Partnerships and Partnerships and communities of communities of

practice: a social practice: a social learning perspective learning perspective on community safetyon community safetySCCJR Seminar SeriesSCCJR Seminar Series

Glasgow 21 October 2009Glasgow 21 October 2009

Alistair Henry (University of Alistair Henry (University of Edinburgh)Edinburgh)

Overview of presentationOverview of presentation Wenger’s ‘communities of practice’Wenger’s ‘communities of practice’ From apprenticeship to ‘communities of practice’From apprenticeship to ‘communities of practice’ Dimensions of ‘communities of practice’ (domain, Dimensions of ‘communities of practice’ (domain,

community, practice)community, practice) Familiarity of ‘communities of practice’ (even reflexive Familiarity of ‘communities of practice’ (even reflexive

actors stand on the shoulders of giants; ubiquitous, actors stand on the shoulders of giants; ubiquitous, organic and part of our ‘becoming’)organic and part of our ‘becoming’)

Communities of practice in organisations Communities of practice in organisations (the designed and the emergent, identification and (the designed and the emergent, identification and negotiability; interstitial CoP; brokering and negotiability; interstitial CoP; brokering and boundaries)boundaries)

Communities of practice in CS Communities of practice in CS partnerships partnerships (a shared interest; a valued (a shared interest; a valued enterprise; a capacity to do things; the right enterprise; a capacity to do things; the right community; sustainability and memory)community; sustainability and memory)

Wenger’s ‘communities of Wenger’s ‘communities of practice’practice’

From apprenticeship to ‘communities of practice’ From apprenticeship to ‘communities of practice’ Wenger’s theory evolved from an attempt to Wenger’s theory evolved from an attempt to

‘rescue’ the idea of apprenticeship (Lave and ‘rescue’ the idea of apprenticeship (Lave and Wenger, 1991)Wenger, 1991)

Different social and cultural forms of Different social and cultural forms of apprenticeship (Yucatec Mayan midwives, apprenticeship (Yucatec Mayan midwives, Liberian Tailors, naval quartermasters, Liberian Tailors, naval quartermasters, supermarket butchers, non-drinking alcoholics)supermarket butchers, non-drinking alcoholics)

Lessons to be drawn:Lessons to be drawn: learning occurred through learning occurred through everyday collective practices, opportunities for everyday collective practices, opportunities for learning opened up by legitimate membership, learning opened up by legitimate membership, learning was about ‘changing identities’learning was about ‘changing identities’

““(A) theory of social practice emphasizes (A) theory of social practice emphasizes the relational interdependency of agent the relational interdependency of agent and world, activity, meaning, cognition, and world, activity, meaning, cognition, learning and knowing. It emphasizes learning and knowing. It emphasizes the inherently socially negotiated the inherently socially negotiated character of meaning and the interested, character of meaning and the interested, concerned character of the thought and concerned character of the thought and action of persons-in-activity. This view action of persons-in-activity. This view also claims that learning, thinking and also claims that learning, thinking and knowing are relations among people in knowing are relations among people in activity in, with, and arising from the activity in, with, and arising from the socially and culturally structured world.” socially and culturally structured world.” (Lave and Wenger, 1991: 50-51)(Lave and Wenger, 1991: 50-51)

““A community of practice is a set of A community of practice is a set of relations among persons, activity, and relations among persons, activity, and world over time and in relation with world over time and in relation with other tangential and overlapping other tangential and overlapping communities of practice. A community communities of practice. A community of practice is an intrinsic condition for of practice is an intrinsic condition for the existence of knowledge, not least the existence of knowledge, not least because it provides the interpretive because it provides the interpretive support necessary for making sense of support necessary for making sense of its heritage. Thus, participation in the its heritage. Thus, participation in the cultural practice in which any knowledge cultural practice in which any knowledge exists is an epistemological principle of exists is an epistemological principle of learning.” (Lave and Wenger, 1991: 98)learning.” (Lave and Wenger, 1991: 98)

Dimensions of ‘communities of practice’Dimensions of ‘communities of practice’

Three overlapping and inter-related dimensions Three overlapping and inter-related dimensions of CoPof CoP

‘‘Domain’Domain’ – the shared project or interest that – the shared project or interest that gives a community its purpose and its focus – gives a community its purpose and its focus – marks out what is valued by the community and marks out what is valued by the community and what ‘counts’ as relevant to it.what ‘counts’ as relevant to it.

‘‘Community’Community’ – those engaged in common – those engaged in common pursuit of the domain – the ‘social fabric’ of pursuit of the domain – the ‘social fabric’ of learninglearning

‘‘Practice’Practice’ – a set of ‘frameworks, ideas, tools, – a set of ‘frameworks, ideas, tools, information, styles, language, stories’ – the information, styles, language, stories’ – the knowledge and competencies of members, as knowledge and competencies of members, as well as what they dowell as what they do

See: Wenger et al. (2002) See: Wenger et al. (2002) Cultivating Cultivating Communities of Practice.Communities of Practice. Harvard Business Harvard Business School Press.School Press.

Familiarity of ‘communities of practice’Familiarity of ‘communities of practice’Even reflexive actors ‘stand on the shoulders Even reflexive actors ‘stand on the shoulders of giants’ – creativity of actors within of giants’ – creativity of actors within structural constraints (explicit influence of structural constraints (explicit influence of Giddens, Bandura, Becker, Fish, Goodman, Giddens, Bandura, Becker, Fish, Goodman, Kuhn etc. on Wenger’s CoP)Kuhn etc. on Wenger’s CoP)

CoP are inevitable and everywhereCoP are inevitable and everywhere We are all members of a ‘constellation’ of CoPWe are all members of a ‘constellation’ of CoP We are more immersed in some CoP than We are more immersed in some CoP than

othersothers Membership of CoP changes over timeMembership of CoP changes over time CoP provide the ‘interpretive support’ for CoP provide the ‘interpretive support’ for

social interactionssocial interactions CoP arise informally (but can also exist in CoP arise informally (but can also exist in

formal contexts)formal contexts)

Communities of practice in Communities of practice in organisationsorganisations

Designed and emergent structuresDesigned and emergent structures Designed structuresDesigned structures of organisations (physical of organisations (physical

buildings, departmental structures, job buildings, departmental structures, job descriptions and hierarchies, strategic descriptions and hierarchies, strategic documents and business plans)documents and business plans)

Emergent structuresEmergent structures evolve within CoP in evolve within CoP in response to institutional designs of the response to institutional designs of the organisationorganisation

Possible for emergent structures to be closely Possible for emergent structures to be closely orientated around designed structures but they orientated around designed structures but they would not be identicalwould not be identical

Interstitial communities of practiceInterstitial communities of practice Unintended CoP that emerge in response to Unintended CoP that emerge in response to

design problems – or where emergent design problems – or where emergent practices fall out of alignment with practices fall out of alignment with institutional designsinstitutional designs

Identification and negotiabilityIdentification and negotiability IdentificationIdentification – investment of self in – investment of self in

particular roles and identities (valued roles particular roles and identities (valued roles create identification)create identification)

NegotiabilityNegotiability – degree of capacity one has – degree of capacity one has to mould what it is to be the bearer of a to mould what it is to be the bearer of a given identitygiven identity

Boundaries and brokeringBoundaries and brokering As CoP develop they develop shared As CoP develop they develop shared

meanings, symbols, practices for those meanings, symbols, practices for those enmeshed within them -they ‘deepen’ – enmeshed within them -they ‘deepen’ – creating creating boundariesboundaries between those who between those who have a sense of this history of practice and have a sense of this history of practice and those who do notthose who do not

BrokeringBrokering – crucial role through which CoP – crucial role through which CoP in organisations are joined up – brokers in organisations are joined up – brokers tend to be peripheral members of many tend to be peripheral members of many different CoP in the organisationdifferent CoP in the organisation

See: Wenger (1998) See: Wenger (1998) Communities of Communities of PracticePractice. Cambridge University Press.. Cambridge University Press.

Communities of practice in Communities of practice in community safety community safety

partnershipspartnershipsRecommendations to promote the Recommendations to promote the development of community safety and development of community safety and productive communities of practice under productive communities of practice under its auspices. its auspices.

Five interlinked themes emerged:Five interlinked themes emerged: A shared interestA shared interest A valued enterpriseA valued enterprise A capacity to do thingsA capacity to do things The right communityThe right community Sustainability and memorySustainability and memory

A shared interestA shared interest Communities of practice evolve around Communities of practice evolve around

shared interests (domains) that people have in shared interests (domains) that people have in commoncommon

‘‘Community safety’ is open-textured and Community safety’ is open-textured and ambiguous – positive in that it gets members ambiguous – positive in that it gets members around the table (“we all have an interest in around the table (“we all have an interest in that”) – negative in that it does not imply a that”) – negative in that it does not imply a clear set of practices.clear set of practices.

Specific initiatives (ASB, wardens’ schemes, Specific initiatives (ASB, wardens’ schemes, business crime initiatives) may provide business crime initiatives) may provide clearer domains that support different CoP clearer domains that support different CoP withinwithin Community Safety Partnerships Community Safety Partnerships

Brokering role of the Designated OfficersBrokering role of the Designated Officers

A valued enterpriseA valued enterpriseCommitment to (and identification with) an Commitment to (and identification with) an activity is likely to be limited if it is not activity is likely to be limited if it is not recognised as a valued activity (although recognised as a valued activity (although there are different audiences who might there are different audiences who might value it)value it)

Valued enterprise to partner agenciesValued enterprise to partner agencies – – promotion prospects and marginalisation; promotion prospects and marginalisation; symbolic and real commitment through symbolic and real commitment through seniority of secondments; consistency of seniority of secondments; consistency of secondmentssecondments

Auditing and performance regimesAuditing and performance regimes – gives – gives recognition to an activity – but creates a recognition to an activity – but creates a danger of interstitial CoP around auditing danger of interstitial CoP around auditing processprocess

A capacity to do thingsA capacity to do thingsPartnerships as “talking shops”? – a lack Partnerships as “talking shops”? – a lack of capacity to have an effect on the of capacity to have an effect on the world (negotiability) likely to be world (negotiability) likely to be corrosive of members’ interest in the corrosive of members’ interest in the shared project (domain)shared project (domain)

Funding of community safety – annual to three Funding of community safety – annual to three year funding cycles – an uncertain future?year funding cycles – an uncertain future?

Running agendas through community safety – Running agendas through community safety – gives CS specific domains of practice but gives CS specific domains of practice but there was resistance to some of the ‘narrower’ there was resistance to some of the ‘narrower’ agendasagendas

Getting parent agencies to act – seniority, Getting parent agencies to act – seniority, status and ‘having the ear’ of the necessary status and ‘having the ear’ of the necessary peoplepeople

The right communityThe right community Democracy and community safetyDemocracy and community safety – the problem of – the problem of

“community consultation”; elected representatives, “community consultation”; elected representatives, Community Councils and the development of Community Councils and the development of evidence-based prioritiesevidence-based priorities

Trust amongst membersTrust amongst members – shared commitment to the – shared commitment to the partnership and its value – formal protocols, partnership and its value – formal protocols, recognition of occupational differences, and recognition of occupational differences, and mutuality.mutuality.

Sustainability and memorySustainability and memory Mentoring of new membersMentoring of new members Co-location of Designated Officers – symbolic Co-location of Designated Officers – symbolic

messages about value, status and shared domainmessages about value, status and shared domain Occupational identities around ‘community safety’ – Occupational identities around ‘community safety’ –

“radical cadres of transformative power” (Hughes, “radical cadres of transformative power” (Hughes, 2002) 2002)

Key referencesKey references Lave and WengerLave and Wenger (1991), (1991), Situated Situated

Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation.Participation. Cambridge: Cambridge Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.University Press.

WengerWenger (1998), (1998), Communities of Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning and Practice: Learning, Meaning and Identity.Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.University Press.

Wenger, McDermott and SnyderWenger, McDermott and Snyder (2002), (2002), Cultivating Communities of Cultivating Communities of Practice.Practice. Harvard Business School Press. Harvard Business School Press.