part two conditions and resources 鄭先祐 (ayo) 國立臺南大學 環境與生態學院...
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Part two Conditions and Resources
Part two Conditions and Resources鄭先祐 (Ayo)
國立臺南大學 環境與生態學院生物科技學系 生態學 (2008)
Essentials of Ecology 3rd. Ed.
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Part two Conditions and ResourcesPart two Conditions and Resources
Part I: Introduction:
Part II: Conditions and Resources• Chap. 3 Physical conditions and the availability
of resources• Chap. 4 Conditions, resources and the world’s
communities
Part III: Individuals, Populations, Communities and Ecosystems:
Part IV: Applied Issues in Ecology:
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Chap. 3 physical conditions and the availability of resources
Chap. 3 physical conditions and the availability of resources
• 3.1 introduction
• 3.2 environmental conditions
• 3.3 plant resources
• 3.4 animals and their resources
• 3.5 effects of intraspecific competition for resources
• 3.6 conditions, resources, and the ecological niche
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3.1 introduction3.1 introduction
• Conditions and resources are two distinct properties of environments that determine where organisms can live.
• Conditions are physicochemical features of the environment such as temperature, humidity.
• Resources are consumed by organisms in the course of their growth and reproduction.
• Resources of Plants, solar radiation, CO2, water and mineral nutrients.
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3.2 Environmental conditions3.2 Environmental conditions
• 3.2.1 harsh( 惡劣 ), benign( 良好 ), and extreme ( 極端 )
• 3.2.2 Effects of conditions• 3.2.3 Conditions as stimuli• 3.2.4 on interactions between organisms.• 3.2.5 responses by sedentary organisms.• 3.2.6 Animal responses to temperature• 3.2.7 Microorganisms in extreme
environments
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3.2.2 effects of conditions3.2.2 effects of conditions
• Fig. 3.1 Response curves, S=survival, G=growth, R= reproduction.
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• Fig. 3.1 (b) the condition is lethal only at high intensities• (c) at low intensities.
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• Fig. 3.2 (a) the rate of oxygen consumption of the Colorado beetle, which increases non-linearly with temperature
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• (b) Growth of the protist ( 單細胞生物 )
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• Fig. 3.2 (c) Egg-to-adult development in the mite.
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• Fig. 3.3 Final organism size decreases with increasing temperature, as illustrated in protists ( 單細胞生物 )
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• Saguaro cactus can only survive short periods at freezing temperatures.
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3.2.3 Conditions as stimuli3.2.3 Conditions as stimuli
• Photoperiod is commonly used to time dormancy, flowering or migration.
• Acclimation and acclimatization
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• Fig. 3.4 the effect of daylength on larval development time in the butterfly Lasiommata maera in the fall (third larval stage, before diapauses) and spring.
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• Acclimation and acclimatization
行為生理
病理
壓力
反應
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• Fig 3.6 (a) Daily mean, maximum and minimum temperature at Cape Bird, Ross island, Antarctica ( 南極洲 )
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• Fig. 3.6 (b) Changes in the glycerol content of the springtail ( 躍尾蟲 ) from Cape Bird which protect it from freezing.
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• Fig. 3.6 (c) confirmation that the supercooling point drops in the springtail ( 躍尾蟲 ) as glycerol concentration increase.
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3.2.4 The effects of conditions on interactions between organisms
3.2.4 The effects of conditions on interactions between organisms
• Conditions may affect the availability of a resource, the development of disease, or competition.
Fig. 3.7 the effect of temperature on the interaction between the fungal pathgen and the grasshopper (a) Growth curve over time of the pathogen at a range of temperatures.
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• Fig. 3.7 (b) the proportion of grasshoppers with patent (i.e. observable) infection with the pathogen drops sharply as grasshoppers spend more of their time at such higher temperature.
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• Fig. 3.7 (c) Grasshoppers raise their body temperature to such high levels by basking.
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• Fig. 3.8 changing temperature reverses the outcome of competition.
• At low temperature, the salmonid fish S. malma out survives cohabiting S. leucomaenis.
•
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• Fig. 3.8 whereas at 12oC, S. leucomaenis drives S. malma to extinction.
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3.2.5 Responses by sedentary ( 定棲的 ) organisms
3.2.5 Responses by sedentary ( 定棲的 ) organisms
• Phenology: recording the changing behavior of organisms through the season was essential before agricultural activities could be intelligently timed.
• The earliest phenological records were apparently the Wu Hou observations made in the Chou and Ch’in (1027-206 BC) dynasties.
• The date of the first flowering of cherry trees has been recorded at Kyoto, Japan, since AD812.
Box 3.1 Historical landmarks: Recording seasonal changes
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• Fig. 3.9 the relationship between mean January-May temperatures and the annual mean dates of 10 flowering and leafing events from classic Marsham records started in 1736.
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• Fig. 3.10 The relationship between the mean temperature in the 4-month period, February-May, and the average date of six leafing events. The correlation coefficient is -0.81.
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3.2.6 Animal responses to environmental temperature
3.2.6 Animal responses to environmental temperature
• Ectotherms( 外溫 ) and endotherms ( 內溫 )
Fig. 3.11 Changes in the body temperature over the 1996/1997 winter of the European ground squirrel.
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• Fig. 3.12 Standard metabolic expenditure in two species of shrimp. There was significant mortality of both species at 0.5ppt.
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• Fig. 3.13 Seasonal changes in the thickness of the insulating fur coats of some Arctic and northern temperate mammals.
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• The thick, white winter coat and the thinner, browner summer coat of the Arctic fox.
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3.3 Plant resources3.3 Plant resources
• Resources may be either biotic or abiotic components or the environment: they are whatever an organism uses or consumes in its growth and maintenance, leaving less available for other organisms.
• Green plant, depend on (1) 陽光 , (2) CO2, (3) mineral cations, (4) water.
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3.3.1 solar radiation3.3.1 solar radiation
• High intensities of radiation – Overheat – Photoinhibition of photosynthesis– 光呼吸作用
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3.3.1 solar radiation3.3.1 solar radiation
• Fig. 3.14 the response of photosynthesis by the leaves of various types of green plant.
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• Fig. 3.15
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• Fig. 3.16 (a) computer reconstructions of stems of typical sun and shade plants of evergreen shrub.
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• 1• 2• 3• 4• 5
• 1• 2• 3• 4• 5
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• Fig. 3.16 (c) consequent whole-plant properties of sun and shade plants.
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3.3.2 water 3.3.2 water
• Water is lost from plants that photosynthesize.
• Wilting ( 凋萎 )
• How to survive in dry environments?– Avoiders: short lifespan leaves– Tolerators: long-lived leaves
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Coexisting the two strategiesCoexisting the two strategies
• In the savannas of Australia there are roughly equal numbers of deciduous and evergreen species (Fig. 3.17).– The deciduous species avoid drought in the
dry season (April-November). – The evergreens tolerate the threat of drought
in the dry season.
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• Fig. 3.17 (a) percentage canopy fullness.
• (b) predawn water potential.
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• Fig. 3.17 (c) net photosynthesis as measured by the carbon assimilation rate.
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光合作用 (photosynthesis)光合作用 (photosynthesis)
• 二氧化碳 + 水 → 碳水化合物 + 氧氣
• 類型– C3 植物 ，– C4 植物，– CAM 植物
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RuBP carboxylase
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C3 途徑 C3 途徑• 大部份生活在水域的植物，吸收 CO2 的生物
化學途徑是稱為： Calvin-Benson cycle 。– CO2 + RuBP (5C) → 2PGA(3C)
• 因為是產生 3C 的分子，所以這個途徑就稱為C3 途徑 ( 光合作用 ) 。
• 這個過程的催化劑 (enzyme ，酵素 ) 稱為RuBP carboxylase 。– 這個酵素對 CO2 的親合力低，所以葉片內的這個
酵素的含量要很高。– 這個酵素在高熱高氧下，也會催化 RuBP 的氧化，
如此造成光合作用的效率差。
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C4 途徑 C4 途徑
• 許多在熱氣候的植物具有對 C3 修改的途徑，增加一個吸收 CO2 的途徑：– CO2 + PEP(3C) → OAA (4C)
– 因為是產生 4C 的分子，所以就被稱為 C4 途徑。(Fig.5-13)
• 催化此過程的酵素是稱為 PEP carboxylase ，與 CO2 有很高的親合力。– OAA(4C) → PEP(3C) + CO2→Calvin
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C4 pathway of photosynthesisC4 pathway of photosynthesis
4C
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C4 植物C3 植物
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(a) Relationship of photosynthesis to leaf temperature (a) Relationship of photosynthesis to leaf temperature
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(b) Relationship of photosynthesis to intercellular CO2 concentration in two desert shrubs.
(b) Relationship of photosynthesis to intercellular CO2 concentration in two desert shrubs.
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CAM (crassulacean acid Metabolism) 途徑 CAM (crassulacean acid Metabolism) 途徑
• 有些沙漠植物，可以在晚上的時候吸收CO2 ，並且可以留到白天才進入 Calvin cycle 。
• PEP + CO2 → OAA → Malic acid– Malic acid 可以貯存，於白天時：– Malic acid→pyruvate + CO2 →Calvin
– 這就被稱為 CAM 代謝途徑。
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CAM pathwayCAM = crassulacean acid metabolism
CAM pathwayCAM = crassulacean acid metabolism
Diagram of the photosynthesis pathway in CAM plants.
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3.3.3 mineral nutrients3.3.3 mineral nutrients
• Plants require mineral resources of nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, calcium, Magnesium, and iron.
• Trace of manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu) and boron (B).
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• Fig. 3.19 profiles of root systems of plants from contrasting environments.
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• Fig. 3.20 The root system developed by a young plant of wheat growing through a sandy soil with a layer of clay.
• Clays offer more nutrient resources and hold more water than sand and the roots respond by branching more intensively in the clay.
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3.3.4 Carbon dioxide3.3.4 Carbon dioxide
• 大氣的 CO2 濃度，– 1750 = 280 /ul– 2008 > 370 /ul – increasing by 0.4-0.5% per year
Fig. 3.21 (a) average CO2 concentrations for each hour of the day in a mixed deciduous forest.
不同高度的 CO2
0.05m
1 m
12 m
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• Fig. 3.21 (b) with depth in Lake Grane Langso.
• 於八月，湖水已經 stratified with little mixing between the warm water at the surface and colder water beneath.
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3.4 Animals and their resources3.4 Animals and their resources
• Green plants are autotrophs.
• Animals are heterotrophs.– Decomposers– Parasites– Predators– Grazers
• Monophagy (specialists) and polyphagy (generalists)
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3.4.1 Nutritional needs and provisions3.4.1 Nutritional needs and provisions
• Fig. 3.22 the composition of various plants and animals
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Fig. 3.23 specialized mouthparts
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Fig. 3.24 the digestive tracts of herbivores
Fig. 3.24 the digestive tracts of herbivores
Rabbit
Zebra
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sheep Kangaroo
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3.4.2 defense3.4.2 defense
• Fig. 3.25 A mite trapped in the protective trichomes (hairs) on the surface of a Primula leaf.
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• Fig. 3.26 concentrations of glucosinolates in the petals and leaves of wild radish either undamaged or damaged by caterpillars.
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Chemical defense in animals
Chemical defense in animals
• (a) the irritating hairs ( 令人發癢的毛 )
• (b) 警戒色
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• (c) A cryptic (Camouflaged) noctuid
• (d) swallowtail
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3.5 Effects of intraspecific competition for resources
3.5 Effects of intraspecific competition for resources
• Intraspecific competition is competition between individuals of the same species.
• Competitors interact only indirectly, through their share resources is termed exploitation.
• Interference competition.
Fig. 3.28 A population of the diatom was grown in flasks of culture medium. The diatom consumes silicate during growth.
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• Fig. 3.29 (a) the rate of mortality among steelhead trout reared at a range of densities (32,63, and 127 per m2).
1.4 g food/day
2.9 g food/day
5.8 g food/day
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• Fig. 3.29 (b) the average number of seeds produced per plant of the dune grass growing at a range of densities.
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• Fig. 3.30 (a) an undercompensating effect on fecundity: the total number of seeds produced continues to rise as density increase.
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• Fig. 3.30 (b) when the planktonic crustacean was infected with varying numbers of spores of the bacterium, the total number of spores produced with host in the next generation was independent of density at lower densities, but declined with increasing density at the high densities.
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• Fig. 3.30 (c) An exactly compensating effect on mortality: the number of surviving trout fry is independent of initial density at higher densities.
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• Fig. 3.30 (d) the total number of eggs of the parasitic nematode M. marsalli produced by infected reindeer (eggs per gram of feces) increased in direct proportion to the number of adult nematodes in the reindeers:
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3.6 Conditions, resources and the ecological niche
3.6 Conditions, resources and the ecological niche
• Habitat,
• Habit
• Niche, – the modern concept of the niche was
proposed by Hutchinson in 1957.– N- dimensional
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• Fig. 3.31 (a) a niche in one dimension, the range of temperatures at which a variety of plant species can achieve net photosynthesis at low intensities of radiation.
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• Fig. 3.31 (b) a niche in two dimensions for the sand shrimp showing a=the fate of egg-bearing females in aerated water at a range of temperatures and salinities.
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• Fig. 3.31 (c) a diagrammatic niche in three dimensions for an aquatic organism showing a volume defined by the temperature, PH and availability of food.
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