber and Shiva were associated with Brahmminical faith. These statues depict better human expression and

indigenously developed art. The life of common people, fauna and flora have also been better depicted in this school of art. The statues are made of mud and sandstone. It was patronised by Sakas and Kushanas.

Theme of Mathura art varies from Buddhist to Brahmanical to sometimes secular. Emphasis is given more on inner beauty and facial emotions rather than bodily gesture. Sculptures were made on White-spotted red stones.

Q. Analyse the characteristics features of the Gupta art.

Model Answer

Introduction

Gupta sculptural art are associated with Buddha , Vishnu and some other Brahmnical god. The Buddha statues are made of sandstone. These are

Key Points

• Associated with Jainism, Buddhism, Vaishnavism and Shaivism

• Better human expression• Patronized by Sakas and

Kushanas


found at Sarnath, Mathura and Sultanganj. Hairstyle of Buddha in this art is curly but unlike Gandhara art. It looks more indigenous. Buddha is

shown in Abhayamudra and with aura. Statues were made in both standing and sitting positions. The most famous Vaishnavite statues could be seen on the gate of Dashavatar Temple, Jhansi.

The painting of Gupta period could be seen in the caves of Ajanta and Bagh in MP. Almost 29 paintings were built in span of 900 years between 2nd BC to 7th Century AD. Among these, cave

number 16, 17 and 19 of Ajanta depicts best available painting of Gupta period. These paintings was made in fresco style. The theme was derived from jataka tales of Buddha. His worldly and heavenly life has been de-picted in the painting.

Some temples built during Gupta period has survived. Among the oldest is at Sanchi near great stupa. But the first prominent Gupta tem-ple is Dasavatar temple, Deogarh in Jhansi. It has pyrammidical shaped temple with shikhar and mandap. Most important apart of temple is garbhagriha. Other important temple is at Bhitargaon in Kanpur. It is first brick temple in India and also has mandap. Other temples built in this period are NachnaKuthar Temple (MP) dedicated to goddess Parvati and Sanchi temple dedicated to Krishna.

Q. Write a Short Note on (a) Khajuraho Temple (b) Odisha Temple

Model Answer

(a) Khajuraho Temple

These temples were built between 11th -13th century AD. They were built by Chandelas – the Rajput rulers of central India. These temples are best examples of Nagara style of temples built by the followers of Vishnu, Shiva and Jainism. The most famous temple is at Khajuraho. It is Kandariya Mahadeo Temple in which gopuram, mandap and grabh-griha were built as one unit unlike another temple where they are sepa-rated.

Key points

• Buddhism as well as Hinduism

• Use of sandstone• Fresco style paintings• Inspired by Jatakas• Temple at Sanchi


The shikhar of this temple is also unique because it gives impression that it grew gradually not suddenly. Sculpture built on the walls, pillars, and railings depicts the contemporary materialistic and spiritual life. Through these sculptures the faith, tradition and flora fauna could be well understood. It has been declared as world heritage site by UNESCO.

(b) Odisha Temple

Between 11th - 13th century, 3 major temples were built in Orissa. Lingraj temple in the Bhubaneswar is the oldest of them all. It is partly Nagar style and partly inspired by Dravidian style. The sculptural work of Lingraj is much like Khajuraho depicting god – goddess and com-mon men-women in love making. It also depicts local religious customs. Deol was important part of Odisha temple, which is an assembly hall, used for devotional purpose.

Sun temple at Konark is regarded as best architectural monument of Odisha school of art. It is built over a rath like structure and is pyrami-dal l shape and wheel made of sandstones are regarded as best artistic achievement. It gives an illusion of original wooden wheel.

Jagannath Temple in Puri is dedicated to Subhadra, Jagannath and Balram. This is the loftiest temple of Orissa with a lofty gate as well. This temple is famous for numerous sculptures which is carved on every part of the temple. This temple is famous for the Rath Festival which is held every year.

Q. ‘The religion preached by Ashoka in his edicts was a uni-versal religion’. examine in light of his policy of dhamma.

Model Answer

Introduction

Ashoka’s policy of dhamma has of-ten with equated with his conver-sion to Buddhism. He is credited for the propagation of the tenets of Buddhism sect to east and south-east Asia. Though, it is true that he sent his ambassadors to dif-ferent part of the world, he never forced conversion. He was equally respectful for non- Buddhist and

Key Points

• Respect for other religions• Humanist in nature• Unification of population• Role of Dhamma

Mahamattas• Social responsibility and

civic ethics


anti-Buddhists. In his 12th major Rock edict, he states that in honouring of other sects, lies the honor of one’s own sect.

The form of religion that he preached was universal in nature as Ashoka was a true humanist. Considering the diversity of ethnic and religious groups among his population, it was important for Ashoka to unify all through a common set of beliefs. He adopted in Dhamma many beliefs from Buddhist and Hindu thought to preach a highly mor-al, practical and convenient way of life.

He established a special cadre of officials called dhammamahamattas who were responsible for propagation of dhamma but not Buddhism. These officers were to look after the welfare of the different religious sects, including the Buddhists. During his dhammayatas, he not only preached dhamma, but also made generous donations to Brahmins and other religious sects.

His edicts stressed the importance of the family, respecting elders in-cluding the religious elders. He asked to adopt a humane and just atti-tude towards servants and slaves and a high degree of social responsibil-ity and civic ethics. By keeping a distinction between his personal beliefs and secular dhamma, he gave message which is universal in nature.

Q. Write a brief note on the Samanta System which became prevalent in post-Mauryan period.

Model Answer

Introduction

Samanta System symbolises the feudal system that emerged after Mauryan period. This institution of feudalism or Samanta was the principal innovation in ad-ministration that clearly divided the post-Gupta period from the other periods of ancient India. The term Samanta means neigh-

bour and referred to the independent ruler of an adjacent territories in the Mauryans period as is evident from the Arthasastra of Kautilya and edicts of Ashok.

These Samanta were those princes who were subjugated but reinstat-ed after promise of regular payment of tributes. During the late Gupta

Key Points

• Feudal system• Independent administration• Emergence in post Mauryan

period• Allegiance to the emperor


period, these kings were present in the periphery of central administra-tion. But during and after the Gupta period, they grew in importance and power. Harsha found himself ruling a large kingdom in northern India that was loosely connected by feudal ties.

Independent in their internal administration of their territories, these kings generally owed allegiance to a suzerain. The leading feudatories of Harsha were Bhaskaravarman of Kamarupa, Dhruvabhatta of Valabhi, Purnavarman of Magadha and Udita of Jalandhara. Only small portion of the empire was under direct control of Harsha. But Harsha estab-lished large empire by making lesser kings and feudal lords to accept his suzerainty. The samantas paid tax to the emperor not the subject.

Bana writes of Samanta, mahasamanta, aptasamanta, pradhansamn-ta, shatru – mahasamanta and pratisamanta. Mahasamantas were high-er in position than samantas. Shatru-mahasamantawere conquered en-emy chiefs. Aptasamantas were probabaly those who willingly accepted the vassalage of the overlord. Pradhansamantas were the most trusted chiefs of the emperor. Pratisamantas were vassals opposed to the king or merely a hostile vassal.

part-iii...it has its origin in tamil nadu and bharat muni’s natya shastra gives a detailed...

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