parts of speech.pdf

7/31/2019 Parts of Speech.pdf

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THE PARTS OF SPEECH:

Learning about the eight parts of speech is the first step in grammar study just as learning the letters of the alphabet is the first

step to being able to read and write. From learning the parts of speech we begin to understand the use or function of words and

how words are joined together to make meaningful communication. To understand what a part of speech is, you must

understand the idea of putting similar things together into groups or categories.

Let's look at some examples of categories. Colors, fruits, drinks, and languages are categories. If I tell you that Grebo is a

language, you would understand exactly what Grebo is. If we did not have the category language, it would be hard to explainwhat is meant by the word Grebo. It is very convenient to have categories to talk about similar things.

Let's look at some more examples of categories.

In the list below, which does not belong with the others?

a) violin c) hammer e) drums

b) piano d) guitar

If you chose hammer, you are right. Violin, drums, piano, and guitar are used to make music, but a hammer is not used to make music. Hammer

doesn't fit with the other words because it is a tool and all of the others are musical instruments.

Which of these does not belong with the others?

a) hammer c) saw e) violinb) screwdriver d) wrench

This time, the word violin does not belong because it is not a tool. It is very useful to have categories like musical instruments and tools to

organize our ideas.

The parts of speech are categories used to organize or classify words according to how they are used. We use parts of speech as

a way to make it easier to talk about language.

The philosopher Aristotle and later scientists studied animals and classified them according to what they have in common. For

example, eagles, robins and sparrows are kinds of birds; sharks, salmon and tuna are kinds of fish; and dogs, horses and

elephants are kinds of mammals. Aristotle and others also studied language and classified words according to what they have in

common.

We usually use 8 categories or parts of speech to classify all the words we use in English. This classification is not perfect.Sometimes it is hard to tell which category a word belongs in. The same word may belong in different categories depending on

how it is used.

There may be better ways to classify English than by using the parts of speech. But this classification has been used for a long

time and many grammar books use it, so it is easier to keep on using it. It is possible to speak or learn a language without

knowing the parts of speech, but for most of us, knowing about parts of speech makes things easier.

When you look up a word in a dictionary, you will find not only the meaning of the word but also what part of speech it is. This

information is very helpful in understanding the full meaning of the word and knowing how to use it.

The parts of speech that are used to describe English words are:

Nouns

Pronouns

Verbs

Adjectives

Adverbs

Prepositions

Conjunctions

Interjections


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NOUNS:

A noun names something.

It may name a person, place, thing, or quality.

E.g. girl, Edward, New York, desk, beauty, decision

It may name a collection of persons, place, or thing.

E.g. team, mob, battalion, jury

A noun may be expressed in plural form.

E.g. girls, desks, decisions

A noun may be uses a subject or an object.

E.g. Martha found an apartment

A noun may be used as a predicate nominative, which means the same thing as the subject but is separated from it by a verb.

E.g. Ira is the boss

A noun may be used as an appositive. When a noun means the same thing as some other noun in the sentence and stand

next to that word, it is an appositive.E.g. My sister, Betty, loss her ring.

KINDS OF NOUNS

A proper noun refers to a specific person, place, or thing. It is always capitalized.

Alaska is a large state.

George Washington was the first Presidentof the United States.

Boeingbuilds airplanes.

A common noun is generic. It shares its name with others in its class.

Every motherwishes for a healthy child.All the swings in the parkwere broken.

A concrete noun names something with can be seen, felt, heard, or tasted.

The dishes were stacked on the counternear the sink.After the snow fell, we took oursleds to the big hill.

An abstract noun names a quality or idea that can be perceived by the mind rather than the senses.

Sorrow descended upon the family.

Many have knowledge without possessing wisdom.

A collective noun names a group or collection.

Irvine highs winning team was honored at City Hall.

A somberjury filed into the courtroom.

A compound noun is made up of two or more words. Some are written as one word, some as two words, and some

with hyphens.

E.g. guidebook, common sense, all-star, doorman, dining room

Verbal nouns are verbal forms that act as nouns. These include gerunds and infinitives.

Teachingis a rewarding profession.

To speakwith thinking is asking for trouble.


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NOUNS PLURALS

Most nouns are changed to their plural forms by adding an s to the singular.

book bookslion lionsskyscraper skyscraper s

Nouns that end in ss, ch, s, sh, x, add es to their plurals.

glass glasseschurch churches

brush brushesbox boxesquiz quizesstomach stomachs Ifch is pronounced like k, just add s

To form the plural of words ending in y in which a vowel precedes the y add an s.

day daysmonkey monkeysvalley valleys

To form the plural of words ending in y in which a consonant precedes the final y, change the y to an i and

add es.

fly fliesenemy enemieslady ladies

To form the plural of most words ending in f or fe add an s.

chief chief sroof roof ssafe safes

There are some nouns ending in f or fe that change their endings to ves.

calf calveshalf halves

knife kniveslife livesleaf leavesloaf loavesself selvessheaf sheavesshelf shelvesthief thieveswife wiveswolf wolveself elves

To form the plural of words ending in o in which a vowel precedes the o add an s.

radio radiosrodeo rodeos

zoo zoos

To form the plural of words ending in o in which a consonant precedes the final o add es.

hero heroesmosquito mosquitoes

Some nouns have irregular plurals which must be memorized.

goose geese

ox oxenman men

woman women

tooth teeth

mouse mice

foot feetlouse lice

alumnus alumni

phenomenon phenomena


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Some nouns have the same form for both singular and plural.

e.g. deer, fish, sheep, species, corps, series, shrimp

To from the plural of numerals and letters which are used as words, add an apostrophe and an s.

There are two 8s in 16s.

There are three es in cemetery.

Cross yourts and dot youris.

Some nouns ending in s are used with singular verbs.e.g. mathematics, economics, news, civics, semantics

POSSESSIVES

Except in the possessive case, nouns in English do not change their forms to show which case they belong to. Use

apostrophes to from the possessives of nouns.

The girls dress is pretty.

The wifesproperty was more valuable.

Nouns that do not end in s, whether singular or plural, form the possessive by adding an apostrophe and s.

car car s engineman mens intentions

mouse mouses tail

Singular nouns that end in s usually add an apostrophe and s to form the possessive.

Jamess tie

The glasss contents

Plural nouns ending in s usually add just an apostrophe to show possession.

The boysteachers

The managersconference

Note: the possessive forms of pronouns do not add an apostrophehe his book

it its cover she her family


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PRONOUNS:

A Pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. Usually

pronouns refer to something that was already mentioned

in previous sentence or understood by the listener or

reader. They are very useful words because when you use

them, you do not need to repeat nouns all the time.

There are seven types of Pronouns:

Personal Pronouns: When speaking we distinguishFirst Person.- Person SpeakingSecond Person.- Person Spoken to

Third Person.- Person Spoken about

Subject Case Object Case

Singular

First Person I me

Second Person you you

Third Person

he him

she her

it it

PluralFirst Person we us

Second Person you you

Third Person they them

Possessive Pronouns: They express possession and atthe same time they substitute what is being possessed

Personal Possessive

I mine

you yours

he his

she hers

it its

we ours

they theirs

Reflexive Pronouns: They are used when the actiongoes back to the doer, when something is donewithout help, or when we want to give emphasis to

an action

Singular

First Person I myself

Second Person you yourself

Third Person

he himself

she herself

it itself

one oneself

Plural

First Person we ourselves

Second Person you yourselves

Third Person they themselves

Interrogative Pronouns: They are used to askquestions

who

whom

whose

what

which

Demonstrative Pronouns: They refer to no one inparticular

Singular Plural

this these

that those

Relative Pronouns: Substitute a noun and connect therelative clause to this noun.

who

whom

whose

whoever

whomever

that

which

what

whatever

whichever

Indefinite Pronouns: They refer to no one inparticular

all

another

any

anyone

anything

both

each

each other

either

neither

everybody

everyoneeverything

few

little

many

more

most

much

anybody

nobody

none

no one

nothing

one

one anotherother

several

some

somebody

someone

something


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CONFUSION IN PRONOUN CASE

Many errors occur because of confusion about the case of the pronoun to be selected.

Just between you and me, business is bad. since the pronoun is the objectof the preposition between, it must be in the objective case.

Don spoke to Vernon and herabout the problem. since the pronoun is the objectof the preposition to, it must be in the objective case.

We students disagree with the new regulation. since the pronoun is the subjectof the sentence it must be in the nominative case. It would be

incorrect her to say Us students since us is in the objective case and may not be used as a subject.

It is difficult forus. here us is the objectof the preposition for.

AMBIGUOUS USE OF PRONOUNS

Since pronouns take the place of nuns, our sentences must be clear about which nouns are being replaced.

When Lisa acted with her sister, she forgot her lines. was it Lisa or her sister who forgot?

William jointed Jonathan at the ball game where hebought hot dogs. was it William or Jonathan who made the purchase?

Note: these ambiguities can be eliminated if we remember that each pronoun should refer to a single antecedent(word, phrase or clause to which a pronoun refers). By placing the pronouns closer to their antecedents, we can

make our meaning clear.

Lisa forgot her lines when she acted with her sister.

William bought hot dogs when Jonathan jointed him at the ball game.

A common error is to write its to show possession. The apostrophe is used for the contraction of it is and never in the

possessive form of it.

The cat is chasing its tail. Its so adorable!

Often there is confusion between whose and whos. Remember that whose is a possessive while whos is the

contraction of who is.

Whos the woman whose husband is on the phone?

The use of who and whom can be confusing, unless you remember that whom is always the object and never the

subject.

Whom did you see? since you is the subject of the verb see, the objective pronoun needs to be used for the object.

She was the managerwhom I wanted to work with. i.e. I wanted to work with her.

Substitute who/whom with him/her or he/she to decide whether to use who or whom. If the objective pronouns him/her fit, use

whom. If the nominative pronoun he/she fit. Use whom.

Be careful when using who, that, and which remember that who is used to refer only to people, which is used torefer things and animals, and that is used to refer to things, animals, and in some case people (when referring to a class

or type of people).

The investors are the ones who run the risk.

The rabbit which ravaged the garden is dead.

It was the basketball team thatdonated the money.


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EXAMPLES

Ilike coffee.

John helped me.

Do you like coffee?

John loves you.

He runs fast.

Did Ram beat him?

She is clever.

Does Mary know her?

Itdoesn't work.

Can the engineer repairit?

We went home.

Anthony drove us.

Do you need a table for three?

Did John and Mary beat you at doubles?

Theyplayed doubles.

John and Mary beat them.

Robert made this T-shirt himself.

Lisa did the homeworkherself.

We helped ourselves to some cola at the party.

Emma, did you take the photo by yourself?

I wrote this poem myself.

He cut himselfwith the knife while he was doing the dishes.

The lion can defend itself.

My mother often talks to herself.

Tim and Gerry, if you want more milk, help yourselves.

Alice and Doris collected the stickers themselves.

Allare welcome to attend the concert.

Mary gave the book to another.

I don't have any.

Does anybody have a clue?

Anyone can play that game.

Peter didn't see anythingsuspicious.

Eachbrought a dish to pass.

Everybody left town for the weekend.

Everyone enjoyed the movie.

Everythingis taken care of.

Few visited that park.

Many called for information.

Jennifer told nobody her secret.

None came forward to claim the prize.

One could see the mountains from miles away.

Severalsigned the card.

he room is too gloomy forsome.

Somebody called the store.

Joe gave the form to someone.

ho entered the room?

Whatwas the noise?

Which came first?

Whom should we give the prize to?

Whoevercame to the door?

Whateverare you doing?

Whomevershould we invite?

Whichevercame first?

Who entered the room?

Whatwas the noise?

Which came first?

Whom should we give the prize to?

Whoevercame to the door?

Whateverare you doing?

Whomevershould we invite?

Whichevercame first?

I don't know who called.

Brad asked to whom he should give the package.

Pat knew that she had won the match.

Jerry didn't know which was his.

Emily told whoevercame first to open the gate.

Josh told Alex to askwhomeverhe wanted.

Sarah tookwhicheverwas left over.

I gave myselfplenty of time to get to work.

You should let yourselfinto the house.Jim bought himselfa shirt.

Jill read to herself.

The dog scratched itself.

We treated ourselves to pizza.

You can make yourselves at home.

The children are able to dress themselves.


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V E R B S

Verb is a word which is concerned with what people and things do, and what happens to them. Verbs express action or otherwise

(state of being) help to make a sentences.

A verb combines with a noun or pronoun used as the subject to express a thought.

I speakEnglish

John speaks Spanish

She spoke about it yesterday

We have spoken about it before

A verb may also express a state of being.

He is here

She remainedmy friend

Most people can find verbs by asking if the word in question shows action or estate of being. However, if you arent

sure after you try that method, perhaps this will help. Verbs generally add s to form the third person singular.

Thus, if you put a word in this tense and the word ends in s, it is evidence that the word is used as a verb

Tommy called his mother on the phone frequently.Suppose you think the word called is the verb, but you are not sure, you would say, he calls right now. (this is just a

simple way to make sure you have the verb in the third person singular). Now look at phone as it is used in this sentence.At times phone can certainly be used as a noun. But how is it used in this sentence? It may be enough for you to say it is

the name of something, and, therefore, a noun. However, a further clue is that in this sentence, if we added s to phone, it

would form the plural, phones. Nouns often add s to form plurals. In this sentence phone is a noun.

He names all his children with names that begin with A.

In this sentence, the first names is singular to agree with the singular subject he, and is, therefore, a verb. The second

names is plural and is, therefore, a noun.

Tony plays with his little brother every day. Plays is a verb

We saw five plays in London. Plays is a noun

TRANSITIVE VERBS, INTRANSITIVE VERBS AND LINKING VERBS

Depending on the type of object they take, verbs may be transitive, intransitive, or linking.

The meaning of a transitive verb is incomplete without one whom receiver the action (direct object).

subject verb direct objet

Mary bought a book.

The shelfholds three books and a vase of flowers.

The committee named a new chairperson.

The child broke the plate.

Sow her friend.

The meaning of an intransitive verb is complete without any additional nouns beyond its subject; it does not have a

direct object.


Mary bought a book.

My house collapsed

We would like to stay longer, but we must leave.

The cookwatchedwhile the new dishwasher surreptitiously picked up the fragments of the broken dish.


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Many verbs can be used either transitively or intransitively.


The train left left is intransitive verb.

I Left the book on the desk. Left is transitive verb.

A linking verb (also known as a copula) is a special kind of intransitive verb which connects the subject to a noun,

pronoun, or adjective in predicate. The verb to be is the most common linking verb.subject verb noun, pronoun, or adjective in predicate

Tom is the captain.

The play is waiting for Godot.

Some of us thought that the play was very good.

Others thought it became tedious after the first fifteen minutes.

The cast appears disorganised and confused; perhaps Beckett intended this.

VERBALS

A verbalis a noun or adjective formed from a verb. The fundamental difference between verbals and other nouns and adjectives

is that verbals can take their own objects, even though they are no longer verbs.

This different verbals are: the participle (which acts as an adjective), the gerund (which acts as a noun), and the infinitive (which

also acts as a noun).

A participle is an adjective formed from a verb.

To make a present participle, you add "-ing" to the verb, sometimes doubling the final consonant:

think thinking

fall falling

run running

To make a past participle, is a little more complicated, since not all verbs form the past tense regularly. The

following are all past participles:

sink the sunken ship

ruin a ruinedcity

misspell a misspelledword

Note that only transitive verbs can use their past participles as adjectives, and that unlike other verbals, pastparticiples do not take objects (unless they are part of a compound verb).

A gerundends in ing and serves as a noun in that it can be the subject or object of a verb.

Dig Digging is hard work. They started digging.

But it is still like a verb in that it can have an object or be modified an adverb.

Dig Diggingditches is hard work.

Dig They were fined for carelessly diggingup a power line.


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An infinitivebegins with the word to and is followed by the root from of the verb. It acts as a verb-noun, a verb-

adjective, or a verb-adverb.

To fly was Johns greatest ambition. to fly is the subject of the verb was.

The rich kid had plenty of money to spendon trip. to spendqualifies the noun money.

The mourners came to pay their respects. to pay modifies verb came.

The perfect infinitiveputs the action of the infinitive in the past.

go to have gone there by train would have taken four hours.

Notice the contrast in the following examples.

He is too weakto move the stone. He will not move the stone, because he is too weak.

He is too weakto have movedthe stone. He couldnt have moved the stone, because he is too weak.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VERBS

A verb is active when the subject does the action.

Bruce hitthe ball.

The boy was eatingice cream.

A verb is passive when the action is being done to the subject. The passive forms of verbs are constructed using a

form of be and the past participle of a verb.

The ball was hitby Bruce.

The award will be made at noon.

Why was the boy suspended?

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS

Most verbs simply add ed or d to form the past tense or past participle.

jump Yesterday I jumpedover the wall. I have jumpedover the wall every morning this week.

There are, however, many irregular verbs in English whose past tense and past participles are formed in different

ways.

Review these familiar irregular ways.

Present Past Past Participle

arise Arose arisen

be is are was were been

bear bore borne

beat beat beaten


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begin began begun

bite bit bitten

blow blew blown

break broke broken

bring brought brought

catch caught caught

choose chose chosen

cling clung clung

come came come

cut cut cut

do did done

drink drank drunk

drive drove driven

eat aet eaten

fall fell fallen

feel felt felt

fly flew flown

freeze froze frozen

get got gotten or got

go went gone

hang hung hung

hold held held

hide hid hidden

hit hit hit

hold held held

keep kept kept

know knew known

lay laid laid

lead led led

leave left left

lend lent lent

lie lay lain

lose lost lost


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mean meant meant

meet met met

pay paid paid

put put put

quit quit quit

ride rode ridden

rise rose risen

ring rang rung

run ran run

see saw seen

sell sold sold

shake shook shaken

shine shone shone

show showed shown

sing sang sung

speak spoke spoken

spend spent spent

sting stung stung

steal stole stolen

strike struck struck

swear swore sworn

swim swam swum

take took taken

tear tore torn

think thought thought

throw threw thrown

wake woke woken

wear wore worn

win won won

write wrote written


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MOODS OF VERBS

There are three generally recognized moods of verbs: indicative, impetrative and subjunctive.

A verb in the indicative moodasks a question or state a fact.

He wenthome.

Has he gone home?

A verb in the imperative moodis used to convey orders and requests. It is always in the second person as the subject

is always you.

Turn that volume down!

Please turn that volume down.

Sometimes the imperative moodis used to express a condition.

Study hard and you will succeed. This mean: if you study hard, you will succeed.

Normally no subject is expressed with an imperative verb, but it is sometimes added for emphasis.

You be quiet!

Never you mind.

Praise ye the lord.

The use ofsubjunctive moodis very limited. In formal English, it is used to express doubts, wishes, and statements

contrary to fact.

If I were king, I would banish her from the country.

I demand that he finish the job.

AGREEMENT OF SUBJECTS AND VERBSA verb must agree with its subject in number. If for example, the subject is singular (he, boy, suggestion), then the

verb must be singular also (has, plays, was). But if the subject is plural (we, boys, suggestions), then verb must be

plural in order to agree in number(have, play, were).

Phrases that follow the subject usually do not influence the number of the verb. The verb generally agrees only with

the main subject (although there are exceptions, such as indefinite pronouns).

The listof approved books is on my desk.

Mrs. Bensons portraitof the twins hangs in her den.

Marvin, together with his cousin, raises homing pigeons.

Compound subjects (e.g. Joe and Marilyn) require plural verb forms.

Both the house and the senate are in session today.

More independence and initiative are given to todays children.

When two or more singular subjects are connected by or or nor, the verb form should be singular.

Either Jack or Jill is a suitable candidate.

Neither Joseph nor Linda is the answer.


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When two or more plural subjects are connected by or or nor, the verb form should be plural.

Either the policemen or the firemen are doe for a raise.

Neither the secretaries nor the executives were on duty.

When one subject is singular and the others is plural, the verb should agree in number with the subject nearest to it.

Neither the secretaries nor their boss was on duty.

Neither the doctor nor the nurses werepresent.

When the subject is each, nobody, everyone, etc., the verb should be singular.

Each of the girls has her uniform in her locker.

Nobody, not even the detectives, knows who turned out the lights.

Everyone in the surrounding houses is under suspicion.

Subject which are modified by each and every also require a singular verb form.

Each plumber and carpenter in this room is a member of our union.

Every boy and girl was dressed up for the occasion.

When the verb comes before the subject of the sentence like the following, it stll agrees with the subject.

Here are all the pencils you will need.

As for the children, there is nobody to care for them.

Theres more than one way to skin a cat.

There are lots of ways to accomplish this.

When using collective nouns (e.g. committee, family, jury, orchestra, etc.) choose a singular verb form when the

unit is acting together.

The choirreports here every Tuesday.

The jury has re-entered the courtroom.

But you can also use a plural verb form when the members of the group are acting as separate individuals.

The choirhavebeen straggling in all evening.

The jury are unable to agree on a verdict.


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ADJECTIVES

An adjective is a word that gives more information about a noun or pronoun. In other words, adjective describe or limit nouns and

pronouns.

Adjective in English have only one form, which is use with singular and plural, masculine and feminine nouns. The

only exceptions are the demonstrative adjectives this and that, which chance to these and thosebefore plural nouns.

Adjective in English usually come before their nouns:

When there are two or more adjectives before a noun they are not usually separate by and except when the last

two adjectives describe the same kind of thing.

When several adjectives come before a noun, they usually have to be put in a particular order. Unfortunately,

there are no definite rules for the order of adjectives before nouns. It can be said that the order is generally as

follows.

Demonstrative

Article

Quality

Size

Age

ColorNationality

Origin

Composition(Made of)

Purpose(Another noun)

Noun

There are three degrees of comparison:

Positive Dark

Comparative Dark er

Superlative the Darkest

One-syllable adjectives from their comparative and superlative by adding -erand -estto the positive form.

Those ending in -er, -y, or-ly usually add -ier, and -iest

Three or more syllables form their comparative and superlative by putting more and the mostbefore the positive.

When expressing equivalence we use asas in order to form the description. With the positive form of the

adjective. When comparing we use than.

Its very common to use nouns as adjective by putting them before others nouns:

When two nouns are used together like this, they are sometimes written as one word, sometimes a hyphen is

used, or the words are written separately.

When a noun is used as an adjective before another noun, it is almost always singular. Plural expressions with

numbers also become singular when they are used as adjective.

In certain expressions, we turn nouns into adjectives adding -ed.

Certain adjectives describing human character or condition can be pretended by the end used as nouns.


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An article is a kind of adjective used to signal, limit, or individualizer nouns and to specify their use. Article is the

term used in grammar for the words a, an, and the.

Rules for use ofthe (definite article).-

The points out particular person, places, or things. In general, we used it to indicate that a noun refers to

someone or something in particular, or that the noun has already been mentioned before. It can be used with

all types of nouns.

The is not used with proper nouns -people, nations-. The use of this article is also omitted when we are

referring to concepts that express generality.

In case of possessives (when we use s), the usually signals the immediately adjacent noun, even if the

expression refers to the second one. Therefore, if this first word is a proper name, the is not normally used.

When we use the title of a person along with his/her name, this title can be considerate as part of the name,

so we should not use the.

The is normally used for musical instruments.

Rules for use ofa and an (indefinite article).-

A and an (actually two forms of the same article) are used to indicated that a noun is one of a general group,

but it does not represent a particular person, thing, or place. I is used ehen we mention someone or

something for the first time. It can only be used with singular count nouns. A is use before consonant

sounds. An is used before vowel sounds.

A and an are not normally used before proper nouns. For the reason, a/an cannot be used for possessive or

names with titles in the cases mentioned for the definite article.

A and an should always be used before the names of professions.

Although a/an are similar to the word one, they are not always interchangeable. One is a number and it

means only one/no more than one, while a/an mean something like any (one)/one of a general group.

When counting or measuring time, distance, weight, etc. we can use eithera/an or one for the singular.

Singular count nouns must always have an article or another adjective.

Golden rules for using articles.- Most mistakes with articles are made through breaking one of these rules.

Do not use the to talk about things in general.

Do not use a/anbefore plural nouns (use some o no article).

Use a/an to say what peoples professions are.

EXAMPLES

My house is biggerthan yours.

This flower is more beautifulthan that one.

This is the most interestingbook I have ever read.

Non-smokers usually live longerthan smokers.

Which is the most dangerous animal in the world?

A holiday by the sea is betterthan a holiday in the mountains.


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It is strange but often a coke is more expensive than a beer.

Who is the richestwoman on earth?

The weather this summer is even worse than last summer.

He was the cleverestthief of all.

This is a nice cat.

It's much nicerthan my friend's cat.

She's six years old. Her brother is nine, so he is older.

This is a difficultexercise. But the exercise with an asterisk (*) is the most

difficultexercise on the worksheet.

He has an interestinghobby, but my sister has the most interestinghobby in

the world.

In the last holidays I read a goodbook, but father gave me an even betterone

last weekend.

School is boring, but homework is more boringthan school.

Skateboarding is a dangerous hobby. Bungee jumping is more dangerous

than skateboarding.

This magazine is cheap, but that one is cheaper.

We live in a smallhouse, but my grandparents' house is even smaller than

ours.

Yesterday John told me a funny joke. This joke was the funniestjoke I've

ever heard.

My father is heavy. My uncle is much heavierthan my father.

The test in Geography was easy, but the test in Biology was easier.

Florida is sunny. Do you know the sunniestplace in the USA?

Stan is a successful sportsman, but his sister is more successfulthan Stan.

My mother has a soft voice, but my teacher's voice is softerthan my mother's.

Amy has a beautiful baby, but my daughter has the most beautifulbaby on

earth.

I live in a large family, but my grandfather lived in a largerfamily.

We have only little time for this exercise, but in the examination we'll haveeven less time.

Lucy is clever, but Carol is clevererthan Lucy.

Have you visited the old castle? It was the oldestcastle we visited during our

holidays.

He quickly reads a book.

Mandy is a pretty girl.

The class is terribly loud today.

Max is a goodsinger.

You can easily open this tin.

It's a terrible day today.

She sings the song well.

He is a carefuldriver.

He drives the carcarefully.

The dog barks loudly.

The bus driver was seriously injured.

Kevin is extremely clever.

This hamburger tastes awful.

Be carefulwith this glass of milk. It's hot.

Robin looks sad. What's the matter with him?

Jack is terribly upset about losing his keys.

This steak smells good.

Our basketball team played badly last Friday.

Don't speak so fast. I can't understand you.

Maria slowly opened her present.


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A D V E R B S

Adverb modify verbs, indicating, how, where, when, or to what extent an action was done.

She dresses neatly. How

I went there. Where

Martha arrived early. When

They chatted endless. to What extent

Adverbs also modify adjectives.

Eric is a verybright individual.

The explanation was perfectly clear.

I found the movie quitinteresting.

Adverbs also modify others adverbs.

Im very much involved in politics.

Carmen speaks too quickly to be understood.

It cost considerably more than it did last year.

KINDS OF ADVERBS

There are eight kinds of adverbs.

Adverbs of Manner

Adverbs of Place

Adverbs of Time

Adverbs of Frequency

Adverbs of Certainty

Adverbs of Degree

Interrogative Adverbs

Relative Adverbs

Adverbs of Manner: tell us how an action is done.

Well, high, easily, slowly, and beautifully

My girlfriend dances beautifully.

The little boy ran quickly.

The girl ran slowly.

The class did well.

Adverbs of Place: tell us when an action takes place.

Here, there, near, behind, above, up

I sat down there.

Did you see my keys anywhere?

She went up in the elevator.

He is a long way behind.


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Adverbs of Time: tell us when an action was done.

Now, then, today, tomorrow, later, still

We didnt go to church yesterday.

Did you bring your cartoday?

Adverbs of frequency: tell us how often an action is done.

Always, usually, once, never, sometimes

I always get up at 6 oclock.

My mothersometimes cooks meatballs.

Adverbs of Certainty: tell us how we are about an action or a description.

Apparently, surely, presumably, obviously, undoubtedly

They certainly worked hard.

He is undoubtedly more intelligent than his brother..

Adverbs of Degree: can give or reduce intensity to an adjective or another adverb.

Well, high, easily, slowly, and beautifully

Romario plays soccervery well.

Your son is pretty intelligent.

I hardly know him.

Interrogative Adverbs: are used to ask questions.

Why, when, where, and how

Where do you live?

Why did you do that?

Relative Adverbs: are interrogative adverbs used to connect parts of a sentence or phrase.

When, where and why

The day when they arrived.

The hotel where they are staying.

EXCEPTIONS, MEANING, AND USE OF CERTAIN ADVERBS

The adverb of good is well.

Some adjectives and in -ly and should not be confused with adverbs:

Cowardly, deadly, friendly, ghostly, likely, lonely, lovely, lowly, orderly, silly, and ugly


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Some words can be used as adjectives or adverbs:

High, low, deep, nerd, far, fast, hard, early, late, much, little, direct, straight, pretty, wrong, kindly, and enough

Notice that the forms highly, nearly, hardly, lately, directly, and wrongly exist, but they have a slightly different meaning from their corresponding

adjectives.

Fairly and rathermean moderately (between a little and very), but fairly is chiefly used with favorable adjectives

and Adverbs (such as good, nice, well, bravely, etc.), while rather is chiefly used before unfavorable adjectives and

adverbs (such as bad, ugly, stupid, etc.)

Tom is fairly clever, but peter is ratherstupid.

You did fairly well on your exam, but Ann did ratherbadly.

With adjectives or adverbs which are not favorable or unfavorable in themselves (such as fast, slow, thin, think, hot,

cold, etc.), the speaker can express approval by using fairly and disapproval by using rather:

You lookfairly thin. I like your shape. You are not fat at all.

You lookratherthin. I do not like the way you look. You look feeble.


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PREPOSITIONS

A preposition is a word or a group of words that shows the relationships of a noun or a pronoun to some other word in the

sentence. One way to identify preposition is to look for words that indicate connection between others words.

Most prepositions are short words. Their forms never change; no matter they appear in sentences. The following is a list of the

most common prepositions:

at

in

on

aboard

about

above

across

according to

after

against

along

along with

amid

among

anti

apart from

around

as

as for

as of

aside from

because of

before

behind

below

beneath

beside

besidesbetween

beyond

but

by

by means of

by way of

center on

common to

compatible with

concerning

considering

consist ofcapable of

depend on

despite

different from

down

dream of

during

except

except for

excepting

excluding

following

for

from

in addition to

in back of

in case of

in front of

in place of

in regard to

in spite of

interior to

instead of

including

inside

into

likeminus

near

next to

of

off

onto

on account of

on behalf of

on top of

opposite

opposite of

outout of

outside

over

owing to

past

per

plus

prior to

regarding

regardless of

rely on

round

save

similar to

since

substitute for

than

think of

through

throughout

till

to

toward

towards

under

underneath

unlikeuntil

up

upon

versus

via

with

with regard to

within

without

Note many words in this list can also works as other part of speech

Several prepositions present usage problems, mainly because in many cases the only rule to know which preposition to use

is by habit.

At, in, and on are all used to talk about position in space. The different between them are rather complicated, and

it is not always easy to know which of the three is correct.

Atis used when we talk about position at a point. If youre atthe north pole, every direction in south.

On is used to talk about position on a line or a surface. There is a good restaurant on the Glasgow read.


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In is used to talk about position in a place that has three dimensions. I think I left my tennis racket in the bathroom.

But the situation is not quite as simple as this. There are some specials uses of atthat should be studied.

We use atwhen the size of the place is not important, not necessarily because it really is a point.

A person who comes from a small Pennsylvania city like Harrisburg would probably say:I live in Harrisburg. (Harrisburg is a place with streets, houses, shops, etc.)

But a person who is traveling from Cleveland to New York, just passing through, would say:I stopped atHarrisburg. (Harrisburg is just a pointon the way to New York.)

For the first person, the place is well known and important; it has streets, houses, churches, etc. but

for the traveler, it is just a point on the journey.

We often use atwith the name of a place when we are interested in the activity that happens there,

and not in the exact shape or dimensions of the place. For this reason, atis very often used when

we talk about places of entertainment, cafes, restaurants, and about the places where people works

or study.

We also use atin addresses when the number of the house is given.

Most of the time prepositions are not interchangeable.

Using one preposition when another is needed is mistake.NOT: could you write that in the blackboard? on, not in, is the preposition needed here.

In some cases, using one preposition or another will make very little difference.Professor Shaw is an expert in marine biology.

Professor Shaw is an expert on marine biology.

However, keep in main that most of the time prepositions are not interchangeable, so be carful

when choosing one.

Another two common mistakes are omitting preposition when they are needed, and including prepositions

when they are not needed. As it was mentioned before, there are some cases in which omitting or

including prepositions does not make a difference.

In the following sentence, the meaning does not change whether the preposition in is include or

not.A mosquito can travel more than ten miles (in) a day.

Most of the time, however, the correct preposition should be included.NOT. Karen and I are going the store.In this sentence, the proposition to is required. Karen and I are going to the store.

In the following sentence, the preposition offis sufficient by itself and does not require the help of

the additional word of.NOT. Take your feet off ofthe table.Here, Take your feet offthe table is correct.

Some verbs and adjectives are followed by specific prepositions, not because the two are logically

connected but because good speakers and writers have always used them that way.

The preposition with the adjective capable is of, as in the following sentences.Ralph is capable ofdoing much better work than he has done so far.

Using another preposition instead ofcapable of(such as capable to) would be awkward


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EXAMPLES

I will tell you a story abouta lion.

The plane flies above the clouds.

They walked across the field.

Afterlunch, I shall complete the remaining task.

I helped her going againstthe wishes of my loved ones.

All alongthe way, she did not speak a word.

The profit was shared amongthe shareholders.

Due to the snow, we turned aroundto return home.

The land is atwar with its neighbor.

She had decided to quit before Christmas, but changed her plan.

The church is located behindthe supermarket.

The temperatures have dipped below freezing point.

The water level is beneath the average level.

When we were in school, I used to sit beside her in class.

Besides maths, I am very fond of history.

The profit was shared between the three of them.

The play was beyondmy expectations.

Everyone buther agreed with the arrangement.

A house by the sea, to retire, is my dream

He is always curious about anything concerningher.

Despite the snowfall, she decided to carry on with her journey.

Jimmy lives down the street.

She works duringthe day and studies at night.

Excepther no one has any objections to the plan.

I jog for10 miles everyday.

She comes from Argentina.

When in Rome, do as the Romans do.

Inside the tough exterior, lies a gentle soul.

As soon as she stepped into the room, there was pin drop silence.

She looks like her father.

Ten minus eight equals two.

They have bought a new home nearthe school.

A friend ofmine recommended the beautician to me.

To regain her lost health, it is important; she stays off her fad dietprograms.

There is an apple on the table.

He always climbs onto the table.

Her desk is located diagonally opposite my desk.

Out ofsheer curiosity, I asked her the question.

Outside the house lies a beautiful garden.

The journey cost me way overmy budget.

She walked pastme, but refused to acknowledge my presence.

What was the perperson cost incurred?

Eight plus six equals fourteen.

She was waiting for him since ten in the morning.

I slept all through the day.

Throughoutwinter, she has been sick.

I am going to Atlanta, before I head back home.

It started raining towards the evening.

The road is underrepair.

She found her earring underneath the carpet.

I did not get the documents until5 pm.

Once upon a time, there lived a king.

I walked up the stairs, to see the problem.

The decision is up to the both of them.

The last game was England versus France.

I will go via Sydney.

She walked in with her new boyfriend.

She caters to customers within a radius of 5 miles.

I never leave my house withoutan umbrella, due to the uncertain weather.


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Although:Although it was after midnight, we did not feel tired.

As:As he is my friend, I will help him.

We watched as the plane took off.

As if:As ifthe bank robber dodged the bullet, Joey was shot seventeen times in the tibia.

She talks as ifshe knows everything.

As long as:As long as we cooperate, we can finish the work easily.

He has lived there as long as I have known him.

As soon as:Write to me as soon as you can.

As though:I had a funny feeling as I saw the house disappear, as though I had written a poem and it was very good and I had lost it and would neverremember it again.

It looks as though there will be a storm.

Because:We had to wait, because we arrived early.

BecauseNorman was constantly late, Mr. Russell cut him from band practice.

Before:I arrived before the stores were open.

Even:Im going out even ifit rains.

For:He is happy,forhe enjoys his work.

In case:Take a sweaterin case it gets cold.

If:Ifeveryone demanded peace instead of another television set, then there would be peace.

Ifshe is here, we will see her.

Lest:I watched closely, lesthe make a mistake.


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In order to:I am always doing that which I cannot do, in orderthat I may learn how to do it.

Or else:Please be careful, or else you may have an accident.

Once:Once the test starts, you will not be able to talk

Provided that:I can believe anything,provided thatit is quite incredible.

Since:Since you are here, you can help me.

I have been here since the sun rose.

So:It was raining, so we did not go out.

I am saving money so I can buy a bicycle.

So as to:I hurried so as tobe on time.

Still:I was stillstudying at six o'clock in the evening

Supposing:Supposingthat happens, what will you do?

Than:He is tallerthan you are.

Though:Though Susan appreciated the flowers, a Corvette would be a finer gift.

Unless:Unless we act now, all is lost.

Unless he helps us, we cannot succeed.

Until:A platitude is simply a truth repeated untilpeople get tired of hearing it.

I will wait untilI hear from you

When:While the State exists, there can be no freedom. When there is freedom there will be no State.


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Whereas:He is short, whereas you are tall.

Whereas this is a public building, it is open to everyone.

These are white-looking figures, whereas the men who are about to spar have on dark head guards that close grimly around the face like an

executioner's hood.

While:Jerry passed the exam first time while I had to retake it three times.

While it was snowing, we played cards.

He is rich, while his friend is poor.

While I am not an expert, I will do my best.

Whether:Whetheryou win this race or lose it doesn't matter as long as you do your best.

I do not know whethershe was invited.

Wherever:Every man, whereverhe goes, is encompassed by a cloud of comforting convictions, which move with him like flies on a summer day.

Who:The candidate, who ran a clean race, was elected by a wide majority.


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INTERJECTIONS

An interjection is a word, or group of words we use to express a sudden feeling, for example, surprise, pleasure, pain, etc.

Interjections have no grammatical relationships to the rest of the sentences. They are usually set apart from the sentences by an

exclamation point or by a comma when the feeling isnt as strong.

Ah

Pleasure - Ah, that feels good.

Realization - Ah, now I understand.

Resignation - Ah well, it can't be helped.

Surprise - Ah! I've won!

Alas

Grief or pity - Alas, she's dead now.

Dear

Pity - Oh dear! Does it hurt?

Surprise - Dearme! That's a surprise!

Eh

Asking for repetition - Its hot today. Eh?" "I said its hot today."

Enquiry - What do you think of that, eh?

Surprise - Eh! Really?

Agreement - Let's go, eh?

ErHesitation - Lima is the capital of er Peru.

Hello, hullo

Greeting - Hello John. How are you today?

Surprise - Hello! My car's gone!

Hey

Attention - Hey! Look at that!

Surprise, joy etc. - Hey! What a good idea!

Hi

Greeting - Hi! What's new?

Hurrah

Surprise - Hurrah! We won the game again.


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Hmm

Hesitation, doubt or disagreement - Hmm. I'm not so sure.

How interesting

Surprise, joy etc. - How interesting! You have been to Italy.

Oh, my God! OMG!

Surprise - Oh, my God! It is an earthquake.

Oh,

Surprise - Oh! You're here!

Pain - Oh! I've got a toothache.

Pleading Oh, please say 'yes'!

Ouch

Pain - Ouch! That hurts!

Uh

Hesitation - Uh I don't know the answer to that.

Uh-huh

Agreement Shall we go? Uh-huh.

Um, ummHesitation - 85 divided by 5 is um 17.

Well

Surprise - WellI never!

Introducing a remark - Well, what did he say?

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